Analysis and laboratory simulation of an industrial polishing process for porcelain ceramic tiles

Journal of the European Ceramic Society25(2005)

3151–3156

Analysis and laboratory simulation of an industrial polishing

process for porcelain ceramic tiles

I.M.Hutchings a,?,K.Adachi a,Y.Xu a,E.S′a nchez b,M.J.Ib′a?n ez b,M.F.Quereda b

a Department of Engineering,Institute for Manufacturing,University of Cambridge,Mill Lane,Cambridge CB21RX,UK

b Instituto de Tecnolog′?a Cer′a mica,Universitat Jaume I,Castell′o n,Spain

Received18May2004;received in revised form2July2004;accepted10July2004

Available online11September2004

Abstract

This paper reports the design and initial tests of a laboratory-scale tribometer to simulate the development of surface?nish(roughness and optical gloss)in the industrial polishing process for porcelain ceramic tiles.The mechanical conditions in a typical industrial polishing process have been analysed and the results used to de?ne the conditions to be reproduced in a laboratory simulation.The tribometer allows the relative sliding speed and contact pressure between the abrasive tool and the tile to be controlled.Measurements can be made of changes in roughness and gloss,as well as of the rate of material removal from the tile and from the tool.The evolution of surface roughness and optical gloss of porcelain ceramic tiles has been studied,with a succession of different abrasive tools.These results have been compared with data gathered from an industrial polishing line with a similar sequence of abrasive sizes,and show that the tribometer reproduces the important features of the process well.Surface roughness and gloss are two important variables to assess the?nal tile properties and also represent the most useful measures of quality at different stages in the evolution of the?nal polished surface.

?2004Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords:Ceramic;Vitreous ceramic;Tile;Polishing

1.Introduction

Highly polished,unglazed porcelain ceramic tiles are be-ing increasingly used in high-speci?cation architectural ap-plications as they show excellent performance,including good mechanical strength and chemical,stain and frost re-sistance,as well as aesthetic advantages over glazed ceramic tiles.1Polishing forms the?nal operation during manufac-turing,following surface planing and?attening,and more than40%of the total cost of the product is attributable to the grinding and polishing process.Typical commercial speci?-cations require a?nal surface gloss level of65–70%.Current industrial polishing processes are considered to be inef?cient, with unnecessarily high wear of the grinding/polishing tools, high energy consumption,the production of large amounts of polishing waste,excessive numbers of rejected products ?Corresponding author.Tel.:+441223765217;fax:+441223766142.

E-mail address:imh2@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/005355498.html,(I.M.Hutchings).and poor control of product quality.Typically0.5to0.6kg of cement-matrix polishing tool material is consumed per square metre of?nal polished product.There are thus clear opportunities to reduce the cost and improve the quality of the?nal product,through improved understanding of the pol-ishing process.Previous studies of tile polishing have been carried out on an industrial scale,with the disadvantage of limited control of the test conditions,2–5or with a manually-controlled polishing machine with poor control of applied load.6,7Studies have also been made of the related prob-lem of the polishing of natural stone,such as granite.8Apart from this earlier work,the optimisation of the polishing pro-cess has received little scienti?c attention.In order to develop our understanding of the polishing process further,there is a need for well-controlled experiments on a laboratory scale, in which the effects of the process variables can be carefully studied.

In the present work,a typical industrial polishing process for porcelain ceramic tiles was analysed to determine the

0955-2219/$–see front matter?2004Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2004.07.005

3152I.M.Hutchings et al./Journal of the European Ceramic Society25(2005)3151–3156

conditions to which both the tiles and the abrasive materi-als are exposed,and information from this study was then used to design a laboratory-scale polishing rig(tribometer), which could be used to investigate the polishing mechanisms and polishing rates.Pro?lometry and optical gloss measure-ments were the main tools used to study the evolution of the quality of the polished tile surfaces.The experimental results from the laboratory rig were then compared with data gath-ered from an industrial polishing line in order to validate the laboratory-scale simulation.

2.Analysis of a typical industrial polishing process

for ceramic tiles

The information used in the following discussion was ob-tained from various industrial sources in Spain and Italy,and is considered to be typical of current European practice.

After initial?attening and rough grinding to correct the gross form and thickness of the product,often with diamond-impregnated?xed-abrasive tools,tiles are polished in a se-quence of stages,most commonly with silicon carbide abra-sive particles(ca.10wt.%)embedded in composite blocks formed with a magnesium oxychloride cement matrix.2The abrasive particle size in the composite is gradually reduced from each polishing stage to the next,progressing from an initial size of several hundred micrometres to a?nal size of a few micrometres,sometimes over more than20stages.A ?nal,high quality polished tile surface typically has a sur-face roughness Ra of about0.1to0.2?m and optical gloss (measured at an angle of incidenceβof60?)up to about80%.

Fig.1shows schematically the operation of a typical grind-ing tool in which six approximately rectangular composite blocks attached to a rotating head are pressed downwards against the tile surface.A swinging motion of each abra-sive block is achieved by a mechanism inside the head.This swinging motion distributes the wear over a cylindrical sur-face on the block(with radius R indicated in Fig.1b),and ensures that the local contact between the block and the tile occurs over a narrow strip along the surface of the block.The contact area is?ooded with water,which removes heat and also?ushes away the wear debris from both the block and the tile.The tool typically rotates about a vertical axis at a speed of450rpm(giving a mean peripheral speed of the blocks of ca.8m s?1)while the tiles move linearly on a conveyor belt at a much slower speed(typically75mm s?1)beneath the ro-tating tool.A normal load of200N is applied to each abrasive block,and the cylindrical radius R of the block surface(i.e. the radius of the swinging action)decreases from130mm (for a fresh block)to about72mm due to wear of the block during the polishing process.

During the industrial process,the contact length(in the direction of relative motion)between the abrasive block and the ceramic tile changes with the sliding time,and so does the contact pressure as wear causes the radius of the block surface to decrease.If,as a?rst approximation,it is assumed that

the Fig.1.Schematic diagrams of typical industrial polishing process:(a)a rotating head carries six abrasive blocks and the tiles are transported slowly beneath the head and(b)detail of a single abrasive block,which oscillates in a small arc with radius R about a horizontal axis while the whole polishing head rotates about a vertical axis.

contact between the block and the tile is elastic,then these two parameters can be estimated from the standard Hertz equations for elastic contact between isotropic bodies.The contact length2b(as de?ned in Fig.1b)is given by:

b2=4PR

πE (1)

where

1

E

=1?ν

2

1

E1

+1?ν

2

2

E2(2) Here P=W/L,where W is the applied load and L is the length of the abrasive block;R is the radius of curvature of the abrasive block;andν1,E1,ν2and E2are Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus respectively of the abrasive block and ceramic tile.The maximum contact pressure p is given by:

p=2P

πb(3) Fig.2shows the change in contact length2b(according to Eq.(1))and contact pressure p(from Eq.(3))during the polishing process as a function of the radius R of the abrasive block.The broken vertical lines show the upper and lower limits of radius corresponding to the values for a fresh block and a fully worn block.As the radius of the abrasive block decreases from130to72mm due to wear,the contact pres-sure increases from10to15MPa,and the contact length decreases from0.2to0.15mm.These values,based on an elastic deformation model,should be treated as minimum values for contact length,and hence maximum values for pressure,since wear of the abrasive block occurring during

I.M.Hutchings et al./Journal of the European Ceramic Society 25(2005)3151–3156

3153

Fig.2.Change in elastic contact pressure and contact length 2b (as de?ned in Fig.1b)during the industrial polishing process,as a function of the radius of curvature R of the abrasive block.

the sliding process will tend to increase the contact length and so decrease the pressure.

Other relevant parameters can also be calculated from the geometry and information on polishing conditions shown in Fig.1.The polishing action experienced by the tile will be different at different distances from the centre-line of the pol-ishing head.Fig.3shows the total sliding distance (based on the estimate of b derived above)and the corresponding num-ber of block-tile contact cycles experienced by the different regions of a tile as it passes under the polishing head,as a function of lateral position relative to the centre-line.The maximum and minimum numbers of contact cycles which regions of the tile experience during the polishing process,for the conditions assumed here,are 250and 130.The total sliding distance experienced by the blocks can also be calcu-lated.Fig.4shows the sliding distance (relative to the tile)of each point along the contact line on the abrasive block,as a function of radial position relative to the axis of rotation of the block,although the motion is distributed over the whole cylindrical surface of the block generated by the swinging motion.The range is from about 20to 45m for the

passage

Fig.3.The number of contact cycles and sliding distance experienced by points on a ceramic tile in the industrial process,as a function of position relative to the centre-line of the

tile.

Fig.4.Sliding distance on abrasive block as a function of distance from the inner end of the block.

of a single tile under the polishing head.The sliding histories of different regions of both the abrasive block and the ceramic tile cannot be described simply.The operating conditions in a typical industrial polishing line,derived from this analysis,are summarised in Table 1.

In order to simulate the essential features of this process on a laboratory scale,it is desirable to replicate the contact conditions and relative motion,and also preferable to use comparatively simple specimens.However,in reducing the size scale of the process it is not possible to reproduce its complexity and the values of all the operating parameters correctly.It was assumed that the contact loading between the abrasive block and the tile,and the total sliding distance of each relative to the other,are the most important parameters which affect the removal of material from both the block and the tile,and also the ?nal surface quality of the tile.

3.Design of the laboratory test rig (tribometer)The laboratory tribometer was designed to reproduce,as far as possible,the important features of the industrial condi-tions listed in Table 1.An automatic metallographic polishing machine with sample drive head (Struers Ltd.,RotoForce 3and RotoPol 35)was adapted for this purpose.Abrasive pins

Table 1

Summary of approximate operating conditions in the industrial polishing process

Contact conditions

Line load on abrasive block (N mm ?1)

1.7Contact pressure (MPa)

10–15Elastic contact length in direction of sliding (mm)

0.2Ceramic tile

Number of interactions with block (cycles)

130–250Relative sliding distance at each point on tile (mm)

30–50Abrasive block

Sliding distance (m per tile)

20–45

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Fig.5.Schematic diagram showing the motion of the tile sample and abra-sive pin in the laboratory test rig(tribometer).

(made from the same material as the industrial blocks)were

mounted in the upper,rotating metallographic sample holder,

and square tile pieces were mounted on the lower,rotating

disc normally used for the polishing cloth.Fig.5shows a

schematic diagram of the relative positions and motion of the

abrasive pin and tile sample in this test.

The cylindrical abrasive pins were12mm in diameter and

10mm long,and commercial porcelain ceramic tiles were

cut into samples100mm square.The pins and tile samples

were?rmly held in specially designed holders,which?tted

into the polishing machine.A single abrasive pin was used

in each test,mounted with its axis parallel to the plane of the

tile,rotating about a vertical axis in the motorized head of

the tribometer with angular velocityω2as shown in Fig.5,

and pressed against the tile surface under a pneumatically-

controlled normal load.The tile sample,?xed to the lower

disc,also rotates about a vertical axis,with angular velocity ω1.By adjusting the operating conditions of the tribometer (the normal load and the rotational speeds of the abrasive

pin and tile),the important features of the relative motion

between the abrasive block and ceramic tile were replicated.

The standard conditions used in the experiments are listed

in Table2.The normal load on the abrasive pin(17N on a

pin10mm long)was selected to produce the same load per

unit distance along the pin(1.7N mm?1)as in the industrial

process.The main source of the relative motion between the

abrasive material and the tile(corresponding to the rotation

of the polishing head in the industrial process)was the rota-

tion of the tile.For the rotational speed used in the laboratory

experiments,the typical polishing history to which a tile is

exposed in a single polishing stage in the industrial process

Table2

Polishing conditions used in the laboratory tests

Line load(N mm?1) 1.7(=17N/10mm) Rotational speed of tile specimen(rpm)300(ω1=10πs?1) Rotational speed of abrasive pin(rpm)150(ω2=5πs?1) Outer radius of wear scar r1(mm)33

Inner radius of wear scar r2(mm)23

Outer edge speed of abrasive pin(m s?1)0.96

Inner edge speed of abrasive pin(m s?1)0.80

Average speed of abrasive pin(m s?1)0.88(130to250passes of the polishing block)is achieved in a period of26to50s.The rotation of the abrasive pin was in-troduced to achieve a relatively even distribution of abrasive particle contacts across the annular polished track on the tile during a polishing experiment.This was found to be neces-sary since for the small contact area on the pin,only a small number of individual abrasive particles were exposed and ac-tive at any one time.The speed of the abrasive pin relative to the tile surface inevitably varied slightly across the wear track,between0.96and0.80m s?1,but this did not cause any signi?cant difference of the polishing effect on the tile surface.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/005355498.html,boratory polishing tests

4.1.Materials,experimental method and procedure

Standard SiC composite abrasive pins were produced with speci?cations conforming to normal industrial practice by Abrasivos de Castell′o n,Castell′o n,Spain,in small moulds by the same process,and from the same cement-based compos-ite material,as the much larger industrial blocks.A single cylindrical abrasive pin was used in each test.

The tile samples were cut from a single batch of stan-dard porcelain tiles supplied by Instituto de Tecnolog′?a Cer′a mica,Castell′o n,Spain.These tiles had been?red at 1210?C and had a microstructure consisting of a glassy matrix with composition SiO2–Al2O3–(Na,K)2O,undis-solved quartz,and mullite,in approximate proportions 55wt.%:35wt.%:10wt.%.Fig.6shows an SEM image of the typical microstructure revealed on a fracture surface af-ter acid etching.The tiles had a bulk density of2.40g cm?3, Vickers hardness of5.7±0.1GPa,Young’s modulus of68±3GPa and fracture toughness of1.50±0.02MPa m1/2.

Surface roughness Ra and gloss G were measured with a stylus pro?lometer(Taylor Hobson Talysurf10)and opti-cal glossmeter(Rhopoint Novo-curve,60?measuring angle) at four evenly spaced positions around the annular polishing track after each test to evaluate the polished surface quality. Each value quoted is the mean of the four measurements. Variability in the results associated with the tile and pin ma-terials,experimental procedure and measurement methods was small,typically amounting to about5%of the measured value for both roughness and gloss.

A test sequence was performed to simulate as closely as possible on a laboratory scale the development of the tile surface in an industrial polishing line.A single sample of ce-ramic tile was polished in sequence by abrasive pins with the full range of grit sizes available,from the largest grit number (36)to the smallest grit number(1500).The grit numbers describe the abrasive particle size using the standard FEPA designation and the sequence employed was:36,46,60,80, 100,120,150,180,240,320,400,600,1000,and1500.

Before polishing,the tile surface was initially abraded with a diamond-impregnated?xed-abrasive wheel(Struers

I.M.Hutchings et al./Journal of the European Ceramic Society25(2005)3151–3156

3155

Fig.6.SEM image of a fracture surface after acid etching,showing the typical microstructure of the tile body.Letters indicate the glassy matrix(V),undissolved quartz(Q)and mullite crystals(M).

Ltd.,250?m particle size)in order to obtain a?at rough ini-tial surface.This surface had a mean roughness Ra of1.2±0.1?m,and a very low gloss value G of2.8±0.2%.

All abrasion tests were performed under the conditions shown in Table2,with the contact region?ooded with co-pious supplies of tap water.The tile was polished under the standard conditions with each abrasive pin for15s,then for a further15s and then for a further30s.After each increment of polishing,i.e.for a total of15,30and60s exposure to each size of abrasive,the surface roughness Ra and gloss G of the tile surface were measured as described above.The polishing steps were then repeated with the next smaller size of abrasive.For the?nest size(grit number1500)ad-ditional tests were performed to total polishing times of180 and300s.

4.2.Experimental results

Fig.7shows the roughness and gloss of the tile surface after each polishing step for each abrasive sample.For each grit size there are three points plotted,corresponding to the data after15,30and60s exposure to each abrasive pin.The data for the?nal,1500grit size are an exception to this;?ve data points are shown,corresponding to15,30,60,180and 300s total polishing time with this abrasive.

The results show a clear trend of decreasing surface rough-ness and increasing gloss as the polishing process proceeded from large abrasives to small abrasives.These trends are much greater than the relevant measurement errors.For each grit size,the surface quality depended on the polishing time, with longer polishing times being bene?cial,especially for the smallest abrasive grits(numbers600,1000and1500).

For Fig.7.Surface roughness Ra and gloss G of the tile surface as a function of grit number of abrasive pin for the full sequence of polishing steps(described in the text)in the laboratory tests.

the larger abrasive particles(smaller grit numbers)however, the effect of extending the polishing time from30to60s was not great.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/005355498.html,parison of data between the laboratory polishing test and industrial polishing line

In order to validate the experiments performed with the laboratory rig,values of gloss were measured on tile samples taken from an operating industrial polishing line.The line was stopped to enable tiles to be withdrawn at a number of points. The abrasive particle sizes used in the line ranged in mesh number from36to1800.As there were some duplicated or even triplicated polishing heads in the line operating with the

3156I.M.Hutchings et al./Journal of the European Ceramic Society25(2005)

3151–3156

Fig.8.Gloss values for samples withdrawn from the industrial polishing line after polishing with the grit size shown.

same size of abrasive,the data for some samples may relate to different polishing times.

Fig.8shows the gloss values measured on the samples from the industrial polishing line;surface gloss is a more im-portant and sensitive parameter than the surface roughness in the evaluation of surface quality in the later polishing stages. It can be seen that the evolution of the tile surface in the indus-trial polishing line is very similar to that of the tile specimens polished by the laboratory tribometer,leading to similar val-ues of?nal gloss(78%for the industrial process and72%for the laboratory sequence).

For both the polishing sequences,the process can be di-vided into two periods.For abrasive grit numbers below400 (https://www.sodocs.net/doc/005355498.html,rger grit particles),there was little apparent improve-ment in gloss although the roughness was reduced substan-tially.The smaller abrasives,with grit numbers above400, had a signi?cant effect on the gloss but the corresponding change in roughness was small.The?nal values of rough-ness and of gloss will tend to be limited by the porosity of the tile material,typically5–8%by volume in such porcelain ceramics.5,9

The surfaces polished industrially had a somewhat higher ?nal gloss than the surfaces polished in the laboratory.The values for the tiles from the industrial line showed some scat-ter at certain grit numbers,e.g.600and800,since these values were measured from tile samples which had been polished for different times.These results are consistent with those in Fig.7and show that polishing time is a very important factor in improving gloss,for the smaller grit particles.The differences in?nal gloss values between the two polishing se-quences can be accounted for by the differences in polishing times and also in the abrasive size used in the?nal stages.

Further tests with the laboratory rig are planned to study the evolution of surface quality in more detail,with the aim of modelling and optimising the overall polishing sequence; the apparatus can also be used to study the relative wear rates of both the tile and the abrasive pin,in order to optimise the ef?ciency of the polishing process.

6.Conclusions

Conditions in an industrial polishing line have been analysed and found to be complex;the histories of different regions of the tile differ signi?cantly,as do the histories of different regions of the polishing blocks.Essential features of the process can be quanti?ed and used to design a laboratory-scale polishing rig(tribometer).Preliminary tests with the tribometer have shown that the?nal polished surface quality (in terms of optical gloss and roughness)and its evolution were comparable with those observed in an industrial polish-ing line.Both the industrial polishing trials and laboratory testing showed little effect of polishing on gloss for the larger abrasive particles(grit numbers below400),but a major effect for the smaller particles(grit numbers above400). Acknowledgement

The work was supported by the European Commission under Framework V,Competitive and Sustainable Growth Programme,Project number CRAFT-1999-70904,contract number GIST-CT-2002-50190.

References

1.S′a nchez,E.,Technical considerations on porcelain tile products and

their manufacturing:Part I.Interceram.,2003,52,6–14(and Part II.

Interceram.,2003,52,132–139).

2.S′a nchez,E.,Garcia-Ten,J.,Ibanez,M.J.,Orts,M.J.,Cantavella,V.,

Sanchez,J.et al.,Polishing porcelain tile.Part1:wear mechanism.

Am.Ceram.Soc.Bull.,2002,81(9),50–54.

3.S′a nchez,E.,Garcia-Ten,J.,Ibanez,M.J.,Orts,M.J.,Cantavella,

V.,Portoles,J.et al.,Polishing porcelain tile.Part2:in?uence of microstructure and microhardness.Am.Ceram.Soc.Bull.,2002,81(12), 57–61.

4.Orts,M.J.,S′a nchez,E.,Garcia-Ten,J.,Ibanez,M.J.,S′a nchez,J.,

Soler,C.et al.,Porcelain tile behaviour during polishing.Bol.de la Soc.Esp.de Ceramica y Vidrio.,2001,40,447–455.

5.Esposito,L.and Tucci,A.,Porcelain stone ceramic tile surfaces.Am.

Ceram.Soc.Bull.,2000,79(5),59–63.

6.Wang,C.Y.,Wei,X.and Yuan,H.,Polishing of ceramic tiles.Mater.

Manufact.Process.,2002,17(3),401–413.

7.Wang,C.Y.,Kuang,T.C.,Qin,Z.and Wei,X.,How abrasive machin-

ing affects surface characteristics of vitreous ceramic tile.Am.Ceram.

Soc.Bull.,2003,82(10),9201–9208.

8.Xu,X.P.,Huang,H.,Gao,Y.and Hu,H.J.,Processes for the gener-

ation of glossiness on ground granites and ceramics.Key Eng.Mater., 2003,238-2,99–104.

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高考文科数学模拟试卷 一、选择题：本大题共10小题，每小题5分，共50分．在每小题给出的四个选项中，只有一项是符合题目要求的． 1．已知复数z满足（2﹣i）2?z=1，则z的虚部为（） A．B．C．D． 2．已知集合A={x|x2=a}，B={﹣1，0，1}，则a=1是A?B的（） A．充分不必要条件B．必要不充分条 C．充要条件D．既不充分也不必要条件 3．设单位向量的夹角为120°，，则|=（） A．3 B． C．7 D． 4．已知等差数列{a n}满足a6+a10=20，则下列选项错误的是（） A．S15=150 B．a8=10 C．a16=20 D．a4+a12=20 5．一几何体的三视图如图所示，则该几何体的体积为（） A．B．C．4﹣πD． 6．双曲线=1的顶点到其渐近线的距离为（） A． B．C． D． 7．周期为4的奇函数f（x）在[0，2]上的解析式为f（x）=，则 f（2014）+f（2015）=（） A．0 B．1 C．2 D．3

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