2014.12.6wlmgf英语国家概况(英国部分)(1)

Chapter 1 The Land and History

英国全称大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士及北爱尔兰构成，位于大西洋东部的不列颠群岛，是个岛屿国家，由大不列颠岛，爱尔兰岛北部和众多小岛组成。面积约24.40万平方公里，人口超过6400万(2013年)。英国属于温带海洋气候，常年温和多雨，气候多变。受高纬度因素的影响，有类似极昼极夜的现象，冬季日短夜长，夏季日长夜短。

公元前3000年左右，伊比亚人最先到达大不列颠岛。随后，比克利人、凯尔特人相继来到不列颠。公元前1世纪到公元5世纪，罗马入侵。罗马人撤离后，欧洲北部的盎格鲁撒克逊人和以丹麦人为主体的斯堪的纳维亚先后入侵。到了1066年，诺曼底公爵威廉征服了英格兰，英国的封建制度正式形成。1215年，国王约翰被迫签订了大宪章。不久，议会制度形成，从此英国的王权被不断削弱和限制。1688年，“光荣革命”爆发，确立了君主立宪制。18世纪后期到19世纪前期，英国成为世界上第一个开始并完成工业革命的国家。19世纪是英国发展的鼎盛时期，分别建立了第一大英帝国和第二大英帝国。到二战前夕，英国统治了世界约1/4的土地。第一次世界大战以及第二次世界大战的爆发，导致英国的政治、经济势力大为削弱，失去了霸权地位。随着其殖民地的相继独立，20世纪60年代，大英帝国彻底瓦解。

I. General Introduction

Map of British Isles

1. Location and the Four Nations

The full name of the UK is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is made up of four nations: England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. It is located to the northwest of continental Europe, separated by the English Channel. Geographically, it is an island country, covering an area of about 244,019 km2, and consists of Great Britain and northeastern part of Ireland, together with many small islands of British Isles.

Great Britain accounts for over 90% of the country’s total landma ss. It is the largest island off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe with England, Scotland and Wales on it. Ireland is the second largest island of British Isles located to the northwest of Great Britain. It is divided into two parts: Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland (an independent country).

England is the largest part of the UK and occupies most of the southern two thirds of Great Britain. The total

area of England is 130,410 km2 with a population of around 53.9 million (Mid-2013 estimated), which covers more

than 84% of the total UK population. It is the most populous and highly urbanized part of the UK. London, the capital of the UK and England, as well as the seat of government, is located in its southeastern part.

Scotland is the second largest and most mountainous part of the UK in the north of Great Britain. Compared with that of England, the population density is quite low. There are only 5.3 million people with an area of 78,789 km2. Edinburgh, its largest city, is the capital of Scotland. Scotland is famous for its beautiful natural scenery, such as Scottish Highlands1and Loch Ness2, as well as many historical places, like the Edinburgh Castles.

Wales is on the western side of central southern Great Britain. The total area of Wales is 20,779 km2, which accounts for 1/4 parts of the UK. It is also a mountainous part of Great Britain, particularly in the north and central regions. The southeast region is the most built up region of Wales, and the majority of its population live there and a large proportion of its industry is based there. Its capital city, Cardiff, is also in this region.

Northern Ireland lies in the northeast of the island of Ireland, covering14,139 km2, which constitutes 1/6 of the island. It is the smallest part among the four nations of the UK, as well as the second sparsely populated part after Scotland. The capital is Belfast, the largest city in Northern Ireland both in population and in area. It is the center for government, economic, arts, higher education, business, law of Northern Ireland. Additionally, it is the birthplace of Titanic, and voted one of the world’s top destinations.

2. Climate

The overall climate in the UK is temperate maritime, which means that it is mild with temperatures neither much lower than 0℃in winter nor much higher 32℃in summer. Generally, the UK has warm summers and cool winters, with July and August as the warmest month, and January and February as the coldest. However, due to the influence of Gulf Stream3, the summers are cooler than those in continent while the winters are milder. Normally, the temperature in summer is around 20℃，with the high rarely going above 30℃. The average temperature in winter is around 0℃and seldom go below -10℃even in the most northern part of the country.

Meanwhile, since Britain is an island country and surrounded by the sea, the climate is considerably changeable compared with other countries. Since the variable climate changing day to day, it is hard for people to predict what the weather will be like the next day. Additionally, the unique geographical position is also the reason for the dampness of the climate. The rainfall is fairly distributed throughout the year. Although it does not rain every day, it is always advisable for people to bring an umbrella or waterproof clothing every day.

II. History

1. The Founding of the Nation

The recorded history of the UK begins with the Roman invasion in 55BC. In 55 and 54BC, Britain was twice invaded by Julius Caesar and his Roman troops. However, it was not until 43AD that the Roman led by Claudius I finally successfully invaded and Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The native Celtic were driven to the mountain regions of Scotland and Wales, which remained unconquered by the Romans.

The Romans have great impact on many aspects of the British culture. The Roman civilization was introduced to the Britain during this period. For example, Roman style baths and temples were built, cities like London and towns were constructed, and the system of government was also introduced. With the decline of the Roman Empire, when the Germanic troops attacked Rome in 410 A.D., the Romans had to withdraw in order to protect their own nation, which led to the end of Roman occupation.

After the leave of the Romans, three groups of Germanic tribes called the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons came to Britain from the European continent in the mid-4th century. They conquered different regions of Britain:

1Scottish Highlands：苏格兰高地，是对苏格兰高地边界断层以西和以北的山地的称，被认为是欧洲风景最优美的地区。人烟稀少，有多座山脉，包括英国境内最高峰本内维斯山。

2Loch Ness：尼斯湖，位于苏格兰高原北部的大峡谷中，面积并不大，却很深。平均深度达200米，最深处有300米。该湖终年不冻，湖北端有河流与北海相通，是英国内陆最大的淡水湖。

3Gulf stream：墨西哥暖流，简称湾流，是大西洋上重要的洋流。世界大洋中最强大的暖流，起源于墨西哥湾，是英国温和气候的关键。如果没有来墨西哥暖流，大不列颠群岛的气温将下降4至6摄氏度。

the Jutes settled in the south and southeast of the island, the Angles in the east, the middle and the north, and the Saxons in the south and midland. Therefore, during this period the Britain was divided into the Seven Kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Anglia, Wessex, Essexm, Sussex and Kent.

In the late 8th century, the Vikings from the Scandinavian countries of northern Europe, which is now Denmark and Norway, came across the North Sea and attacked the English coast. They conquered part of the country and drew the Saxons out. In order to resist the Vikings, the Saxon king of Wessex, Alfred the Great, unified the seven kingdoms and fought them in a great battle, but he failed to drive them out thoroughly because the Vikings were too strong. A compromise was made that allow the eastern part of England to be subject to Danish law called Danelaw in 878. However, the fight for territory was far from over. In the next over 130 years, the conflicts between the Saxons and the Vikings continued and the power shifted between them constantly. It was not until 1066 that this situation changed.

In 1066, William the Conquer, from Normandy in the northern France, crossed the English Channel with his formidable army and defeated King Harold, the last king of the Anglo-Saxons, in the Battle of Hastings. He, thereby, conquered Britain and crowned himself the King of England, which is the beginning of Norman Conquest. It is considered one of the most important historical events in Britain and marked the establishment of feudalism in England.

During this period, federal system in England was completely established, which is based on the ownership of land. According to the system, all the lands were owned the king personally. William distributed the lands to the Norman lords and the church in order to secure his authority. The lord’s land was then divided and given to the knights in turn of military services. The knights had serfs to work on their farms. The king had the power to call on the lords and knights to fight in times of trouble. On the contrary, all the lords had the right and duty to attend the king’s council 1 and offer their advices.

2. The Decline of Feudalism and the Rise of the English Bourgeoisie

In this period of time, many historical events like wars and signing of important documents gradually influenced the development of British society. The British history experienced a period of the decline of feudalism and the rise of the Bourgeois class.

After the death of William the Conquer, the conflicts between the king and the lords began to occur. In order to consolidate the royal power and limit the power of the nobles, Henry II, the grandson of William, carried out a series of reforms in administra tive and judicial system. The major achievements of Henry II’s reform were his

1 King’s council: 英国国王枢密院，又称元老院或国王法庭，主要由权贵、教士和重要官员所组成。分别就立法、行政和司法事务向君主提供意见。

The Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms in 650

introduction of jury system and institutionalization of common law, which greatly consolidated the British feudalism and enabled the country to enjoy a period of security and prosperity.

However, in the reign of King John, Britain was defeated by France and lost its territory in northern France in 1204. In order to avenge himself on France, John demanded more feudal taxes and army service, which led to great dissatisfaction among the nobles. Therefore, the nobles forced John to sign a long document in 1215, which is known as the Great Charter (or Magna Carta). The Great Charter covered a wide field of law and feudal rights but the most important clauses were: No extra taxes should be imposed on nobles without the permission of the Great Council; no free man should be arrested or penalized or banished in any way unless convicted by a jury; merchants would be allowed to move about freely; in addition, the nobles should be entitled to declare war against the King if the King seriously violates the provisions of the Great Charter.

The Great Charter was of progressive significance and considered as an important turning point of English history. It granted to the townspeople freedom of trade and self-government. The merchants and craftsmen appeared for the first time as a political force in the British history. It also lays a foundation for the British constitutional monarchy and provides basic principles for the protection of civil rights in the Western World.

After King John died, Henry III succeeded the throne in 1216. However, the king’s failed campaigns in France (1230 and 1242), his choice of friends and advisers, together with the cost of his scheme to conquest Sicily, Italy, and his obedience to the Pope, led to further disputes with the barons. Then, at the meeting of Parliament at Oxford in 1258 the barons stated their dissatisfaction with Henry III, and tried to force him to accept a set of conditions called the Provisions of Oxford. These radical proposals called for regular meetings of Parliament three times a year to limit the power of the king. It also requested that 12 non-noble representatives chosen from the counties should be involved in the meetings as well.

Henry III refused to agree to the provisions and a war broke out between him and the leader of the barons, Simon de Montfort, who won the war initially in 1264. In January 1265, de Montfort called the Great Council, which was attended by the knights and representatives as well as nobles and clergymen from each county and from the cities and towns. This is the earliest forerunner of the modern parliament, because it is for the first time common people without noble titles to take part in discussion. In the 14th century, parliament developed into regular meetings comprising three bodies: Lords, Commons and Monarch.

Then a series of wars from 1337 to 1453, called the Hundred Years War, broke out. They were fought between England and France over territory, trade, and the throne. In the beginning of the war, the English army achieved numerous victories and gained many territories in France. By 1360 Britain controlled over a quarter of France. However, with the use of guns and gunpowder in France, and the resistance of the French peasants under the leadership of Joan of Arc1, Britain lost its superiority and was defeated by France. By the time the war ended, they had lost almost all the territories gained during the war.

The Hundred Years War had a great impact on the English society. On the one hand, the war witnessed a considerable rise in the impor tance and frequency of parliaments, and in the influence of the Commons. The position of bourgeois class increased dramatically both in the society and in politics. On the other hand, the military reserve and loss of continental territory greatly weakened British feudal reign. Additionally, in the early stage of the war, the nobles secured great profits, but the long-lasting war made the common people in Britain suffered an increased taxation, military service, and higher inflation, which led significant social conflicts between the two classes. All these factors led to the decline of feudalism in Britain.

The Wars of Roses followed up with the Hundred Years War two years later in 1455. It was a series of dynastic civil wars between the two royal families, the House of York and the House of Lancaster, for the English throne.

1Joan of Arc:圣女贞德，法国民族英雄，在百年英法战争中带领法国农民，在对抗英国的战斗中取得转折性的胜利。后被法国贵族出卖，死于1431年。

The wars were named because of the badge of the two houses: The white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster. The war lasted for 30 years. The final victory went to the House of Lancaster led by Henry Tudor, who later succeeded the throne of England as Henry VII, and therefore, began the rule of House of Tudor. The war started from two families, however, at the end of the war, almost all the nobles were involved. They suffered great losses of life and property, which led to the decline of feudal nobles and paved the way for the development of the bourgeoisie (资产阶级).

3. Transition to the Modern Age

Began with the English Reformation, this period of British history witnessed the end of feudalism and the establishment of constitutional Monarchy system. Then the fast-growing economy and national capability as well as the rise of Bourgeois class contributed the Industrial Revolution. Consequently, these great changes in the British society accelerated its transition to the Modern Age.

The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Roman Pope and the Catholic Church.

There were many factors contributed to the process: The growing resentment among the people towards the power of Pope and the church because of the burden of taxation placed by the Catholic Church, the decline of fe udalism and the rise of nationalism. However, the direct cause of the religious reformation is King Henry VIII’s divorce with his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, the princess of Spain. Divorces at that time could only be granted by the Pope, but consideri ng the power of Spain, the Pope refused Henry VIII’s divorce. Therefore, Henry VIII started a large scale of reformation by declaring the Church of England’s break from Rome. In 1534, he issued the Act of Supremacy, which recognized that the king was “the only supreme head of the Church of England”.

Henry VIII Elizabeth I

Henry VIII Elizabeth I

After the accession of Edward VI in 1547, the reform moved in a more Protestant direction. However, when Edward died in 1553, Mary I, a devout catholic, succeeded the throne and brought a Catholic reaction. Many Protestants were burnt to death as heretics, including children and women. It was not until Elizabeth I’s reign did the bloody religious prosecution come to the end, and the Church of England was in charge of the British monarch again. Although she made a compromise between the Catholics and the Protestants, she still defended the fruit of religious reformation and consolidated the Church of England.

In the 17th century, the English Civil War (1642–1651) broke out. It was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians, also known as the “Roundheads”, and Royalists, known as “Cavaliers”, in the Kingdom of England over the manner of its government. It was the result of the rising bourgeoisie, because the British Feudalism hindered their further development. In the reign of Charles I, the relationship between the king and the parliament became worse. In order to support the war against Spain and France, Charles I tried to raise a large amount of money, but encountered great refusal from the parliament.

Dissatisfied with the parliament, he dismissed the parliament in 1629. Therefore, supporting by the peasants, the parliament, which represented the bourgeoisie and new aristocrats, waged a fight with the king. However, being afraid to lose their lands and privilege in the country, the landowners and old aristocrats supported King Charles in the fight.

In 1649, King Charles was executed and the monarchy was abolished. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of Parliamentarians, began to rule the country as the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. However, Cromwell’s conservation in social reform and high taxes policies soon led to the resentment of the Parliament. In 1660, Charles II, the son of Charles I, was crowned the king. Consequently, the short period of Commonwealth in British history ended then.

In the wake of Charles II’s death, James II ascended the reign, but since he was a strict Catholic, soon after his succession, he started a series of reforms to reestablish Catholicism in the country. Then in 1688 there followed the “bloodless revolution” known in British history as the “Glorious Revolution”. The Parliament declared William and his wife Mary, James II’s daughter, as the joint sovereigns. In the following year, William and Mary signed the Bill of Rights passed by the Parliament, which guaranteed the authority of Parliament and limited the power of the monarch. Therefore, the Glorious Revolution was complete and the ruling monarch was removed. Since then the constitutional monarchy was established and became the system of government in the country.

Since then Britain had experienced a period of continuous development in every aspects of the society. By the middle 19th century, the Industrial Revolution was accomplished in Britain. It is the first country to start and complete this great revolution in industry.

There are several reasons that contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain. First, Britain had a huge market. After the Glorious Revolution, the Britain formed a single largest domestic market in Europe. Meanwhile, with its expansion in the world, it occupied a large number of colonies in the world and became the most powerful colonial country. The colonies provided it with enormous wealth, raw materials and a large market for its industrial development. Second, the enclosure movement 1 deprived the small landowners of their property and forced them to move to the cities and towns to make a living. The landless laborer, therefore, became a large number of free labors in the industrial market and promoted the economic development in Britain. Third, with the rapid development of economy and industry, higher productivity became necessary in order to meet the higher demand for manufactured goods in the market. The entrepreneurs began to seek new ways to promote productivity.

A series of important inventions in the textile industry, such as the Spinning Jenny, the water frame, the spinning mule and the power loom, marked the beginning of Industrial Revolution. These inventions promoted the mechanization of the textile industry and motivated the development of Industrial Revolution in other areas. For example, the dig of canals, the complete of the first railway and invention of steam engine and steam locomotive in the transportation industry. By the middle of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution was accomplished in 1 Enclosure movement: 圈地运动。英国新兴的资产阶级和新贵族通过暴力把农民从土地上赶走，强占农民份地及公有地，剥夺农民的土地使用权和所有权，限制或取消原有的共同耕地权和畜牧权，把强占的土地圈占起来，变成私有的大牧场、大农场。大批的农民因此而失去赖以生存的土地，倾家荡产，流离失所。 Spinning Jenny

Steam locomotive

Britain.

The Industrial Revolution accelerated the process of modernization and the economic development of Britain, and also had a significant impact on the British society. Firstly, the industrial productivity was dramatically increased because of the inventions of machines. Secondly, it promoted the process of urbanization in Britain. With numerous free labors moved into cities and towns, many new cities such as Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham and Sheffield sprang up and became Britain’s industrial centers. Thirdly, it also brought with some changes in clas s structure. The capitalist class replaced the old aristocrats and became the most important force in the country.

4. The Rise and Fall of British Empire

The British Empire started from the reign of Queen Elizabeth I with colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Britain defeated the Spanish fleet in 1588 and Holland in the 17th century, which contributed to the establishment of its superiority in the sea power. It kept expanding in the following hundreds of years. The Empire acquired a lot of colonies and seized countless wealth through foreign expansion. The colonies were turned into its sources of raw materials and important markets for its products.

By the time Queen Victoria started to reign the country, it had occupied many overseas colonies, such as the colonies in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and many small states in the West Indies. Then the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century accelerated its colonization in the world. On the Eve of World War I in 1914, the total area of the British colonies had reached 33,500,000 km2, that is, over 137 times more than its native land, with a colonial population 9 times more than that of its natives. It has developed into the largest colonial empire in the world, which occupied nearly 1/4 of the world lan d area, and became “a country on which the sun never sets”.

However, the two world wars in the earlier 20th century gradually weakened Britain’s power and led to the decline of the British Empire. Britain lost a great number of people, the sea supremacy in the world and was into huge national debt in order to support the wars. Additionally, after the World War II, a wave of national liberation and a movement of national independence swept the world. In 1921, 26 counties on the island of Ireland became independent from the United Kingdom and formed the Republic of Ireland. In 1931, Australia, New Zealand and Canada became independent countries in the British Commonwealth. In the 1960s, the independence movement swept the entire British Empire, including its colonies in Asia, Africa and South A merica. More than 20 Britain’s colonies won their independence. Consequently, the British Empire completely fell apart in the late 1960s.

The Empire had been replaced by the British Commonwealth of Nations1, which is an intergovernmental organization composed of 53 countries. It is not a political union, but a loosely organized community of former British colonies. All but two of these countries are formerly part of British Empire. Though the British Monarch is still considered as the head of Commonwealth, its members have full autonomy to manage their own internal and external affairs. The primary goal of the Commonwealth is to encourage and promote the cooperation and mutual assistance among member states.

Watch the video clip of The British Empire and finish the tasks that follow.

Task 1: Story –retelling

Now, work in groups (3-4members) on the clip and retell what you have seen. Then each group sends one representative to tell the whole class your interpretation of the British Empire.

Task 2: Group discussion

Discuss with your partners about the way the British Empire was established

1British Commonwealth: 英联邦。是一个以英国为主导的国家联合体，由54个主权国家（含属地）所组成，成员大多为前大英帝国的殖民地或附属国。该组织元首为英国女王伊丽莎白二世，同时身兼英联邦王国内的16国的国家元首。

Exercises

1. Explore and fill in the blanks with proper words or terms.

1)

2)

3)The overall climate in the UK is temperate

4)Since Britain is an island country and surrounded by the sea, the climate is considerably

compared with other countries.

5)The recorded history of the UK begins with the

6)was introduced to Britain.

7)During the Norman Conquest, in England was completely established, which is based on the

8)was a series of dynastic civil wars between the two royal families, the House of York and the

House of Lancaster, for the English throne.

9)and

10)

occupied nearly 1/4

2. Questions on this unit:

1)How many parts is the United Kingdom made up of? What are they?

2)What are the impacts of Roman Invasion?

3)What are the contributions of Elizabeth I in the Religious Reformation?

4)What are the reasons to the British Industrial Revolution?

5)What are the factors that led to the end of British Empire?

3. Terms for explanation:

1)Great Britain

2)Norman Conquest

3)Hundred Years War

4)The English Reformation

5)Glorious Revolution

4. Analysis and comments:

1)The significance of the Great Charter

2)The influences of Industrial Revolution in the UK

Chapter 2 Government and Politics

自1688年光荣革命以后，英国便建立了君主立宪制的政治制度。英国的君王是国家元首和理论上的最高权力者，但事实上，英国政府的实权掌握在议会手中。议会是英国政治的中心舞台，是英国的最高立法机关。议会为两院制，由上院和下院组成，其中下议院，也叫作平民院，掌握主要和最终立法权。政府从议会产生，并对其负责，首相是政府的最高领导，由议会下议院中占多数派的政党领导担任。英国的宪法不是一个独立的文件，而是三种法律的构成：成文法（Statutory Law ）、习惯法（Common Law ）、惯例（Conventions ）。同时，英国还是一个两党制的国家，议会下议院多数党成为执政党，除多数党之外的第二大党自动成为反对党，反对党有可能在下议院中通过不信任投票取代执政党地位。英国的政府体系和政党制度影响了许多国家尤其是英联邦成员国的政府体系。

The United Kingdom is a Parliamentary democracy and a constitutional Monarchy. Theoretically, the Monarch is the head of state with supreme powers, but their powers are quite limited and their role is symbolic. The importance of the Monarchy is its effect on public attitude. It represents the continuity and unity of the country.

The British governmental system consists of three branches: Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. Parliament is the legislature in the UK, which consists of the King or the Queen and two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Commons, also called the Lower House, is the center of Parliamentary power. The Prime Minister is the head of government in the UK. He or she and the Cabinet are the center of British government and are responsible for the Parliament. The House of Lords functions as the Supreme Court in the country. Among the three branches, the Parliament is the center of the UK’s governmental system.

The British Constitution is not a single written document but a combination of laws and practices. It is made up of three main parts: Statutory Law, Common Law, and Conventions.

The UK is a two-party system. The chief political party includes the Conservative, the Labor, and the Liberal Democrats.

I. The Constitution

Britain is the first country to carry out the constitutional system. However, there is no authoritative document. The constitution of the United Kingdom is the sum of laws and principles that makes up the body politic (政治团体) of the United Kingdom. That is, the British Constitution is composed of many separate legal documents and usual practices in different historical periods. Hence, it has been described as “uncodified” (Uncodified means that the UK does not have a single, written constitution.) as a special feature compared with other c ountry’s constitutions. It comprises three main parts: The Statutory Law 1, the Common Law 2, and Conventions 3. 1

Statutory Law ：成文法。有规定法律条款可依的宪法性法律文件。 2 Common Law ：判例法。英国法院特别是高等法院在司法实践中对某些案例的判决和解释。

3 Conventions ：习惯法。大多数是在立宪政治发展过程中形成的经法院承认的宪法性法律规则。

Westminster ： The Parliament of the United Kingdom

The Statutory Law is the most important and takes precedence over other laws and practices. It refers to the laws passed by the Parliament as Acts, such as the Great Charter (1215) and the Bill of Rights (1689). The Common Law is laws established through common practice in the courts. It refers to the previous court cases of civil rights of freedom and so on, as well as customs and legal precedents interpreted by judges. Conventions are the rules and practices, which do not exist legally or written in the law, but contain some old practices crucial to the national system of Britain.

The principle of British Constitution is Parliamentary Supremacy. Parliament is the supreme law-making body. The acts passed by the Parliament are constitutional as well as the highest source of British law. Moreover, the amendments to the Constitution are also made by the British Parliament with a majority of support in both Houses of Parliament to be followed by the Royal Assent.

The British Constitution concerns both the relationship between the individual and the state, and the functioning of the legislature, the executive and judiciary. According to it, the governmental system is divided into three branches: The legislature, the executive and the judiciary.

II. The Governmental System

The British government is the first one to be established on the basis of the separation of powers. That is, the national power is divided into three equal and separate branches. In principle, they are checked and balanced by one another: The legislative power is in charge of Parliament; the executive power is in the hand of the government; the judicial power is headed by the Supreme Court. However, in practice, the legislature and the executive in the UK are integrated into a unity, because the Prime Minister and the Cabinet members of the executive come from the House of Commons of the legislature. Therefore, the constitution of the UK is often described as having “a weak separation of powers”.

1.The Legislature

Parliament, the legislative body in the UK, first officially appeared in the 13th century. It is the supreme law-making body in the country and enjoys a number of major powers. According to the constitution, it consists of three parts: The Monarch, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons.

The Queen or the King is the official head of Parliament, and plays a constitutional role in opening and dissolving Parliament, approving Bills before they become law, and appoint the Prime Minister after election. However, in reality, their role in the Parliament as well as in the nation is broadly ceremonial and symbolic without real power. The Monarch has no right to determine decisions made in Parliament. The importance of the Monarch is its effect on public attitude. It represents the continuity and adaptability of the governmental system as well as the unity of the country.

The House of Lords, or Upper House, is the second chamber of the UK Parliament. It is independent from, and complements the work of, the elected House of Commons. The Lords shares the task of making and shaping laws and checking and challenging the work of the government. The Lords has three main roles: making laws, in-depth consideration of public policy, and scrutinizing the work of the government through regular question time and debating in the chamber. But the House of Lords cannot prevent legislations proposed by the House of Commons from becoming law or introduce financial bills, especially government revenue. Therefore, the powers of the House are similar to those of the House of Commons, but not identical and are quite limited. Its role in the Parliament is to complement the House of Commons rather than compete with it.

The members of the House are not elected but are mostly produced via inheriting the title of nobility or being granted the title of nobility by the Queen or the King. That is, it is made up of hereditary peers, life peers, as well as the senior bishops of the Church of England. Currently, there are about 760 members who are eligible to take part in the work of the House of Lords. The majority are life peers are from a wide range of occupations. Many of them

continue to be active in their fields and have successful careers in business, culture, science, sports, academia, law, education, health and public service. They bring experiences and knowledge to their role of examining matters of public interests that affect all UK citizens. However, due to the reduced powers, the rate of attendance is quite low unless when important issues or large problems are discussed.

The House of Commons, also called the Lower House, consists of 650 Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected from 650 constituencies 1 through general election to represent the local residents’ interests and concerns. The term of the MPs is five years, so they have to be reelected at the end of the five-year term. The party that holds the majority of the seats in the House forms the government, and its leader becomes the Prime Minister

The House of Commons is the core of Parliament, enjoying many priority and privileges than the House of Lords. Its most important role is to make laws. Although either house may introduce bills to the Parliament, the House of Common has the supremacy in legislative matters which is assured by the Parliament Acts and several traditional customs and conventions. For example, by a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or Supply. Moreover, though the Queen or King has the right to make final decision on whether a bill becomes law, they give the consent as a matter of course. The last Monarch to reject a law passed by the both Houses of Parliament was Queen Anne over 300 years ago. Therefore, the House of Common has the primacy over the House of Lords and the Monarch in the process of making laws.

The second function of the House of Commons is to scrutinize and challenge the government. Similar with the House of Lords, the House of Commons performs this function by questioning government ministers, debating and the investigating works of certain committees. Ministers from each government departments attend the House of Commons on a ratio basis (轮流) to answer oral questions about public issues. The Prime Minister answers questions every Wednesday. Debates in the Commons look at the creation and amendment of laws as well as national and international issues and can be on any subject. V otes are often taken to see whether a majority of Members either support or reject any discussed laws or proposals. To examine the works of the government in detail, the House establishes different special committees to offer advices and produces reports on their performance. Furthermore, it can force a government to resign by passing a Motion of No Confidence.2

2. The Executive

Her Majesty’s Government (HMG), commonly referred to as the British Government, is the central government of the UK. The government is made up of the Prime Minister, the Cabinet ministers and assistants to the ministers.

The Prime Minister, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons, leads the Government. One of the Prime Minister’s power s is to decide the composition of the Cabinet. He decides the Cabinet ministers and other ministers, who are the heads of the most important departments as well as a few ministers without departments.

1 Constituency: 选区，一般而言，选区边界是按照人口与法规而订定的。现时英国共有650个选区，其中英格兰有533个、威尔士有40个、苏格兰有59个，而北爱尔兰有18个。

2 Motion of No Confidence ：不信任案。议会制国家的议会对政府表示不信任的议案。议会监督政府的一种具体形式。议会如果通过不信任案，政府必须总辞职，或者依法提请国家元首解散议会，重新改选，由新的议会决定政府的去留。

House of Commons

House of Lords

Therefore, the Prime Minister is not only the leader of Parliament but also the leader of the Cabinet and the head of the government. Moreover, since the Monarch’s power is limited, the Prime Minister is the most powerful leader in the UK.

Under the leadership of the Prime Minister, the Cabinet is the ultimate decision-making body of the executive. It serves as the nucleus of the government. Its members meet in private once or twice a week in the Prime Minister’s official residence, No.10 Downing Street 1, holding confidential discussions with no disclosure of any secrets about the country’s political and soci al issues. The Cabinet members assume responsibility for all Cabinet decisions and works on the principle of collective responsibility and individual responsibility.

Apart from the ministers, each department has a staff of professional civil servants. They are non-political government members and do most of the work of running the department on the minister’s behalf. As they are involved with the administration of governmental policies and decisions, they are not allowed to be candidates for Parliament or join any political party. The staff of civil servants in each department is relatively stable, which means it does not change when the government changes.

3. Judiciary

According to the nature of law cases, British court can be divided into two systems: the Civil Court and the Criminal Court. The civil cases, including matters related to the family, property, contracts and torts, are handled by the Civil Courts. These cases are taken by the Country Court, the High Court, the High Court of Justice and the Court of Civil Appeal respectively in accordance with different levels. Criminal cases are taken by the Magistrate’s Court, the Criminal Court and the Court of Criminal Appeal in the light of the increasing level. In these criminal trails, the accused is presumed innocent until proved guilty and presented by a law. Trails are in open court, and in most cases, they are tried before lay justices 2 without a jury of 12. Only in more serious cases are the trails tried before the jury, which decides guilty or innocent.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in all matters under English and Welsh law, Northern Ireland law and Scottish civil law since the 2009. It is made up of 12 Lord of Appeal in Ordinary, or normally called the Law Lords, who are professional judges from the House of Lords to exercise its judicial functions. The Lord Chancellor in the House of Lords used to be the head of Judiciary, but the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 transferred this role to the Lord Speaker and Lord Chief Justice respectively.

III. Political Party

The political party system is an essential element in the working of the British constitution. The present system depends upon the existence of organized political parties, each of which presents its policies to the electorate for

1 No. 10 Downing Street ：唐宁街10号，英国首相官邸和办公室，位于伦敦的威斯敏斯特（Westminster ）。其功能和地位上相当于美国的白宫。

2 Lay justice ：助理法官，是英国刑事案件的司法审理中一种特殊的法官类型，其主要职能是与陪审团相似。

No. 10 Downing Street

approval. The parties are not registered or formally recognized in law, but in practice most candidates in elections, and almost all winning candidates, belong to one of the main parties.

There are three main political parties in the UK, which altogether accounts for over 90% of the winning candidates in general elections. They are the Conservative Party, the Labor Party, and the Liberal Democrats. Since 1945, the Conservative Party and its principal opponent, the Labor Party, have dominated British political life: Eight general elections have been won by the Conservative Party and six by the Labor Party; the great majority of members of the House of Commons have belonged to one of these two parties.

1.The Conservative Party

The Conservative Party, colloquially referred to as the Tory Party or the Tories, is a center-right political party. It was founded in 1834, and was one of two dominant parties in the 19th century, along with the Liberal Party. It changed its name to the Conservative and Unionist Party in 1912 after merging with the Liberal Unionist Party, although that name is rarely used and it is generally referred to as simply the Conservative Party. Its guiding principles include the promotion of private property and enterprise, the maintenance of a strong military, and the preservation of traditional cultural values and institutions. Therefore, its policies are characterized by pragmatism1 and a belief in individualism2.

It has been the largest party in the House of Commons with 307 out of 650 seats since 2010, and the current party leader is David Cameron, who is also the Prime Minister of the UK now.

2.The Labor Party

The Labor Party is a center-left political party founded in 1900. It was initially formed as a means for the trade union movement to establish political representation for itself in the Parliament in the 19th century. After the formation, the Labor Party quickly overtook the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s, and won the general election in 1945 for the first time. It used to be characterized by socialist3or nationalization, which means common ownership of production, distribution and exchange. It advocates government intervention and the nationalization of enterprises in economy, increasing rights for workers, and a welfare state. However, from the late 1980s onwards, the party has adopted free market policies and experienced many great reforms. Therefore, recently the ideology of socialist is no longer possible to describe it.

The Labor Party was last in the national government between 1997 and 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, but now sits in opposition. Currently, it is the second largest party in the British House of Commons, with 258 out of 650 seats and forms the Official Opposition4under the leadership of current leader, Ed Miliband.

3.The Liberal Democrats

The Liberal Democrats is a “middle” political party in the United Kingdom. The party was formed in 1988 by a merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party. There are two main strands of distinct ideology within the party, social liberals and the economic liberals. The principal difference between the two is that the economic liberals tend to support greater choice and competition, aim to increase social mobility through increasing economic freedom, and favor cutting taxes for the poorest in order to increase opportunity. Whereas the social liberals aim to increase equality of outcome through state means, and advocate higher spending on the disadvantaged to reduce income inequality. On the whole, the party can be characterized by centrist.

The Liberal Democrats is the third-largest party in the House of Commons in the UK. At the 2010 general

1Pragmatism：实用主义，实用主义者只在乎行动是否能给个人或集团带来某种实际的利益和报酬，而不问这种行动是否合乎客观实际，合乎原则。

2Individualism：个人主义，强调个人的自由和个人的重要性。在政治上认为：自由、平等、人权是个人的政治诉求；民主法治是对个人的尊重；市场经济是对个人经济追求的承认与规范。

3Socialist：社会主义。是一种经济社会学思想，主张或提倡整个社会作为整体，由社会拥有和控制产品、资本、土地、资产等，其管理和分配基于公众利益。

4Official Opposition：又叫做影子内阁（Shadow Cabinet）。通常由下议院中最大的反对党领袖，物色下院中有影响的本党议员，按内阁形式组建而成。这种制度由英国保守党首创，后为一些英联邦国家所采用。

election, under the leadership of Nick Clegg, the Liberal Democrats won 57 seats with 23% of the vote behind the Conservative Party and the Labor Party.

IV. Election

The general election in the UK is organized in the 650 constituencies, or electoral areas, every five years. For the purpose of election, the whole country is divided into 650 constituencies of similar population. The local residents aged 18 or over 18 in each constituency vote for their local MPs. Anyone who is eligible to vote can stand as a candidate as long as they make a deposit of 500 pounds, which is lost if they fail to receive 5% of the vote. This is to avoid people running just for a joke.

The election applies the simple majority system, which means the candidate who receives the largest number of votes becomes the MP of the constituency. Therefore, in order to win the election, each party has a local organization in each constituency, whose main task is to choose the candidate to represent its party and help him or her to win. Moreover, party leaders also play a very important role in the general election, because when people vote their local MPs, they are actually voting the party to form the government. Therefore, before the general election, party leaders will launch electoral campaigns to present their policies to public and persuade people to vote candidates from their party, which may include advertisements in newspapers, radio and TV, television debating, interviews and so on.

As soon as the results of a general election are known, it is usually clear which party will form the government. The party that wins over half of the constituencies holds a majority of seats in the House of Commons, and forms the government. The party leader consequently becomes the Prime Minister.

Watch the video clip of The House of Commons and finish the tasks that follow.

Task 1: Story –retelling

Now, work in groups (3-4members) on the clip and retell what you have seen. Then each group sends one representative to tell the whole class your interpretation of the House of Commons.

Task 2: Group discussion

Discuss with your partners about the function o f the House of Commons.

Exercises

1. Explore and fill in the blanks with proper words or terms.

1)

The United Kingdom is a and a constitutional Monarchy.

2)The British governmental system consists of three

branches:

, ,

and Television Debating

3)of the United Kingdom is the sum of laws and principles that make up the body politic of the United Kingdom.

4)The members of are not elected but are mostly produced via inheriting the title of nobility or being granted by the title of nobility by the Queen or the King.

5)The Government is led by

6)is the ultimate decision-making body of the executive headed by the Prime Minister.

7)According to the nature of law cases, British court can be divided into two systems: and

8)is the highest court in all matters under English and Welsh law, Northern Ireland law and Scottish civil law since the 2009.

9)The Conservative Party, colloquially referred to as the Tory Party or the Tories, is a political party.

10)For the purpose of election, the whole country is divided into of similar population.

2. Questions on this unit:

1)What is the characteristic of British constitution?

2)What is the principle of British Constitution?

3)How do you understand the role of British Monarch in the parliament?

4)What is the British government made up of?

5)What are the common practices of criminal trials in the UK?

3. Terms for explanation:

1)Common Law

2)Parliament

3)The Cabinet

4)The Supreme Court

5)Conservative Party

4. Analysis and comments:

1)The existence of the monarchy

2)British electoral campaigns

Chapter 3 The Economy of the UK

英国作为世界上曾经拥有最多殖民地的国家，及第一个完成工业革命的国家，一度是世界上最大的生产国，经济上拥有绝对的主导支配地位。大英帝国的建立更为英国的经济提供了充足的原材料，劳动力及世界市场，促进了英国经济霸权地位的确立。虽然在第二次世界大战以后，英国经济经历了一连串衰退，经济发展速度下降，其主导地位也已被许多欧美国家取代，但英国政府在20世纪七八十年代的一系列经济及社会改革政策，在一定程度上恢复了英国的经济。

目前英国仍然是一个重要的贸易实体、经济强国以及金融中心，也是全球最富裕、经济最发达和生活水平最高的国家之一。英国的农业高度集中，高度机械化，并且效益非常的高：1%的劳动人口能够满足大约60%的食品需要。英国拥有大量的煤、天然气和石油储备；主要能源生产大约占总GDP 的10%，在工业国家中是非常高的。第二产业，作为英国经济曾经的支柱产业，其对GDP 的贡献正在不断下降，尽管英国仍是欧洲最大的军火、电脑、电视和手机的制造地，但在经济中的重要性已经被第三产业所取代。服务业成为英国经济的支柱产业，特别是银行业、金融业、航运业、保险业以及商业服务业占GDP 的比重最大，而且处于世界领导地位，首都伦敦更是世界数一数二的金融和商业中心。

The UK, a leading trading power and financial center, is the third largest economy in Europe after Germany and France, and the sixth largest economy in the world, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of US $1.93 trillion.

As the first country to complete the First Industry Revolution and the largest colony country, the UK used to have the largest economy in the world, and dominated the European and world economy during the 19th century. However, from the late 19th century onwards, especially after the World War I and World War II, it experienced a relative economic decline as other nations such as the United States and Germany caught up. In order to rescue its economy and solve the problems, the British government has issued a series of economic and social policies to stimulate the development of its economy since the 1970s. Therefore, the economy has begun to recover and continues to increase at a steady development rate.

Recently, the British economy can be divided into three main sectors: Primary Industry, Secondary Industry and Tertiary Industry. Primary Industry, also called Agriculture Industry, is quite intensive, highly mechanized, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with less than 2% of the total labor force in the UK. Besides, the UK has large coal, natural gas, and oil resources, but its oil and natural gas reserves are declining and it became a net importer of energy in 2005. Secondary Industry or Manufacturing Industry used to be the largest contributor to the British economy and a dominant sector. Its importance has declined, but still accounts for about 10% of economic output. Meanwhile, Tertiary Industry, or Service Industry, particularly banking, insurance, and business services, becomes key driver of British GDP growth.

I.

Recent History of British Economy

British Currency: Pound

The UK is the first industrialized country in the world and has been an economic giant for the past two centuries. By the middle of 19th century, with the establishment of the British Empire, its economy became dominant in the world, producing one third of the world’s manufacturing goods, half of the coal and iron, half of the cotton. However, by 1900, the UK has been overtaken by both the United States and Germany. The Second Industrial Revolution in the United States m eant the US had begun to challenge Britain’s role as the leader of the global economy. Especially after the World War II, the extensive war effects of the two world wars and the end of British Empire led to a series of problems of the British economy in several ways. Since then it has experienced a period of relative decline.

However, this decline is relative rather than absolute. That is, although its economy has been improved, its competitors have improved more rapidly; hence its economic dominance has been overtaken. The British economy was still increasing, but at a slower pace.

Generally speaking, the development of British economy after the WWII can be divided into three periods: First, it experienced stable development between the 1950s and the 1960s, and its economy was growing slowly but continuously with a low rate of unemployment. Second, in the 1970s, British economy stepped into a sluggish growth and money inflation. The economic crisis led to the slowdown of production and high rate of unemployment. Third, in the 1980s, the economy began to recover. The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, issued a series of social and economic reforms to ease some economic problems, however, failed not resolve the problem of high unemployment rate.

1.1950 and 1960s

Following the end of the Second World War, the United Kingdom experienced a long period without a major recession and enjoyed a rapid growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with unemployment staying low and not exceeding 500,000 until the second half of the 1960s. The government, formed by the Labor Party, carried out drastic economic and social reforms, which laid the foundation for British social and economic development. During this period, a welfare state was established, and many private industries were nationalized to revive the primary industries and help balance trade. By the end of 1947, its economy quickly returned to the pre-war level. However, inflation and trade deficit were persistent problems that led to a slow development rate of economy and declining international competitiveness as well as the rising of unemployment rate.

2.1970s

Following the 1973 oil crisis and the 1973–1974 stock market crash, the British economy fell into recession. During the 1970s, the UK recorded weaker growth than many other European nations even after the recession ended, the economy was still blighted by rising unemployment and double-digit inflation, which exceeded 20% more than once after 1973 and was rarely below 10% after this date. The British government was forced to request a large amount of loan from the International Monetary Fund1. Additionally, it implemented public spending cuts and other economic reforms in order to rescue the economy. Therefore, the British economy improved for a short period of time. However, the economy still remained stagnant and performed poorly. The negative economic situation finally led to a change in government at the general election in 1979. Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative Party won the election and formed a new government. It was the beginning of a new period of neo-liberal economics.

3.1980s

1International Monetary Fund(IMF)：是根据1944年7月在布雷顿森林会议签订的《国际货币基金协定》，于1945年12月27日在华盛顿成立的。与世界银行同时成立、并列为世界两大金融机构之一，其职责是监察货币汇率和各国贸易情况，提供技术和资金协助，确保全球金融制度运作正常。其总部设在华盛顿。

Margaret Thatcher and her government introduced the biggest changes in British

economic policy since World War II. During the 1980s most state-owned enterprises

were privatized, taxes cut, union reforms passed and markets deregulated. Margaret

Thatcher’s reforms achieved a great success: Inflation came under control, efficiency

of the economy improved, and the market competitiveness began to increase. GDP

rose to 5% at its peak in 1988, one of the highest rates of any European nations.

However, Thatcher’s modernization of the British economy was far from trouble

free. The negative aspect of her reform was a substantial increase in unemployment.

The economic policy resulted in the closure of outdated factories and coal pits which

were no longer economically viable. Therefore, during the 1980s, the rate of

unemployment remained high, peaking at nearly 3.3 million in 1984. Consequently,

the Margaret Thatcher government lost the support in 1990. 4. Reasons for its Economic Decline After WWII

There are many reasons that caused the decline of British economy. Firstly, the UK suffered great economic loss in the two world wars. After World War II, it had gone heavily into debt in order to finance the war, selling many of its accumulated overseas assets, and borrowing large amounts of money from the US and Canada. Secondly, the era of empire was over. The British Empire collapsed immediately after the end of the World War II. The independence of its colonies made Britain lose big markets for British goods, and the independent colonies stopped providing raw materials to the UK, leaving Britain as just a medium-size European country. Thirdly, Britain spent a higher proportion of national wealth on its military than most of its competitors. It had to maintain a substantial and expensive military presence in many overseas locations due to its position as one of NATO ’s 1 major partners and a member of the UN Security Council 2. Fourthly, its industry survived almost unaffected during the war, unlike its competitors such as the US and Germany, whose industry had been damaged completely and had nothing to start. However, it was this advantage that led to the disadvantage of British economy then. British economy continued with its older factories and pre-war products, which result in a very low productivity and output. Meanwhile, its competitors started to invest in the most modern equipment and means of production, and began to surpass the UK in economy. Finally, British economy suffered a long-standing and continuing problem of failing to investment after the war. A relatively low rate of investment was a distinct characteristic of the British economy in relation to other developed countries, such as the US and Germany at that time.

II. Current British Economy

From the 1980s to the present, British economy has experienced a stable and continuous development. By the end of 20th century, its economy growth surpassed that of other major European countries. The current British economy can be broken down into three main areas: Primary Industry, Secondary Industry and Tertiary Industry. Great changes have been found in the economic structure after the WWII, with the proposition of Primary and Secondary Industry declined and the importance of Tertiary Industry increased dramatically.

1. Primary Industry

Agriculture in the UK is quite intensive, highly mechanized, and efficient by European standards, with 1.4% of the labor force managing around 70% the country’s land area. However, its output cannot afford enough food supply for the country due to the large total population. It only produces about 60% of the food needed. The export 1 NA TO ：North Atlantic Treaty Organization ，北大西洋公约组织，简称北约，是美国与西欧、北美主要发达国家为实现防卫协作而建立的一个国际军事集团组织。

2 UN Security Council ：联合国安全理事会，成立于1946年，由5个常任理事国，包括英国、法国、俄罗斯、美国和中国，以及11个非常任理事国构成，每一理事国有一个投票权。根据《联合国宪章》，安全理事会负有维护国际和平与安全的首要责任。

Margaret Thatcher

of agriculture products is much less than the import. In 2010, it exported ￡14 billion worth of food, feed and drink, and imported ￡32.5 billion. The Agriculture Industry is experiencing a decline in modern British economy. The total income from farming was ￡5.69 billion in 2011, representing only about 0.7% of GDP in that year. The average income of each full-time person was ￡30,900 per in 2011. This was the best performance in UK agriculture since the 1990s. Furthermore, Agriculture employs 466,000 people, representing 1.52% of the workforce, decreased more than 32% since 1996.

Around two-thirds of the production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops. However, Agriculture in the UK is regional varied because of the impacts of geographical differences and the quality of farmland. In terms of the quality of farmland, it can be divided into “Favored Area ” and “Less Favored Area ”. “Favored Area ” means lands with larger flatter fields where is favorable for crop production, while “Less Favored Area” means land that produces a lower agricultural yield, typically upland moors and hill farms, which explains the tendency to focus on livestock and dairy farming in these areas. “Less Favored Area ” is mainly in the northern and western areas of England, Wales and Scotland. In Wales, 80% of the farmland is designated “Less Favored Area”, and in Scotland the figure is 84%. “Favored Area ” mainly distributes in eastern and southern areas in England, which accounts for more than 80% of the total area. In terms of gross value added in 2009, 83% of the UK’s agricultural income originated from England, 9% from Scotland, 4% from Northern Ireland and 3% from Wales.

Major corps in the UK are wheat, barley, oats, potato and sugar beet. The UK is the world ’s leading producer and exporter of cattle, sheep, pigs and horses. The breeding of livestock is for meat, wool, and eggs, as well as for dairy products. The UK also retains a significant, though reduced, fishing industry in the North Sea, the English Channel and the sea areas around Ireland and the sea areas between England and Iceland. It has large fishing fleet based in coastal areas and fish is a basic item in national diet. It provides over 50% of the country ’s demand for fish. The main products are cod, haddock, herring and sole.

The Energy Industry is the totality of all of the industries involved in the production and sale of energy,

including fuel extraction, manufacturing, refining and distribution. Modern society consumes large amounts of fuel,

Devon County – “Favored Area” in England

Shell

and the Energy Industry is a crucial part of the infrastructure and maintenance of society in almost all countries. The UK has large amounts of coal, oil, and natural gas reserves, and is a major energy producer. Primary energy production accounts for 10% of GDP, one of the highest shares of any industrial nation. Shell1, British Petroleum, and British Gas are three of the biggest ten companies in the UK.

The UK has a long history of coal mining, which probably dates to Roman times and takes place in many different parts of the country. Britain’s coalfields are associated with Northumberland and Durham, Yorkshire, Lancashire, the East and West Midlands and Kent in England, North and South Wales, and Scotland. It provided the majority of energy needed before 1970s. However, during the 1980s and 1990s the industry was scaled back considerably. Coal accounts for only about a quarter of energy supplies, the rest being divided between oil, gas, and nuclear energy. It is the result of governmental policies of environmental protection as well as the discovery and development of new energy resources. In 1970s, large reserves of oil and gas were discovered under the North Sea. The abundance of energy resources made the UK an overall exporter of energy then. But since 1990s, the British government issued a series of policies to protect its mineral reserves, consequently, energy production has been in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005.

2. Secondary Industry

Manufacturing is an important sector of the modern British economy, which accounted for 20.5% of GDP in the UK and for 18.2% of employment in 2013 according to the Office for National Statistics. Recently, it has experienced a steady decline in its importance to the British economy. Although the manufacturing sector’s share of both employment and GDP has steadily fallen since the 1960s, its output in terms of both production and value has steadily increased since 1945, and it is still important for overseas trade, accounting for over 80% of exports. Britain’s companies are active in all major fields of Manufacturing Industry, but are particular strong in some sectors.

Engineering and allied industries comprise the single largest sector, contributing around 30% of output in manufacturing. Within this sector, transport equipment was the largest contributor, with many global car manufacturers being present in the UK, UK used to have many international renowned car manufacturers including MINI, Rolls-Royce, Jaguar, Land Rover, Bentley, and Aston Martin. However, most of them are now owned by overseas companies such as BMW (MINI, Rolls-Royce) of Germany, Tata (Jaguar, Land Rover) of India, and V olkswagen (Bentley) of Germany as well. Associated with this sector are the aerospace and defense equipment industries. The UK manufactures a broad range of equipment, including civil and defense aerospace, land and marine equipment. VT Group is one of the world’s largest builders of warships; and GKN2and Rolls Royce manufacture aerospace engines and power generation systems.

Another important component of Manufacturing Industry is electronics. Britain has a fourth largest electronics industry in the world with a broad base of domestic firms, alongside a number of foreign firms. But like its car industry, they are in many cases foreign-owned. Pharmaceutical (GlaxoSmithKline3, the world’s second largest pharmaceutical firms), chemical (including plastics, petrochemical industry) and food and drink (Scottish Whisky being a major export) are also other important contributors to the UK’s manufacturing base.

3. Tertiary Industry

Tertiary Industry refers to the industry which does not produce material products, that is, it produces services instead of end products, or tangible products. Typical Tertiary Industry sectors may include financial services, entertainment, mass media, tourism, consulting, education etc. It has become the most important economic sector in

1Shell：壳牌集团，世界第一大石油公司，总部位于荷兰海牙和英国伦敦，由荷兰皇家石油与英国的壳牌两家公司合并组成。2GKN: GKN集团((Guest, Keen & Nettlefolds Ltd))创建于1759年，主要业务有大型民航客机和运输机结构件，汽车传动系统，特种车辆，农用机械，粉末冶金，汽车零部件和环保用汽车催化转化器的生产制造等。

3GlaxoSmithKline: 英国葛兰素史克公司，简称GSK，全球最大药剂集团。是头孢菌素的主要发明厂家之一，还拥有全球最广泛的抗哮喘系列产品，以及胃肠道、抗病毒、抗肿瘤、皮肤、麻醉和中枢神经系统等多个学科的治疗药品。

英国国家概况及英国文化

英国国家概况及英国文化 、教育简介国名： 大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国(TheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland)国旗： 呈横长方形，长与宽之比为２∶１。 为“米”字旗，由深蓝底色和红、白色“米”字组成。 旗中带白边的红色正十字代表英格兰守护神圣乔治，白色交叉十字代表苏格兰守护神圣安德鲁，红色交叉十字代表爱尔兰守护神圣帕特里克。 此旗产生于１８０１年，是由原英格兰的白地红色正十旗、苏格兰的蓝地白色交叉十字旗和爱尔兰的白地红色交叉十字旗重叠而成。 国徽： 即英王徽。 中心图案为一枚盾徽，盾面上左上角和右下角为红地上三只金狮，象征英格兰；右上角为金地上半站立的红狮，象征苏格兰；左下角为蓝地上金黄色竖琴，象征爱尔兰。 盾徽两侧各由一只头戴王冠、代表英格兰的狮子和一只代表苏格兰的独角兽支扶着。 盾徽周围用法文写着一句格言，意为“恶有恶报”；下端悬挂着嘉德勋章，饰带上写着“天有上帝，我有权利”。 盾徽上端为镶有珠宝的金银色头盔、帝国王冠和头戴王冠的狮子。

国歌： 《上帝保佑女王》杜摯猠癡?桴?畱敥屮（如在位的是男性君主，国歌改为杜摯猠癡?桴步湩屧）国花： 1 / 10 玫瑰花国鸟： 红胸鸽国石： 钻石科学节： １８３１年开始，一年举办一次科学周： １９９４年开始，在每年的３月举办自然地理： ２４．４１万平方公里（包括内陆水域），英格兰地区１３.０４万平方公里，苏格兰７.８８万平方公里，威尔士２.０８万平方公里，北爱尔兰１.４１万平方公里。 位于欧洲西部的岛国。 由大不列颠岛（包括英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士）、爱尔兰岛东北部和周围一些小岛组成。 隔北海、多佛尔海峡、英吉利海峡与欧洲大陆相望。 它的陆界与爱尔兰共和国接壤。 海岸线总长１１４５０公里。 全境分为四部分： 英格兰东南部平原、中西部山区、苏格兰山区、北爱尔兰高原和山区。主要河流有塞文河（３５４公里）和泰晤士河（３４６公里）。

英语国家概况

英语国家概况-Land and people I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分 1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。 2. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。 3. The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones. 不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。 4.Three political divisions on the island：England, Scotland and Wales. 大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。 (1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section. 英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。 (2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。 (3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫 (4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。 5.The Commonwealth (of nations)is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991. 英联邦是独立的前英国殖民地组成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。 II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征 1.Geographical position of Britain: 英国的地理位置： Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。 2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands. 英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。 III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊 Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).

英语国家概况之英国文学

时间时期代表人物作品 5世纪-1485 中世纪文学 Middle Ages The Book of Kells Beowulf 贝奥武甫 Geoffrey Chaucer 英国诗歌之父 The Canterbury T ales 坎特伯雷故事 15世纪后期-17世纪初期文艺复兴 The Renaissance Christopher Marlowe The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus Ben Jonson 无 William Shakespeare 200首长诗 154首十四行诗（sonnet） 38部戏剧 17世纪17世纪文学King James I the Holy Scriptures（King James Bible） Francis Bacon Essays 论说文集 The Novum Organum新工具 The New Atlantis新大西岛 John Milton （a master of the blank verse 素体诗）Areopagitica 论出版自由Paradise Lost失乐园Paradise Regained复乐园Samson Agonistes力士参孙 17世纪后期-18世纪中期启蒙时期 The Enlightenment 18世纪初新古典主义 New Classical Jonathan Swift 英国文学史上最伟 大的讽刺散文作家 Gulliver＇s travel格列佛游记（Lilliput小人国→ Brobdingnag大人国→laputa飞岛国→yahoo） Robert Burns Holy Willie＇s prayer 圣威列的祈祷 To a Mouse 致小鼠 To a Louse 致虱子 Comin＇thro＇the Rye穿过麦田 Auld Lang Syne. 友谊地久天长 Daniel Defoe Moll Flanders 摩尔·弗兰德斯 Robinson Crusoe 鲁宾孙漂流记 1798-1832 1785-1830 浪漫主义 The Romantic Period Wordsworth和 Coleridge Lyrical Ballads 抒情歌谣集（浪漫主义时期的 Declaration of Independence ） William Wordsworth The Prelude My Heart Leaps up When I Behold（Daffodils咏水 仙） I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud Samuel Taylor Coleridge Biographia Literaria 文学传记 The Rime of Ancient Mariner古舟子吟 Robert Souther 无 Lord Byron Childe Harold＇s pilgrimage恰尔德·哈罗尔德游记 Don Juan 唐璜

英美文化 (英国部分答案)

(判断题) Chapter 1 1. People in different parts of Britain like to use the name England to refer to their country. (F) 2. The Severn River is the longest river of Britain, which originates in Wales and flows through western England.(T) 3. Today more than half of the people in Wales still speak the ancient Welsh language. (F) 4. In terms of population and area, Northern Ireland is the second largest part of Britain.(F) 5. Although the climate in Britain is generally mild, the temperature in northern Scotland often falls below -10℃ in January . (F) 6. The majority of the people in Britain are descendants of the Anglo-Saxons.(T) 7. The Celtic people were the earliest known inhabitants of Britain.(T) 8. English evolved into what is now described as Modern English from the late 16th century.(F) Chapter 2 1. British history before 55BC is basically undocumented.(T) 2. The Anglo-Saxons came to Britain in the 5th century.(T) 3. The chief or king of the Anglo-Saxons tribes exercised power at their own will. (F) 4. The Vikings began to attack the English coast in the 8th century.(T) 5. HenryⅡ built up a large empire which included England and most of France.(T) 6. The Magna Carta was designed to protect the rights of both the privileged class and the townspeople.(F) 7. The Hundred Years’War (1337-1453) was a series of wars fought between the British and the Vikings for trade and territory.(F) 8. In an effort to make a compromise between different religious factions, Queen ElizabethⅠactually defended the fruit of the Reformation.(T) Chapter 3 1. Conventions are regarded less important than the statutory law in the working of the British government.(T) 2. The British monarchy has never been interrupted throughout the history.(F) 3. In reality, the British King or Queen is the source of all government powers.(F) 4. The British Parliament is the law-making body of the Commonwealth of Nations.(F) 5. The members of the House of Commons are appointed rather than elected.(F) 6. The British Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in Parliament.(T) 7. Cabinet members are chosen by the Prime Minister from various political parties in Parliament.(F) 8. The legal systems in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are much similar in terms of law, organization and practice.(T) Chapter 4 1. British was the first industrialized nation in the world.(T) 2. The British economy experienced a relative decline during the post-war period.(T) 3. Limited resources and high unemployment rate were persistent problems that prevented rapid economic development in Britain after World WarⅡ.(F)

英语国家概况—英国

Part One: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Chapter 1 Land and People Chapter 2 The Origins of a Nation (500BC~AD1066) Chapter 3 The Shape of the Nation (1066~1381) Chapter 4 Transition to the Modern Age (1455~1688) Chapter 5 The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688~1990) Chapter 6 The Economy Chapter 7 Government and Administration Chapter 8 Justice the Law Chapter 9 Social Affairs Chapter 10 Cultural Affairs Chapter 1 Land, People and Language ?1 Different Names for Britain and its Parts The official name of Britain is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.The geographical names are the British Isles, Great Britain and England. People just say Britain, the United Kingdom or simply U.K. ?People England is the largest and most populous, almost a quarter of the people lives in England’s prosperous and fertile southeast, with over 7 million in the capital. The majority of the population are descendants of the Anglo-Saxons, a Germanic people from Europe who went to England between the 5th and 7th centuries.These people settled in England and drove the native Celtic people to the mountainous areas of Wales and Scotland. Their language became the official language of the country. Most people in W ales and Scotland are descendants of the Celtic people who were the earliest known inhabitants of Britain. The Irish people were also of Celtic origin. About a hundred years ago, as a result of its imperialist expansion, Britain ruled an empire that had one fourth of the world’s people and a quarter of the world’s land area. ?Geographical Features There are 3 political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales. The island of Ireland is divided into 2 parts: Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Britain has, for centuries, been slowly tilting with the North-W est slowly rising and the South-East slowly sinking. The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; the east and south-east are mostly lowlands. There are 3 natural zones of Scotland: the Highlands in the north, the central Lowlands, and the southern Uplands.

英语国家概况各单元知识点汇总'

《英语国家概况》 一、课程性质、目的和要求 （一）课程性质 随着社会的进步和科技的高速发展，中外各种交流越来越密切，了解和掌握一些英语国家的文化传统也显得极为重要。英语国家概况是面向英语专业三年一期学生开设的专业必修课程。《英语国家概况》是介绍英语国家社会与文化背景的教科书，旨在帮助英语专业学生和英语自学者了解这些国家的社会与文化概貌，如地理，历史，政治，经济，社会生活和文化传统方面的基本知识。 （二）课程目的 该课程旨在提高英语水平为目的。该课程可以通过课文的学习和各种练习的实践，在教学过程中实行语言教学与文化知识课紧密相结合，以学生为中心，帮助学生能够理解课文，掌握英语，吸取知识，适当的补充对重大事件和人物的历史背景，典故，以提高学生的学习兴趣。课后可以适当布置一些思考题，指导学生进行有效的自学，拓宽他们的知识面。 （三）课程要求 该课程要求学生对英语国家的社会文化背景有一定的了解，能够对中西方社会和文化的差异有一定的理解和认识，正确看待中西方社会文化差异性与多元性。二、教学重点和难点 （一）教学重点 英国部分：英国历史、英国的经济制度和政策、英国的政治制度和政府机构、英国的福利制度。 美国部分：美国地理区域划分及人口结构、美国历史、美国经济特点、美国政治制度中的三权分立。 （二）教学难点 英国部分：英国的经济制度和政策、英国的政治制度和政府机构、英国的福利制度。 美国部分：美国地理区域划分及人口结构、美国经济特点、美国政治制度中的三权分立。

三、教学内容 第一章英国 第一课：英国的国土和人民 教学内容：英国的地理特征，四部分的山水河流，气候状况，英国的各个民族。这一部分主要从整体对大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国作一个综述。了解英国不同名称的含义，英国的地理特征、河流和湖泊、气候的特点以及影响气候的因素，了解英国的民族构成、人口结构及其特点；了解英国的语言构成及阶级状况。 第二课：英国历史 教学内容：英国的起源（1066年诺曼征服之前的历史，即英国早期遭受的三次外族入侵）：诺曼王朝，金雀花王朝，兰开斯特王朝，约克王朝，都铎王朝，斯图亚特王朝，克伦威尔时期的共和国，复辟时期，光荣革命，工业革命，宪章运动，英帝国的殖民扩张，一战及二战中的英国，战后到八十年代末的英国。 第三课：英国的经济制度和政策 教学内容：了解第二次世界大战后英国经济地位衰落的原因，经济发展的三个阶段的特点以及英国工业、农业等发展的概况。二战后，英国的经济政策经历了一系列的调节。从五六十年代的稳步发展，七十年代的经济衰退，到八十年代的撒切尔夫人的经济政策，英国从战前的日不落帝国变成一个二流强国。英国的工业，农业，外贸政策也将予以详细的说明。 第四课：英国的政治制度和政府机构 教学内容：英国君主立宪政体，由上院与下院组成的英国议会，英国的政党制度，中央政府机构以及地方政府机构。英国君主立宪制的构成，运行，英国的政党制度，行政机构等将在这一章予以详细介绍。 第五课：英国的社会福利制度 教学内容：英国社会的医疗保健制度、社会保障、宗教和节假日的概况。英国是一个福利国家，这一章介绍英国国民保健制度，和各种社会保险。 第六课：英国的社会文化 教学内容：介绍英国的社会文化；了解英国的教育制度、传播媒介、体育、艺术的概况。介绍英国的宗教信仰，节日庆典，文化教育，广播媒体，体育，文艺及娱乐活动。 第二章美国

英国国家概况(八)(中英文版)

英国国家概况（八）（中英文版） 第八章 Justice and the law 法律与司法机构 There is no single legal system in the United Kingdom. A feature common to all systems of law in the United Kingdom is that there is no complete code. The sources of law include (1) statutes; (2) a large amount of "unwritten" or common law; (3) equity law; (4) European Community. Another common feature is the distinction made between criminal law and civil law. 联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有以部完整的法典。法典来源包括：（1）成文法；（2）大量的"不成文法" 或习惯法；（3）衡平法；（4）欧共体法。另一个共同的特点是刑法和民法之间的区别。 I．Criminal Proceedings 刑事诉讼程序 1. In England and Wales, once the police have charged a person with a criminal offence, the crown Prosecution Service assumes control of the case reviews the evidence to decide whether to prosecute. 在英格兰和威尔士，一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪，皇家检察总署就要接管此案，并独立地审核证据以决定是否起诉。 2. In Britain all criminal trial are held in open count because the criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt. The prosecution and the defense get equal treatment. No accused person has to answer the question of the police before trial. He is not compelled to give evidence in count. Every accused person has the right to employ a legal adviser to conduct his defense. If he can not afford to pay, he may be granted aid at public expense. In criminal trial by jury, the judge passes sentence, but the jury decided the issue of guilt or innocence. The jury composed of 12 or ordinary people. If the verdict of the jury can not be unanimous, it must be a majority. 在英国，所有的刑事审判都在法院公开进行。因为刑法认为，在消除合理怀疑证明被告有罪之前，他是无辜的。原告与被告同样平等，审判时被告不必回答警察

自考英语国家概况一句话简答题美国、英国部分

1. How does the United States rank among the countries of the world in population and area? The United States of America is the third-largest country in the world in population and the fourth-largest country in area. 人口：印度-中国-美国- 面积：俄罗斯-加拿大-中国-美国-巴西-澳大利亚-印度 2. What are the two major mountain ranges in the United States? They are the Appalachian Highlands 阿巴拉契亚山脉and the Rocky Mountains. 落基山脉 3. What is the Continental Divide, or Great Divide? The Continental Divide, or Great Divide, is an imaginary line that separates streams that flow into the Pacific Ocean from those that flow into the Atlantic. 4. What are the five Great Lakes of the United States? They are Erie, Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and Superior. 5. How many geographical regions can be found in the United States? What are they? There are seven geographical regions in the United States. They are New England, the Middle Atlantic States, the southern States, the Midwestern States, the Rocky Mountain states, the Southwestern States, and the Pacific Coast States and the New States. 6. What states are in New England? New England is made up of six states of the North-East. They are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 7. Apart from Now York City, what other large cites are located in the Middle Atlantic region? Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, and Newark.

英语国家概况

《英语国家概况》教学大纲 一、课程基本信息 课程编码：B170832223 课程类别：专业基础课 课程名称：英语国家概况 课程性质：必修 适用专业：翻译 开课学期：第三学期 总学分：2 总学时：32 先行课程：英语语法、英语口语、英语听力、英汉翻译 课程简介：本课程属于翻译专业教学课程体系中的专业基础课。该课程旨培养学生实际运用语言的能力，帮助学生打下坚实的专业基础，达到专业四级水平；同时培养学生良好学习作风和正确学习方法，培养学生逻辑思维能力和独立工作能力，丰富学生社会文化知识，增强学生对文化差异的敏感性。 推荐教材：王恩铭. 英语国家概况[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2013 参考书目： [1] 来安方. 英美概况[M]. 河南: 河南人民出版社, 2007 [2] 余志远. 英语国家概况主编[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2000 [3] 朱永涛. 英国社会与文化[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2003 二、课程总目标 以《英语国家概况》（王恩铭著）为蓝本。本课程主要是为了使英语专业学生了解主要英语国家的地理、历史、经济、政治等方面的概况，了解主要英语国家的文化传统，风俗习惯和社会生活的其他情况。本课程是一门实用性很强的文化知识课。一方面通过英语阅读主要英语国家的背景材料扩大知识面，另一方面通过学习文化知识进行语言基本功的训练，巩固和提高英语水平。 三、教学指南 课程重点：本课程教学的重点使英语专业学生了解主要英语国家的地理、历史、经济、政治等方面的概况，了解主要英语国家的文化传统，风俗习惯和社会生活的 其他情况。 课程难点：在使学生了解英语国家主要的地理、历史、经济和政治等方面的概况同时，还要培养学生良好学习作风和正确学习方法，培养学生逻辑思维能力和独立 工作能力，丰富学生社会文化知识，增强学生对文化差异的敏感性。 教学方法和手段：讲授+讨论+练习

英语国家概况 英国&澳大利亚部分Terms

Terms 1. Magna Carta Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter", literally "Great Paper"). In 1215, King John was forced by a group of feudal Barons (男爵，贵族) and the church to grant them a charter of liberty and political rights. Magna Carta placed some limits on the king’s ability to abuse his royal power. The Magna Carta is regarded as the foundation of the British Constitutionalism（立宪制度）and it provides the basic principles（基本原则）for the protection of individual rights in both Britain and the United States. 2. The Hundred Years’ War The Hundred Years’War was a series of wars fought between England and France over trade, Territory（领土）, security（安全）and the throne（王权）. The Hundred Years’ War promoted the concept of English Nationalism（民族主义）and the development of the textile industry because it reduced the export of English wool （羊毛）. The war raised the social position of the bourgeois（资产阶级）class. All these factors contributed to the decline of feudalism（封建制度）in England. 3. The Wars of the Roses玫瑰战争 Between 1455 and 1485 a series of battles were fought between the two branches of the Plantagenet family, the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and the House of York, symbolized by the white rose, ended with the failure of the House of York. 4. Black Death Black Death was the modern name given to the deadly（致命的）bubonic plague（黑死病）, an epidemic disease(流行病) spread by rat fleas（鼠疫跳蚤）. It was a fierce and widespread outbreak of plague(瘟疫) that ravaged（毁坏）the whole of Europe in the 14th century. It hit England first in 1349 with subsequent waves between 1360 and 1375 . The plague killed perhaps up to one-third of the British population. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. 5. The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization(机械化) of industry and the consequences in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Britain was the first country to industrialize. The Industrial Revolution in Britain first began in the textile （纺织）industry.

英语国家概况之英国

英语国家概况B （英国）——课程介绍及教学大纲 英语国家概况B （英国） 课程介绍 外语教学不仅要向学生传授语言知识，还应让学生了解目的语国家的文化背景。“英语国家概况”是一门以知识传授为主的课程，其内容所涉及的知识领域繁多复杂，例如地理、历史、经济、政体、教育、艺术、哲学、性格、民俗、宗教等。该课程具体教学目标就是使学生对英语国家的地理风貌、重大历史事件、重要历史文件、政体制度、教育制度、家庭生活、风俗习惯、价值观念等有一个较系统和清楚的了解，并就自己感兴趣的某一领域能够进一步深入研究。该课程教学目的就是开阔学生的视野，扩大知识面，弥补文化背景知识的不足，为大学阶段的外语学习和以后的英语教学工作打下良好的基础。在该课程教学过程中，利用视频、音频、图片等现代化的辅助教学手段，教师不是局限于文化背景知识的传授，同时还注意培养学生的文化意识和英语学习兴趣，进一步扩大学生的英语词汇量，提高跨文化交际能力。 《英语国家概况(B)》教学大纲 一、课程中英文名称 中文名称：英语国家概况(B) 英文名称：A Survey of English-speaking Countries (B) 二、授课对象：英语专业二年级下总学时36 三、本课程与其他课程的联系 先修课程：英语国家概况A、精读C、听力C、泛读C、口语提高 后续课程：精读E、泛读E、视听说E 四、课程教学的目的 一、课程目标 《英语国家概况》是一门介绍英语国家(包括英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰)社会文化综合背景知识的课。目的在于帮助学生了解所学语言国家的背景情况，培养学生的文化意识,帮助学生克服由于缺乏背景知识给语言学习带来的障碍，拓宽知识面。这对进一步提高语言水平，特别是交际能力有重要的指导意义。本学期以英国概况为重点。本科程目的在于帮助学生了解所学语言国家的历史、地理、政治制度、社会生活等方面的背景情况，帮助学生克服由于缺乏背景知识给语言学习带来的障碍，拓宽知识面。这对进一步提高语言水平，特别是交际能力有重要的指导意义。 五、课程教学的主要内容 第一章英国地理、主要城市、社会生活（4学时）

《英语国家概况》- Chapter 1 Land and People

第一章国土与人民 Ⅰ.英国的不同名称及其区域 人们说到英国时常常使用不同的名称:不列颠、大不列颠、英格兰、不列颠群岛、联合王国等。这些名称一样吗?还是有所区别? 严格地讲，不列颠诸岛、大不列颠和英格兰都是地理名称。它们并不是这个国家的正式名称。不列颠诸岛是由两个大岛和几百个小岛组成的。两个大岛是不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛，其中不列颠岛较大，它与爱尔兰岛的北部一北爱尔兰构成联合王国。因此，联合王国的正式国名是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。但一口气说出这么长的国名太费事，因此，人们就说不列颠，联合王国或简单地说UK。这是不列颠岛上的一个国家，首都是伦敦。另外还有一个国家，叫爱尔兰共和国或称爱尔兰，也位于不列颠岛上。它占据了爱尔兰岛的其余部分，在岛的南部。1949年始爱尔兰独立，首都是都柏林。 大不列颠岛上有三个政治区:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。英格兰面积最大、人口最多，一般说来也最富裕。因此人们常用英格兰指代英国，用英格兰人指代英国人。这有时令苏格兰人和威尔士人不快，他们不认为自己是"英格兰人"，他们有自己的文化，甚至有自己的语言。 英国一直是世界上最重要的国家之一。约一百年前，由于推行帝国主义扩张政策，英国成为一个帝国，这个帝国占有世界上四分之一的人口，四分之一的面积。它不仅在北美，而且在亚洲、非洲和澳洲都有殖民地。但是两次世界大战大大削弱了英国，英国殖民地接二连三独立，大英帝国逐渐消失，1931年由英联邦所取代。 英联邦是一个自由联合体，由曾经是英国殖民地变为现已独立的国家构成。成员国之间实行经济合作，有一定的贸易协议。英联邦没有特别的权力，是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定。目前( 1991年) ，英联邦有50个成员国。 Ⅱ.英国的地理特征 英国是个岛国，四周是海。它位于欧洲北海岸附近的北大西洋中。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海把英国与欧洲的其他部分隔开。英法之间的英吉利海峡很狭窄，最狭窄的地方叫多佛尔海峡，只有33公里宽。1985年，英法两国政府决定在多佛尔海峡底修建一个隧道，把两个国家连接起来。经过八年的奋斗，这条名为"查诺尔"的海底隧道于1994年5月通车。英国的面积为244，100 平方公里。南北长1000公里，东西最宽阔的地方约为500公里。因此英国的任何地方离海边都不远，海岸资源丰富。英国海岸线很长且拥有优良的深水港。海上通道延伸到内陆，提供了低廉的运输。 几个世纪以来，英国一直在缓慢地倾斜。西北部缓慢上升，东南部缓慢下沉。英国的北部与西部主要是山地。这种上升在苏格兰西部形成了突起的海滩――山的平地。这种海滩提供了主要的农田、定居点、工业区及通道。东部及东南部主要是低地，是"欧洲大平原"的一部分，有着平坦的土地及肥沃的土壤。尤其是南部及英格兰东海岸有许多良田。 在冰川时代，英国覆盖着大冰块，导致英国壮观的山景，尤其是斯诺多尼亚、湖泊区及苏格兰山地，因此英国拥有平顶的山脉、瀑布流经的山谷、带状湖、平坦的谷底、陡峭的谷倒、冰砾土及沃土。 1.英格兰 英格兰占了大不列颠岛南部的绝大部分面积。英格兰西面是威尔士，北面是苏格兰。面积为130，000平方公里，占整个岛的60%。除了塞汶河谷及柴郡――兰开郡平原(中心为利物浦)外，其西南部和西部主要是高原，也有起伏的平原、丘陵地及少数沼泽地，但主要是高原。从北中部延伸至苏格兰边境的奔宁山脉是主要山脉。但英格兰的最高峰斯加非尔峰(978米)却位于西北部的湖泊区。英格兰东部主要是开阔的可耕种平原，此平原的海岸沼泽地和奔宁山脉之间变成一条狭窄的走廊(约克谷)，在诺桑伯兰郡则变成很窄的海岸带。