Large-Scale Photonic Integrated Circuits
Large-Scale Photonic Integrated Circuits
Radhakrishnan Nagarajan ,Senior Member,IEEE ,Charles H.Joyner ,Member,IEEE ,Richard P.Schneider,Jr.,Jeffrey S.Bostak ,Member,IEEE ,Timothy Butrie,Andrew G.Dentai ,Fellow,IEEE ,Vincent G.Dominic,Peter W.Evans,Masaki Kato,Mike Kauffman,Damien https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,mbert,Sheila K.Mathis,Atul Mathur,Richard https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,es,Matthew L.Mitchell,Mark J.Missey,Sanjeev Murthy,Alan C.Nilsson,Frank H.Peters,Stephen C.Pennypacker,Jacco L.Pleumeekers,Randal A.Salvatore ,Member,IEEE ,Rory K.Schlenker,
Robert B.Taylor,Huan-Shang Tsai,Michael F.Van Leeuwen,Jonas Webjorn,Mehrdad Ziari,Drew Perkins,Jagdeep Singh,Stephen G.Grubb,Michael S.Ref?e,David G.Mehuys ,Member,IEEE ,
Fred A.Kish ,Senior Member,IEEE ,and David F.Welch ,Senior Member,IEEE
Abstract—In this paper,100-Gb/s dense wavelength division multiplexed (DWDM)transmitter and receiver photonic in-tegrated circuits (PICs)are demonstrated.The transmitter is realized through the integration of over 50discrete functions onto a single monolithic InP chip.The resultant DWDM PICs are capable of simultaneously transmitting and receiving ten wave-lengths at 10Gb/s on a DWDM wavelength grid.Optical system performance results across a representative DWDM long-haul link are presented for a next-generation optical transport system using these large-scale PICs.The large-scale PIC enables signi?cant reductions in cost,packaging complexity,size,?ber coupling,and power consumption.
Index Terms—Integrated optoelectronics,optical ?ber commu-nication,optical receivers,optical transmitters.
I.I NTRODUCTION
T
HE EXPLOSIVE “Moore’s Law”growth of integrated electronics [1],along with the similarly explosive growth of the Internet,has contributed to growing demand for commu-nications networks offering greater bandwidth and ?exibility at lower cost.Monolithic InP-based photonic integrated circuits (PICs),if able to provide suf?cient functionality,performance,and cost reduction,offer compelling solutions for such net-works,while also providing the same inherent scalability that has bene?ted Si-based integrated electronics.However,since the early proposals for photonic integration [2]–[5],progress in InP PIC technology has been relatively slow.Today,large-scale PICs (LS-PICs)with high levels of integration
(50components/chip)remain con?ned to the laboratory.There are myriad reasons for this slow rate of maturity.Numerous technological barriers associated with InP semiconductor pro-cessing have been one of the strongest inhibitors—including dif?culty in achieving the requisite process uniformity and reproducibility—on a manufacturing scale—in such processes as epitaxy,lithography,dry etching,etc.Additionally,mono-lithically integrating numerous devices and functions,while at the same time minimizing process complexity,has proven challenging from a design standpoint,due to requirements associated with active/active and active/passive transitions,electrical and optical isolation,compromises in discrete device
Manuscript received July 23,2004;revised November 30,2004.
The authors are with In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA 94089USA (e-mail:fkish@in?https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,).
Digital Object Identi?er 10.1109/JSTQE.2004.841721
performance,etc.As a result,early versions of LS-PICs,even if successful in demonstrating useful functionality,have fallen short in demonstrating the levels of performance and manu-facturability necessary to achieve commercial viability.It is also interesting to note that “industry pull”may have played a role in this slow development path,particularly in the past 10years.Since all-optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)networks based on Erbium doped ?ber ampli?er (EDFA)technology rose to prominence in the 1990s,meeting the demands of telecommunications bandwidth while in effect circumventing the need for optical-electronic-optical (OEO)conversion,the motivation for commercial development of large scale photonic integration that would enable such ap-proaches was somewhat dampened.
In this paper,we report the design and operating characteristics of the ?rst commercially deployed monolithic large-scale PICs providingtransmitandreceivefunctions.TheseLS-PICswerede-velopedtobeconsistentwiththefunctionality,cost,andreliability requirements of a new telecommunications network architecture termeda“digitalopticalnetwork”whereinOEOregenerationand add–drop functionality can be drastically increased throughout the network due to the cost reduction enabled by the integration of ten transmitter channels and ten receiver channels onto pho-tonic integrated circuits.The transmitter (TX)PIC includes over 50discrete functions integrated monolithically on a single chip,spread over ten channels with an aggregate data capacity of 100Gb/s.The monolithic receiver (RX)PIC supports a similar aggre-gate data rate of 100Gb/s—the ?rst time a matched TX/RX pair operating at this data rate has been produced.The chips are man-ufactured on InP substrates,leveraging many of the advances in III-V semiconductor processes manufacturing that have arisen in the past decade.This level of integration is more than an order of magnitude greater than previously demonstrated in a commercial system,and thus represents a signi?cant milestone in PIC devel-opment.
II.P ROGRESSION OF P HOTONIC I NTEGRATED
C IRCUIT
D EVELOPMENT
Recent concurrent trends suggest that the timing may be right for commercial development of LS-PICs,both from the perspective of technological capability and market receptive-ness.Steady progress in the InP components ?eld in the last 10years has led to improved InP process capability,which has
1077-260X/$20.00?2005IEEE
contributed to not only signi ?cant progress in the performance and commercial availability of discrete devices,but also the commercial introduction of the ?rst InP-based PICs,with 2–4integrated functions.Such progress has helped to lay the groundwork for a LS-PIC technology meeting increasingly aggressive cost requirements,as will be further described in this paper.Additionally,it is increasingly clear that the economics of current WDM networks are optimal only for maximum capacity and reach,and do not scale well to new demands for greater ?exibility (e.g.,add –drop functionality).As a result,industry acceptance for complex LS-PICs as the enabling foundation technology in new OEO-based telecommunications schemes may prove stronger in the future.
Improvements in InP fabrication/process capability have progressed on multiple fronts,and have had profound impact on technological capability.InP substrate quality has improved consistently over the past 20years,and now conductive sub-strates are available to 4inch diameters with dislocation etch pit densities (EPD)of less that 500cm ,rivaling GaAs.Fe-doped semi-insulating substrates have also improved;boules grown using the vertical gradient freeze (VGF)technique and ex-hibiting EPDs of less than 5000cm have become recently available.Manufacturers are also now reporting availability of substrates up to 6in in diameter.Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE)equipment has undergone an even more dramatic revolution.The current generation of manu-facturing-capable multiple wafer MOVPE reactors became available in the early 1990s,and with re ?nements since then,are now capable of consistently producing wavelength unifor-mities
of
nm or better,thickness uniformities of better
than 2%,and defect (particle)densities approaching 1cm ,on 3-and 4-in InP substrates.These levels of demonstrated performance,along with concurrent improvements in system reliability and increasing use of statistical process control methodologies,have been essential to enabling manufacture of progressively more complex photonic integrated circuits by ensuring a consistent materials baseline from which to build.Developments in the dry etching ?eld,in particular in the areas of improved sidewall roughness and cross-section targeting,have also contributed to overall improvement in InP process capability.Relevant etching techniques include reactive ion etching (RIE),and its more versatile variants:electron cyclotron resonance (ECR)and inductively coupled plasma (ICP)etching,which employ high-density plasmas to achieve high etch rates with good uniformity and reduced damage.Other areas in which improvement has made signi ?cant impact on overall InP process capability includes ?ne-line lithography and interconnect metallization.
Improved InP process capability has led directly to commer-cial impact with the growing deployment of the ?rst photonic integrated circuits in the optical transport network.The simplest photonic integrated devices are spot size converter (SSC)inte-grated lasers [6].Electroabsorption modulated lasers (EMLs),consisting of a continuous-wave (CW)DFB or DBR laser integrated with a passive transition element and an electroab-sorption modulator (EAM)to provide modulation bandwidths in excess of 10Gb/s,were introduced more than a decade ago [7],[8].The communication data rate possible using the EML exceeds that possible using commercially available directly modulated lasers (DMLs)for long-reach and intermediate reach telecommunications applications [including dense WDM (DWDM)applications].Commercial tunable lasers,to address sparing and emerging optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM)applications,have taken advantage of integration techniques in a variety of ways.The tunable sampled grating (SG)DBR laser represents one such approach [9],[10],employing a four-section DBR laser with integrated gain,phase,and two tunable grating sections.More recently,single channel DBR and SG-DBR lasers have been integrated with EAMs to provide a tunable 10Gb/s EML [11],[12]and a single-channel tunable SG-DBR laser with integrated SOA has also been developed [13].Both of these innovations have resulted in an increase in PIC complexity (in terms of functions/chip)by 2–4times.Another example of a commercially available PIC developed to address the tunable laser market is the wavelength selectable laser array [14].This device employs multiple laser (DFB)channels that are combined to a single output,so provide no increase in functionality despite a somewhat more complex integration scheme.All of these small-scale PICs meet the per-formance,cost and reliability requirements for deployment in the telecommunications network.However,their functionality remains limited with the relatively low level of integration
(5integrated functions/chip),and as such they cannot address more complex system needs,such as full-scale OEO conversion in a DWDM system.Higher levels of integration (up to 12in-dependently addressable channels)have been achieved in data communication using parallel optical arrays of GaAs-based vertical cavity surface emitting lasers operating at 10Gb/s [15],[16].However,such devices are currently limited to short-reach applications and cannot provide for sophisticated functions such as OEO conversion.
More complex PICs have been demonstrated in the laboratory,and while this work has not yet proven commercially viable,it has proven crucial in furthering the groundwork for commercial LS-PICs.Multiple wavelength EMLs [17],[18]include an array of DFBs integrated with a multimode interference (MMI)combiner into a single output channel,followed by an SOA and an EAM.Aside from the discrete wavelength steps between channels in the array,continuous wavelength tuning of the entire array is possible using a thermoelectric cooler (TEC).Arrayed waveguide grating(AWG)[also known asa phasedarray grating (PHASAR)]technology [19]enables more complex frequency-selective integration schemes,and such functionality may be indispensable to LS-PIC design.Demonstrations of AWG integration into transmitter and receiver PICs include multiplexed laser sources [20]–[22]and demultiplexing receiver PICs [23]–[26].In the latter demonstrations,the AWG is used to demultiplex from a multiwavelength input,into a multiple element array of photodetectors,for channel-level detection.Other uses of AWGs in more complex PIC ’s include a lossless 16-channel wavelength selector,making use of
two AWGs in series with an array of SOAs [27],a
2
2optical cross-connect using four AWGs in a single chip with Mach –Zehnder Interferometers (MZIs)[28],and a multichannel modulation circuit employing eight channels of SOAs and EAMs with a single AWG with 25-GHz spacing [29].
While crucial in establishing a technological foundation from which to build,these examples provide neither the requisite functionality nor the demonstrated performance and yield/man-ufacturability upon which to base commercial DWDM carrier network architectures.These failures have several origins.For one,much of the PIC research described in the literature is not closely coupled to a network systems development.As a result,critical functionality required for commercial network operation is missing.Moreover,academic R&D is by nature focused on early-stage demonstration,while largely neglecting manufac-turability and reliability concerns that are of principal impor-tance to enabling commercial network deployment of LS-PICs.That InP device and PIC development has made such signi ?-cant progress is a testament both to the amenability of this mate-rials system to various integration strategies,and to steady mat-uration of the underlying process technologies.However,until now the feasibility of producing PICs with a high level of in-tegration
(10components),and with performance and yield suf ?cient to meet the demands of commercial networks,has been generally regarded to be extraordinarily low —and corpo-rate spending toward such development has re ?ected this notion.Indeed,with the complexities presented by relatively immature InP process technologies,and given the high level of synergy required between PIC design and fabrication on the one hand,and system architectural design and construction on the other,the barrier to demonstrating a commercially relevant and viable large-scale PIC technology has been extraordinarily high.
III.P HOTONIC I NTEGRATED C IRCUIT A RCHITECTURE AND F ABRICATION
A.DWDM Transmitter PIC Architecture
In the “Digital Optical Network,”the transmitter (TX)LS-PIC is responsible for electrical to optical conversion,while the paired receiver (RX)PIC is used for complementary optical to electrical conversion.This architecture features a 100Gb/s
(10
channels
10Gb/s)LS-PIC DWDM transmitter,with each channel operating at an aggregate data rate of 10Gb/s (line rate of 11.1Gb/s with forward error correction (FEC)overhead)on a 200-GHz International Telecommunication Union (ITU)wavelength grid in the C-band.A schematic of the TX LS-PIC is shown in Fig.1.In simplest terms,the optical signals in each of the ten monolithic channels originate in an active section,and are multiplexed into a single output channel in a monolithically integrated passive region.The active train of each monolithically integrated channel includes a tunable EML —a tunable DFB laser integrated with an EAM operating at a data rate of 10Gb/s.The EMLs are individually controlled with DC bias on the DFBs,and 10Gb/s input on the EAMs.The wavelength is chirped across the monolithically integrated DFB array to yield ten distinct and highly controllable wavelengths that can each be ?ne-tuned to the ITU grid individually at the channel level.A photodiode is monolithically integrated into the back of each channel,to provide optical power monitoring (OPM)of the DFB over the lifetime of the chip.Control of the output power pro ?le across all channels is enabled with a monolithically integrated variable optical attenuator (VOA),essentially an absorber in the active train light path of
each
Fig.1.Schematic of the architecture of the ten-channel LS-PIC transmitter chip.The transmitter PIC incorporates over 50functions monolithically integrated on a single chip.
channel.Multiplexing the ten wavelengths into a single output channel is accomplished with an AWG router monolithically integrated in the passive section of the chip.The single output channel is terminated in a spot size converter for optimized ?ber coupling.AWGs are ideally suited for LS-PICs,given their integrability in InP,high channel count and low insertion loss characteristics.This chip represents the ?rst realization of the combined functionality —10Gb/s modulated source integrated with continuous tunability,AWG frequency selective multiplexing,and power pro ?ling through the use of VOAs,all operating at performance levels required by commercial class carrier networks (as will be described in detail in subsequent sections of the paper).
B.DWDM Receiver PIC Architecture
The RX PIC is similarly con ?gured.A single input channel is routed into a spot-size converter and subsequently through a polarization independent demultiplexing AWG in the passive section of the chip.Here,the frequency selectivity of the AWG ?lter is optimized to achieve suf ?ciently low channel-to-channel crosstalk,as well as acceptably low insertion loss.PIN photo-diodes (PDs)are monolithically integrated into the waveguides at the output of the AWG.Key operating characteristics of the PD ’s include responsivity,modulation bandwidth and dark cur-rent.These RX PICs represent the ?rst demonstration of such a combination of integrated functionality and performance —high speed (10Gb/s)waveguide photodetectors integrated with a 10channel demultiplexing AWG.Further quantitative details of the operating characteristics of these RX PICs will be described in the following sections of this paper and will demonstrate the via-bility of such devices in achieving ten-channel DWDM PIC-PIC links with performance consistent with that required for deploy-ment in a carrier-class long-haul telecommunications network.C.PIC Fabrication and Packaging
The LS-PICs are fabricated using conventional,yet state-of-the-art InP processing techniques.A block diagram of the PIC fabrication ?ow is show in Fig.2.The fabrication of the PICs
Fig. 2.Process ?ow for the fabrication of photonic integrated circuits described herein.An array of 10DFBs,10EAMs,10OPMs,10VOAs,and an AWG are simultaneously monolithically integrated on a single LS-PIC transmitter chip.In addition,10PIN PDs and an AWG are simultaneously monolithically integrated on singe PIC receiver chip.
begins with the formation of the multiple epitaxial layer struc-tures required to achieve the simultaneous monolithic integra-tion of the numerous active and passive devices on the PIC chips.The epitaxial layers are grown using MOVPE in multiwafer reactors.The active elements (DFB,EAM,OPM,and VOA)of the monolithic transmitter LS-PIC consist of multiquantum well (MQW)active regions whereas the passive regions (waveg-uides and AWG)consist of bulk double heterostructure (DH)waveguides.For the Rx PIC chip,the active region of the PIN PD is a bulk DH as are the passive regions (waveguides and AWG).Conventional growth-etch-regrowth techniques (e.g.,as described in [5],[30],and [31])are utilized to monolithically in-tegrate the multiple epitaxial layers.The epitaxial reactors and growth processes require control of compositional,strain,and thickness uniformity (in-wafer,wafer-to-wafer,and run-to-run)similar to or exceeding that required for the growth of vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers [32],making the epitaxy that is employed in the fabrication of the DWDM PICs described in this paper among the mostly highly controlled of any III-V de-vice.
After the epitaxial (re)growths and front-end wafer fabrica-tion (patterning and etching)are complete,the PIC wafers are subjected to a back-end wafer fabrication process sequence.These wafer fabrication processes are similar to that used to form a heterostructure bipolar transistor (HBT)integrated circuits [33],[34],both in complexity and number of mask levels.Speci ?cally,the back-end wafer fabrication is performed to de ?ne the active/passive waveguides,form interdevice and channel –channel electrical isolation,
contact
and regions of the active devices,form DC and RF bondpads,and facili-tate passivation of the devices,The precise control of critical dimensions (e.g.,waveguides)are realized via dry-etching (using both conventional RIE and high-density plasmas).These processes result in a very high degree of control of such param-eters as waveguide width,etch depth,sidewall roughness,etc.that are required to achieve the precise control of wavelengths while simultaneously maintaining low loss of all elements
within a channel,from channel-to-channel,and between the active and passive regions.Finally,conventional metallizations and dielectric deposition techniques utilized to fabricate III-V optoelectronic devices are employed in the fabrication of the DWDM PIC devices described herein.
After the wafer fabrication steps are complete,the wafers are subjected to a die fabrication sequence wherein they are singu-lated into individual die (via cleaving)and each die is coated with an antire ?ection coating.The die are subsequently solder die-attached to a submount.Next,the resultant chip-on-carriers are subjected to a test and reliability screening/burn-in sequence to screen for performance and wavelength stability.Wavelength stability is extremely critical in a monolithic DWDM PIC to en-sure that all devices can maintain their requisite performance on the ITU grid over life.The PIC fabrication sequence is com-pleted by a rigorous ?nal test sequence that includes DC and RF testing (including the measurement of the bit-error rate (BER).Many of the fabrication speci ?cations —from epitaxy to etching —are highly demanding,even using current state-of-the-art processes.The combination of these factors underlies the long-held concern that LS-PIC manufacturing is infeasible from a yield and cost standpoint.However,we have found that through appropriate attention to process de-velopment,diligent simpli ?cation of the processes and process sequence,and application of rigorous manufacturing process controls,suf ?ciently high yields are in fact possible to realize large-scale integration with the requisite performance.This will be evidenced by the high degree of uniformity achieved within the LS-PICs reported in Sections IV and V .
Subsequent to the assembly of the DWDM PIC transceiver line cards,the monolithically integrated PIC chip-on-carriers are soldered on a thermoelectric cooler (TEC)and enclosed in a metal package.For the TX LS-PIC,one single mode ?ber is optically coupled to the output of the TX multiplexer,and a ten-channel monolithic modulator-driver ASIC array is elec-trically coupled in a hybrid fashion to the modulators.A pho-tograph and block diagram of the fully packaged TX LS-PIC is shown in Fig.3.The RX PIC packaging is similar,including a lensed ?ber coupling to the input of the RX multiplexer,and a transimpedance ampli ?er (TIA)array electrically coupled in a hybrid fashion to the PDs on the PIC.
IV .P HOTONIC I NTEGRATED C IRCUIT P ERFORMANCE A.100-Gb/s DWDM Transmitter PIC Performance
The DFBs have been optimized for high yield manufacturing and integration into the transmitter PIC.A typical light versus current/voltage (L-I-V)plot of the DFB laser array is shown with all ten channels superimposed in Fig.4.The data was taken using the per channel OPM shown in Fig.1as the detector.The lasing threshold (Ith)for all channels ranges from 20–28mA.A typical voltage at turn on is 1.2V .The devices exhibit a forward
resistance of 5.5
(
0.3)and operate in a current range of 60–80mA,typically.This bias allows the DFBs to deliver suf-?cient power per channel into the ?ber at the output of the in-tegrated transmitter chip to effectively transmit data across all long-haul links encountered in real world networks (see Sec-tion IV).
Fig.3.Photograph and schematic of the 100Gb/s DWDM LS-PIC transmitter module with the hermetic lid
removed.
Fig.4.Typical light-current-voltage (L-I-V)characteristics for the LS-PIC transmitter.The optical power is monitored via the monitor photodiode.
Narrow laser linewidth is critical for a transmission link in which an external modulator is used.A broad linewidth results in signal distortion which degrades the BER performance and optical-signal-to-noise (OSNR)in the link.A typical linewidth spectrum of a single DFB on the LS-PIC transmitter is shown in Fig.5.The linewidth was measured using a delayed self-hetero-dyne technique.The DFB is running CW at an operating current of 67mA
(
3Ith),and the light is transmitted through the en-tire LS-PIC and into the ?ber.The data ?ts well to a Lorentzian curve giving a full-width-half maximum (FWHM)linewidth of 2.3MHz.Thus,the linewidth performance of the LS-PIC trans-mitter exceeds the 10-MHz spec of most state-of-the-art com-mercial standalone DFBs [35]–[37],and the 10MHz [38]to 20MHz speci ?cation [39]of commercial EMLs.
Data is encoded for optical transmission on each channel of the LS-PIC via electro-absorption modulators (EAMs).The dc transfer characteristic of the modulator is key in minimizing the waveform distortion in the network.A typical transfer function for an EAM on the LS-PIC transmitter is shown in Fig.6.The modulator is capable of a dc extinction of 19dB at less than 3V reverse bias and is representative of the performance of other channels of the array.The maximum extinction as well as the extinction per volt realized in the LS-PIC is comparable to or exceeds the speci ?cation of currently sold two-element EMLs [38],
[39].
Fig.5.Linewidth spectrum of a single DFB from a LS-PIC transmitter chip under direct current (DC)operation at 20
C.
Fig.6.Power transfer function of the electrabsorption (EA)modulator on the LS-PIC transmitter.Extinction ratio and extinction per volt rival that of the best commercial two-element (single-channel)
EMLs.
Fig.7.Small signal frequency response for the EAM of a DWDM LS-PIC transmitter chip.
The small signal frequency response for a chip on carrier was measured using an Agilent 8703B Lightwave Component Ana-lyzer.The response versus frequency curves for all ten channels have been superimposed and are shown in Fig.7.The 3-dB bandwidth is better than 17GHz for the worst channel.The vari-ation in frequency response from channel-to-channel is on the order of 0.5dB and largely due to variation in error of measure-ment with probe placement.The ripple on the plots is a combi-nation of small electrical re ?ections from the PIC layout and re-?ections internal to the probe.This data indicates that the unifor-
Fig.8.Power transfer function of a VOA from the DWDM LS-PIC
transmitter.
Fig.9.Superposition of the ten-channel DFB spectrum with the AWG multiplexer transmission function for the ten-channel DWDM LS-PIC transmitter.The DFB and AWG are aligned using the per channel tuning elements with <0.1dB power loss resulting from misalignment between the AWG and DFB.
mity of the modulator capacitance and the impedance matching of the bond pad con ?guration across the array is very high.The variable optical attenuators are used to control the shape of the ten-channel output power spectrum.They are the last ele-ment in the transmitter signal chain before multiplexing the sig-nals from all channels via the AWG.This capability is critical to ?attening the transmitter power spectrum before it is launched into the ?ber as we will show in Section IV .In addition the VOAs can be used to compensate for any small differences in output power between the DFBs over their lifetime.The dc transfer function for a typical VOA element is shown in Fig.8.An at-tenuation range of 5.5dB is possible by employing between 0and 2V reverse bias.
In Fig.9,we superimpose the DFB spectrum with the AWG multiplexer transmission function.This is achieved by forward biasing the EAMs to produce an spontaneous emission source to map the AWG passbands.The center position of the AWG passband comb is tuned using the TEC in the packaged module to match the ITU grid.Each DFB is subsequently individually thermally tuned onto the ITU grid as well.The tunable DFBs are further employed to account for small frequency drifts to
maintain the frequency of each channel to
within
3GHz over life.The tuning range of the DFBs exceeds 300GHz (data not shown).Control of the relative channel spacing aperiodicity
on the 200GHz grid for the AWG passbands is better than
4Fig.10.Propagation loss measured using a series of waveguides of varying lengths for the passive waveguide structure employed in the DWDM transmitter PIC.The best ?t to the data indicates a propagation loss of 0.7dB/cm.
GHz (one sigma of a normal distribution).The loss penalty due
to misalignment of any AWG passband to the ITU grid for the transmitter is less than 0.1dB.
Another point highlighted by the data in Fig.9is the tight manufacturing tolerance needed to maintain accurate alignment of the DFB and AWG arrays to the ITU grid over life.The AWGs are low loss but require precise epitaxial control in thickness and composition as well as tight waveguide width tolerances to ensure uniform passband spectra and high yield to alignment of the center channel to the ITU grid at a pre-determined initial chip temperature.The DFB arrays must be fabricated to emit over a narrow range of initial wavelengths across all 10channels in order to allow enough margin for the tuning elements to maintain the wavelength on the ITU grid over life.This alignment implies excellent manufacturing control of the DFB grating pitch,waveguide width,coupling length,epitaxial thickness and composition during both growth and https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,mercial viability requires this manufacturing accuracy where per channel power leveling,absolute power output,and wavelength drift over life are essential to achieve the requisite performance for use in an optical telecommunications network.
A key element to large scale integration is low loss passive waveguides to link the individual elements in a PIC.The total power loss from straight sections of passive waveguides of dif-ferent lengths is plotted in Fig.10.A linear least-squares-?t to the data,provides a propagation loss value
of 0.7dB/cm for the integrated waveguide structure in a TX LS-PIC.This prop-agation loss value for the transmitter waveguide competes with the best wet etched rib loaded slab structures at 0.2dB/cm [40],and is superior to the more typical 1.5–2dB/cm for dry etched ridge waveguides [40]–[42].
B.100Gb/s DWDM Receiver PIC Performance
The receiver PIC consists of a wavelength demultiplexer monolithically integrated with an array of high speed pho-todetectors (PD).The demultiplexer is an AWG and the PDs are each a waveguide PIN diode.Like the transmitter PIC the channel spacing is 200GHz in the receiver.There are several reports of AWG/PIN integrated receiver chips in the literature;
Fig.11.Normalized photoresponse of the100Gb/s(10210Gb/s)DWDM receiver PIC.
a ten-channel device operating at2.5Gb/s per channel[43]has been reported,and a four-channel device operating at10Gb/s per channel is also commercially available.1As far as we know, this is the?rst report of an integrated receiver optical device with ten channels operating successfully at10Gb/s per channel for an aggregate data throughput of100Gb/s.
Fig.11shows the normalized photoresponse of the receiver. In the test setup,the input to the device is from a tunable laser. The output is measured as the dc photocurrent at the PIN array. The nominal?ber coupled responsivity of the integrated device is suf?cient to effectively transmit data across all long-haul links encountered in real world networks(see Section IV)and com-pares favorably with currently available discrete combinations of commercial components.
Standalone commercial PIN receiver modules for OC-192 applications have a typical responsivity of0.8A/W(including ?ber coupling losses).2Standalone?ber coupled,Gaussian type, Silica AWG modules(?at top types have higher losses),have insertion losses between3dB(ultralow loss version)and5dB (normal version).3Silica based AWGs have larger fabrication tolerances(commensurate with the optical mode index which is less than half of that in InP)and,hence,are easier to fabricate, and have lower?ber coupling losses(similar mode index and better mode matching to glass?ber).
Unlike the transmitter PIC,the integrated receiver PIC chip needs to be polarization independent.To determine the polar-ization dependent loss(PDL)and polarization dependent wave-length shift(PDWS)of the receiver PIC,the maximum and min-imum photoresponse is measured as the polarization state of the input light is varied.Fig.12shows the nominal PDL of the re-ceiver as a function of channel number.The per-channel PDL is less than0.5dB for all ten channels with a median of0.3dB.For the single polarization spectrum shown in Fig.11,the?atness (which affects the dynamic range of the receiver)is better than 0.4dB.The median PDWS for all10channels is14GHz(the minimum value is12GHz and the maximum value is17GHz). 1ThreeFive Photonics,Argo A4D10,The Netherlands.
2JDS Uniphase,ERM568XCX,10Gb/s SONET/SDH,PIN-TIA High Gain, Optical Receiver Modules,U.S.;NEL,NLK2C1B1KC,High Speed Photodi-odes,Japan;Bookham,PT10G,10Gb/s PIN Preamp Receiver,U.K.
3NEL,AWG Multi/Demultiplexer,
Japan.Fig.12.Polarization dependent loss as a function of channel number for the 100Gb/s(10210Gb/s)DWDM receiver
PIC.
Fig.13.Propagation loss measured using a series of waveguides of varying lengths for the passive waveguide structure employed in the DWDM receiver PIC.The best?t to the data indicates a propagation loss of 0.6dB/cm.
To realize low insertion loss in the receiver PIC,it is critical to fabricate waveguides with very low propagation loss.Fig.13 shows the waveguide propagation loss measured on the receiver PIC.This is done by measuring the insertion loss of waveg-uides of multiple lengths and plotting the data as a function of propagation distance.This method gives the average insertion loss over multiple lengths of the waveguide,and also eliminates the?ber coupling loss as a source of measurement uncertainty. The average propagation loss is0.6dB/cm which is amongst the best performance reported to date for InP waveguides[41]. These waveguides were de?ned via dry etching.Dry etching is required for precise and reproducible fabrication of the AWG in InP.Since the performance of the AWG is phase sensitive,fabri-cation errors of the order of a fraction of the propagation wave-length have a deleterious effect on AWG performance[44].Dry etched InP waveguides are generally reported to have an order of magnitude higher propagation losses compared to wet etched waveguides[41].Typical propagation loss reported in literature for dry etched InP waveguides is1.5–2dB/cm[40]–[42].
The adjacent channel crosstalk is lower than25dB for all ten channels with the median value of26dB.This accounts for adjacent channel crosstalk variation over all polarization states(including the effects of both PDL and PDWS).The total crosstalk is the sum of the effects of all the adjacent channels.
Fig.14.Reverse bias dark current of the high-speed PIN photodiode array at 40C and 05-V bias voltage as a function of channel number for the DWDM receiver
PIC.
Fig.15.Electrical modulation bandwidth for all ten channels of the high-speed photodiode array in the DWDM receiver PIC as a function of reverse bias voltage.
The worst case total crosstalk is better than 20dB with a me-dian value of 21.3dB.
The high-speed PIN diodes were also designed to have very low dark current.Fig.14shows the dark current measured at 5-V reverse bias and 40C across all 10channels.The dark currents are all nominally under 10nA.This is comparable to the performance of commercial high speed PIN photodiodes for 10Gb/s applications .The 40C higher temperature screen is used to ensure that the device will be robust in the ?eld and allows for the temperature tuning of the AWG up to 40C to allow for variations in the AWG center frequency resulting from manufacturing deviations encountered in PIC fabrication.
Fig.15shows the small signal bandwidth of the ten-channel high-speed PIN array as a function of bias voltage.The band-width was measured using an Agilent 8703B Lightwave Com-ponent Analyzer.The small signal bandwidth is about 18GHz at a reverse bias of 5V .The channel to channel variation in bandwidth is very small,well within the measurement error of the instrument,attesting to the fabrication uniformity of the PD array.Across all ten channels,the median parasitic capacitance is 200fF and median series resistance is
15.Even at reverse bias voltages as low as 1V ,the bandwidth is about 14GHz,and is suf ?cient for 10Gb/s operation.The performance shows that we have not sacri ?ced bandwidth for responsivity which is
a common tradeoff in many commercial high-speed photode-tector designs.
V .S YSTEM P ERFORMANCE U TILIZING DWDM P HOTONIC
I NTEGRATED C IRCUITS A.Module and Back-To-Back Performance
The transmitter and receiver PICs were built into DWDM transceiver line cards for implementation in an optical transport system.The features of the transmitter and receiver PIC were optimized to ensure good overall system level performance,including link margin to cover spans with
loss 30dB in a network as well as suf ?cient controls and reliability to maintain performance over 20years of life.The ten-channel LS-PIC DWDM transceiver cards result in over a 30-times reduction in the number of ?ber-couplings compared to a conventional system comprised of discrete optical components.The drastic reduction in ?ber connections results in a drastic reduction in packaging and system hardware costs as well as reliability issues associated with the many ?ber couplings in traditional systems.Furthermore,the space occupied by a system based on DWDM LS-PIC ’s
is 3times less than that of a conventional optical transport system,conserving valuable ?oor space in the central of ?ce.
Although integrated transmitters and receivers have been demonstrated previously,there are a several reasons,in addition to the many obvious advantages of integration,why the current design is uniquely suited for real world deployment.First,there is the use of an EAM to encode the data.Also,the use of an AWG (its frequency discrimination properties)together with an EML,which can provide concurrent modi ?cation of the output power and chirp characteristics of the transmitter PIC.Second,there is the use of on-PIC VOAs to enable output power ?attening.Third,the use of an AWG wavelength com-biner with a DFB array requires an array of integrated tuning elements to keep the DFB array aligned to the AWG.The tuning elements deployed here also are used to compensate for the small errors in the stringent manufacturing tolerances of the transmitter PIC.Fourth,the on-PIC VOA also compensates for over life power degradation of all elements on the PIC.Finally,the integrated back facet OPM provides an independent DFB power monitor over life.No other PIC reported to date has demonstrated the level of integration of the ten-channel DWDM LS-PIC transmitter reported herein while maintaining suf ?cient performance and reliability required for deployment in a carrier-class telecommunications network.
Similarly,for the 100-Gb/s DWDM receiver PIC,the fabri-cation of a ten-channel high-speed photodetector array and po-larization insensitive AWG meeting all the performance spec-i ?cations related to crosstalk,responsivity,dark current,dy-namic range,and polarization independence simultaneously is extremely challenging,but achievable.
There are several advantages achieved in the integration of the electroptic elements in a DWDM TX LS-PIC.The ?rst advan-tage relates to the integrated EAMs.During EAM fabrication,its operating wavelength can be uniquely matched to the op-erating wavelength of the DFB for optimum performance.The second advantage is that the EAM can be biased appropriately
Fig.16.Output optical spectrum from the DWDM LS-PIC transmitter module using the on-PIC VOA for power ?
attening.
Fig.17.Output optical spectrum from the DWDM LS-PIC transmitter module in Fig.16showing the on-PIC capability to customize the power spectrum.In this case,a linear grade of 0.5dB per channel is demonstrated.
to modify its chirp to suit the dispersion properties of the trans-mission ?ber [45].Conventional DWDM systems primarily de-ploy Lithium Niobate-based MZ modulators and these have a higher insertion loss,and ?xed chirp properties [46],[47].In contrast,the EAM chirp can be easily varied by appropriate dc biasing.InP MZ modulators come in two varieties.The conven-tional design operates solely based on the electro-optic effect and has ?xed chirp properties like the Lithium Niobate devices.InP MZ modulators,which use the electroabsorption effect to realize an index change,also have the bias dependent variable chirp property [48].In our system,the EAM is typically biased to provide negative chirp.Under optimized bias conditions,its modulated signal is capable of transmission over 100km of un-compensated SMF-28?ber.4
The third advantage is the availability of on-PIC power ?at-tening capability.The individual channels are spaced at 200GHz and locked to the ITU grid.At power-up,the roll-off in power in the outer channels often follows the classic roll-off in the AWG output spectrum.Fig.16shows how power ?at-tening can be achieved using the per-channel VOA integrated on the transmitter PIC.Power ?attening is critical for EDFA-based links.Fig.17shows that we can actually achieve any de-sired “shaping ”of the powers in the output spectrum.The ?gure shows a 0.5-dB/channel tilt for a total of 4.5-dB tilt across all
4Registered
trademark of Corning,Inc.
ten channels.A tilt or some variation thereof may be desired to compensate for nonlinearities in the installed ?ber base or the gain ?atness of the EDFA.
Fig.18shows the output eye diagram for all the ten channels from the DWDM LS-PIC transmitter module measured using an Agilent 86100A In ?nium Digital Communication Analyzer (DCA)with a 86109A 30-GHz optical bandwidth plug-in.The data rate is set at 11.1Gb/s to accommodate the FEC overhead for the implementation of a 10Gb/s data transmission.The eye diagrams are very uniform over all ten channels demonstrating a robust design and a high degree of control in manufacturing.The minimum extinction ratio for all ten channels shown is in excess of 13dB.The minimum 10%/90%rise time is better than 34ps and the 90%/10%fall time is better than 37ps.The maximum peak-to-peak jitter for all ten channels is less than 12ps.B.Transmission Performance
A PIC-based transport system can be con ?gured in two dif-ferent ways.The ?rst option is to regenerate the data at every network node.This also allows for all or some part of the data traf ?c to be dropped and added at will.In addition,situations exist where the traf ?c is only required to be expressed through to the next node,and there is suf ?cient OSNR margin present.Thus,the second option for transport system design is to simply insert an optical ampli ?er at the express nodes.The PIC ’s must be designed with suf ?cient performance margin to elegantly handle both options.
One of the system test setups used to characterize the line cards is shown in Fig.19.This particular con ?guration has ?ve spans of 75-km ?ber each with an EDFA [also referred to as an optical ampli ?er module (OAM)]after every span.Fig.20shows the
back-to-back measurement,i.e.,for zero disper-sion.The data is plotted as
20log()as a function of OSNR.For reference,
a value of 15.6dB is required for an uncor-rected BER of
10and 16.9dB for 10.In Fig.20,
the values for OSNR higher than about 17dB are test time limited and,hence,the curves “appear ”to rollover.This is not as the re-sult of a back-to-back noise ?oor limit.An excellent discussion on the de ?nition
of ,its practical applications,and its experi-mental determination may be found in a publication by Bergano,et al.,[49].
Many terrestrial systems for telecommunication applications these days employ an FEC scheme to reduce
the requirement for error free transport of data [50],[51].Until just a few years ago,FEC was utilized solely in high-end submarine transmis-sion systems.There are several FEC schemes that have been demonstrated to date,and most of them are proprietary.Re-cently,the ITU has approved G.975.1(02/2004)the implemen-tation of FEC in DWDM systems.Our system employs a propri-etary FEC code.Fig.21shows the link performance across ?ve spans of 75-km ?ber spools for all ten channels of the system.These measurements are useful to characterize the number of skip sites possible with a particular system con ?guration.The system sensitivity limit
is 12dB-0.1nm of OSNR.Even after ?ve spans there is signi ?cant OSNR margin in the system.The values of the individual channels tend to spread as the number of skips increases.This is a function of the residual gain ?atness
Fig.18.Ten-channel output eye diagram from the 100Gb/s DWDM LS-PIC transmitter module.Modulation is achieved via a variable chirp EAM
array.
Fig.19.Schematic of the system test bed utilized for evaluating the performance of the DWDM transceiver PIC-based line cards over multiple ?ber
spans.
Fig.20.Back-to-back Q versus OSNR performance of a DWDM PIC-based transmitter-receiver module pair on a system line card.
variation of the EDFA chain in the transmission link and not at-tributable to the PIC ’s themselves.The on-PIC VOA allows one to correct,within limits,for a large part,but not all,of the im-perfections in gain ?atness of an EDFA chain.The demonstrated uniformity in transmission performance over ?ve ?ber segments is only possible with a very tight control of the chirp and other modulation properties of the EAM.This,is turn,is enabled by precise controls realized during PIC fabrication.
This is the ?rst-ever demonstration of a transmission system to carrier level speci ?cations based on transmitter and receiver multichannel photonic integrated
circuits.
Fig.21.OSNR as a function of number of 75-km ?ber segments in an ampli ?ed system utilizing DWDM PIC-transceiver line cards at the terminals of the link.
VI.S CALING OF P HOTONIC I NTEGRATED C IRCUITS
The development of the ?rst transistor [52]marked the begin-ning of the semiconductor electronics revolution.A little over a decade later,the integrated circuit (IC)was invented [53],[54].During this time,the commercial scaling of the IC proceeded at a staggering pace,advancing from a discrete device circa 1949[55]
to 50components/chip in 1965[1]
to 42000000tran-sistors/chip for a Pentium 4device in 2000[56].This progres-sion was predicted by Moore [1]and has driven the scaling of electronic devices to be a self-ful ?lling prophecy.
The commercial development and scaling of optoelectronic devices and photonic integrated circuits in the telecommuni-cations network has occurred at a substantially slower rate.The ?rst semiconductor-based light-emitting diode (LED)transmitters were reported in 1960[57],[66]followed shortly thereafter by the demonstration of the ?rst semiconductor lasers [58]–[61].However,the ?rst telecommunications networks utilizing such devices were not deployed until 1980for LEDs [62]and 1984for lasers [63].The incubation period from de-velopment to commercial deployment was
thus 20years for optoelectronic discrete devices (compared
to 10years for the transistor).The scaling of photonic integrated circuits versus time in the telecommunication network is shown in Fig.22for the most advanced PIC technology (transmitter devices).The ?rst commercial deployment of a semiconductor transmitter occurred in 1980(LED-based),followed by the deployment of networks utilizing DMLs [63].For over the next 10years,
Fig.22.Progression of scaling of the number of functions/chip for InP-based transmitter chips utilized in commercial telecommunications networks.The 100Gb/s DWDM transmitter PIC ’s described in this work represent over an order magnitude increase in scale compared to existing commercial devices.
commercial implementations focused on incrementally higher data rates in discrete devices.The ?rst integrated device,the EML,consisting of two functions on a single chip,was ?rst de-ployed in 1996at 2.5Gb/s and in 1998at 10Gb/s in long-haul terrestrial networks [64].This was followed by the integration of two additional functions (tuning and ampli ?cation),resulting in a transmitter consisting of a tunable EML with an SOA [13]which was ?rst deployed in a telecommunications network in 2003.
The scaling of the PIC has thus been substantially slower than the corresponding electronic IC,requiring 24years to scale by 4times (the corresponding scaling for electronic ICs
was 5,000times in the same period [56]).The most important contribu-tors to the retardation in the scaling rate of PICs have been the immaturity of the existing network infrastructure and the in-ability for the cost of the integration to be recouped in value de-livered by the integrated device.The optimal integration level was highlighted by both Moore [1]and Noyce [65]to be a balance of increased chip cost per function (which increases for increased scaling)and reduced assembly cost per function (which decreases with increased scaling).The resultant value of the device depends on the network architecture and implemen-tation.To date,the increased chip cost (due to immaturity of the III-V optoelectronic device and process technology)and the value derived in the network have been insuf ?cient to drive PIC scaling at a rate consistent with Moore ’s Law.The large-scale ten-channel DWDM transmitter PICs reported in this work re-sults in an in ?ection point in this progression,scaling by over an order of magnitude
to 50functions/chip.This PIC scaling is driven by dramatic improvements in III-V device and process technology as well as the ability for such devices to enable new network architectures (wherein OEO regeneration and add –drop functionality are pervasive in the network).
The scaling of the data capacity per chip for transmitter de-vices employed in the telecommunications network is shown in Fig.23.Unlike the PIC scaling shown in Fig.22,the scaling of the data rate per chip is exponential and shows a doubling
every 2.2years,which
is 65%of the rate of progression of Moore ’s Law.The large-scale ten-channel transmitter PIC
re-
Fig.23.Scaling of the data capacity/chip for InP-based transmitter chips utilized in commercial telecommunications networks.Over the last 25years,the data capacity per chip has doubled an average of every 2.2years.The 100Gb/s DWDM transmitter PIC ’s described in this work represent an order of magnitude increase in data capacity per chip compared to existing commercial devices.
ported in this work represents an order of magnitude improve-ment in data capacity per chip compared to existing commercial devices.The transition in scaling of data rate from discrete de-vices (solid symbols)to integrated devices (open symbols)has been driven by the presence of performance impairments in the network that arise at higher bit rates making discrete scaling less cost effective than that of integrated devices.In order to continue the progression of data capacity per chip at its historical rate,further improvements in PIC scaling will be required.Thus,the rates of the scaling of functions per chip (Fig.22)and data ca-pacity per chip (Fig.23)are expected to become more closely related over time.
VII.C ONCLUSION
Large-scale photonic integrated circuits with performance and capability suf ?cient for commercial deployment have been demonstrated.These devices represent an order of magnitude or more improvement in number of functions per chip and data capacity per chip compared to previous generation devices,
using 50functions to provide a chip operating at an aggregate data rate of 100Gb/s.Further,we have shown the ?rst use of such PICs in a complete optical transport system operating across a representative DWDM long-haul network link.The use of such LS-PICs will enable signi ?cant reductions in the cost of optical transport systems,while also enabling new simpli ?ed network architectures that make maximum use of the ability to implement low-cost OEO conversions more frequently in the https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,pared to existing DWDM systems,such “Digital Optical Network ”architectures offer the promise to enable simpli ?ed add/drop,easier optical network engineering,auto-mated end-end circuit provisioning,and reduced operational dif ?culties in such areas as system deployment and turn-up,performance monitoring and trouble-shooting.
A CKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are indebted to the many contributions of their colleagues at In ?nera Corporation,without whom this work would not have been possible.
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Radhakrishnan Nagarajan(S’85–M’92–SM’97)
received the B.Eng.degree(?rst class honors)in
electrical engineering from the National University
of Singapore,Singapore,in1986,the M.Eng.degree
in electronic engineering from the University of
Tokyo,Tokyo,Japan,in1989,and a Ph.D.in elec-
trical engineering from the University of California,
Santa Barbara,in1992.
Upon?nishing his Ph.D.,he was a Member of
the Research Faculty at the University of California,
Santa Barbara.In1995,he joined SDL,Inc.San Jose,CA,where,among other things,he managed the development of the new generation980-nm pump https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,ter,as a Senior Manager with the Advanced Technology Group at JDS Uniphase,San Jose,CA,he was working on next-generation high-speed optical components.In2001,he joined In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,where he is currently the Director of Advanced Development for integrated optical components.He has authored/co-authored over100publications in journals and conferences,and three book chapters mainly in the area of high-speed optical components.
Dr.Nagarajan won the Photonics Circle of Excellence Award in
2000.
Charles H.Joyner(M’01)was born in Decatur,GA,
in1953.He received the B.S.degree in chemistry
from Furman University,Greenville SC,in1975,and
the M.S.and Ph.D.degrees in physical chemistry
from Harvard University,Cambridge MA,in1978
and1981,respectively.
In1981,he joined AT&T Bell Laboratories,
Holmdel,NJ,as a Member of Technical Staff.
In August2000,he was promoted to Technical
Manager in charge of semiconductor photonics for
Lucent Bell Laboratories.In July2001,he joined In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,as Director of Device Development.He has authored or coauthored more than100papers,received30patents,and is a coauthor of Optical Telecommunications III(San Diego,CA:Academic, 1997).His career work has centered on design and fabrication of InP based integrated photonic devices for telecommunications.
Dr.Joyner is a Fellow of the Optical Society of
America.
Richard P.Schneider,Jr.was born in Akron,OH,in
1962.He received the B.S.degree in physical met-
allurgy from Washington State University,Pullman,
W A,in1984,and the Ph.D.degree in materials sci-
ence and engineering from Northwestern University,
Evanston,IL,in1989.
From1989to1995,he was a Senior Member
of the Technical Staff at Sandia National Labo-
ratories,Albuquerque,NM,where he worked on
vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser(VCSEL)tech-
nology,including the?rst AlGaInP-based visible VCSELs,development of metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy(MOVPE)for VCSEL production,and demonstration of high-ef?ciency VCSELs using oxide con?nement.In1995,he joined Hewlett-Packard Laboratories(later Agilent Laboratories),Palo Alto,CA,where he contributed to VCSEL de-vice development and transfer to the manufacturing https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,ter,he was responsible for developing epitaxy processes for GaN-based visible LED’s and continuous wave(CW)violet laser diodes.He then managed the Advanced GaN Optoelectronics R&D Group.In2000,he moved to the Fiber Optics Division,Agilent,and managed VCSEL epitaxy and device manufacturing and R&D teams.In2001,he joined In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,where he led the effort to develop epitaxial materials processes for In?nera’s photonic integrated circuits(PICs).He currently manages epitaxial materials technology and integration engineering manufacturing and development activities.He has been an Associate Editor for the Journal of Electronic Materials since1999. He has authored or coauthored more than70refereed journal articles and two book chapters,and is named on20patents.
Dr.Schneider is a member of the Optical Society of America.
Jeffrey S.Bostak(M’83)was born in Ft.Belvoir,
V A,in1963.He received the B.S.degree in electrical
engineering from the University of Virginia,Char-
lottesville,in1985,and the M.S.and Ph.D.degrees
in electrical engineering from Stanford University,
Stanford,CA,in1987and1994,respectively.
From1985to1990,he was a Member of Tech-
nical Staff with AT&T Bell Laboratories,Holmdel,
NJ,where initially he was a Digital Circuit Board De-
signer for satellite earth station telemetry,and later
a lead digital circuit designer for900-MHz cordless
telephones.From1994to2001,he was a Design Center Manager with Vitesse
Semiconductor Corporation,Santa Clara,CA,where he designed integrated cir-
cuits for high-speed optical communication.Since2001,he has been with In-
?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,as a Member of Technical Staff and Man-
ager of an integrated circuits design team in the area of high-speed optical com-
munication.
Dr.Bostak was a recipient of AT&T Bell Laboratories,United States Joint
Services Electronics Program,and National Defense Science and Engineering
Graduate fellowships while at Stanford University.He is a member of the Op-
tical Society of America.
Timothy Butrie,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Andrew G.Dentai(M’74–SM’85–F’93)received
the B.S.degree from the University of Veszprem,
Veszprem,Hungary,in1966,and the M.S.and Ph.D.
degrees in ceramic science from Rutgers University,
New Brunswick,NJ,in1972and1974,respectively.
In1968,he joined Bell Laboratories,Murray Hill,
NJ.After receiving the Ph.D.degree,he rejoined Bell
Laboratories in1974,where he worked on epitaxial
crystal growth until2001.He is currently a Member
of Technical Staff at In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,
CA.He has over300publications and talks,and28
patents spanning31years at Bell Labsoratories.
Dr.Dentai was named a Distinguished Member of Technical Staff of Bell
Laboratories in1987.
Vincent G.Dominic,photograph and biography not available at the time of
publication.
Peter W.Evans was born in St.Louis,MO,on April
4,1972.He received the B.S.,M.S.,and Ph.D.de-
grees all in electrical engineering from the University
of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign,in1994,1996,and
1998,respectively.His Ph.D.degree was supported
by a National Science Foundation Fellowship where
he co-invented the buried tunnel-contact VCSEL.
He was a Process Development Engineer with the
Fiber-Optic Components Division,Hewlett-Packard,
Palo Alto,CA,until1999.Subsequently,he worked
at Genoa Corporation,Fremont,CA,until2002,as
an Epi Engineer,VCSEL Design Engineer,and?nally an Epi Manufacturing
Manager.In2002,he joined In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,as a Wafer
Fab Engineer.He is currently a Device and Process Integration
Engineer.
Masaki Kato received the B.S.,M.S.,and Ph.D de-
grees in electronic engineering from the University
of Tokyo,Tokyo,Japan,in1994,1996,and1999,re-
spectively.
In1999,he joined the Department of Electrical
Engineering,University of Tokyo,as a Research
Associate,where he studied semiconductor optical
devices and their application for wavelength con-
version/all-optical switching.In2002,he became a
Member of Technical Staff with In?nera Corpora-
tion,Sunnyvale,CA.Here,he has been engaged in
the development of photonic integrated circuits.
Dr.Kato is a member of Japanese Society of Applied Physics.
Mike Kauffman,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Damien https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,mbert,photograph and biography not available at the time of
publication.
Sheila K.Mathis,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Atul Mathur,photograph and biography not available at the time of publica-
tion.
Richard https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0410202525.html,es,photograph and biography not available at the time of pub-
lication.
Matthew L.Mitchell,photograph and biography not available at the time of
publication.
Mark J.Missey,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Sanjeev Murthy,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Alan C.Nilsson,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Frank H.Peters,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Stephen C.Pennypacker received the B.S.degree in
physics from Kutztown State University,Kutztown,
PA,in1988.
After graduation,he became a Process Engineer
with the Opto-Electronics Division,AT&T Mi-
croelectronics,Breiningsville,PA.He then joined
Lucent Technologies,where he became a Technical
Manager responsible for manufacturing at the Man-
ufacturing Realization Center,Breinigsville,PA.
In July2000,he joined Agility Communications,
Palo Alto,CA,as a Director of Automated Testing
Development where he led a team to establish a high-volume tunable laser
module manufacturing line.Currently,he is a Member of Technical Staff with
In?nera Corporation,Allentown,
PA.
Jacco L.Pleumeekers was born in Woerden,The
Netherlands,in1970.He received the M.Sc.and
Ph.D.degrees in electrical engineering from the
Delft University of Technology,Delft,The Nether-
lands,in1992and1997,respectively.
From1992to1996he was with France Telecom,
CNET,Lannion,France,where he performed his
Ph.D.research on numerical simulations for opto-
electronic devices.From1996to1999,he held a
post-doctoral position at the Ecole Polytechnique
Federale de Lausanne(EPFL),Lausanne,Switzer-
land,where he did theoretical and experimental research into semiconductor
optical ampli?ers.From1999to2001,he was a member of Technical Ttaff at
Lucent Technologies,Bell Laboratories,Holmdel,NJ,where he worked in the
?eld of all-optical signal processing with integrated optoelectronic devices.In
2001,he joined In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,where he is engaged in
research and manufacturing of advanced photonic integrated circuits.He has
(co)authored more than50papers and conference
contributions.
Randal A.Salvatore(S’91–M’96)received the
B.S.E.degree(summa cum laude)from the Uni-
versity of Michigan,Ann Arbor,in1990,and the
M.S.and Ph.D.degrees from the California Institute
of Technology,Pasadena,in1991and1996,all in
electrical engineering.
From1991to1995,he studied femtosecond and
high-repetition-rate sources and demonstrated the
?rst adjustable chirp,passively modelocked semi-
conductor laser.From1996to1997,he was a Visiting
Researcher with the University of California,Santa
Barbara,where he studied noise properties in semiconductor lasers and on
wavelength conversion.In1997,he joined Lasertron Inc.,Bedford,MA,where
he was a Principal Engineer working on high-power pump lasers,DFB lasers,
and modulators.Since2002,he has been with In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,
CA.He has authored over25journal papers and conference presentations and
has six patents.
Dr.Salvatore is a member of the Optical Society of America,Phi Beta Kappa,
and Tau Beta
Pi.
Rory K.Schlenker was born in Reading,PA,in
1966.He received the B.S.degree in mechanical
engineering from The Pennsylvania State University,
State College,PA,in1989.
He started his career in optoelectronics as a
Process Engineer with AT&T Microelectronics,
Breiningsville,PA.While with Lucent Technologies,
Holmdel,NJ,he became a Technical Manager
responsible for developing world class automated
process platforms for manufacturing optical com-
ponents.He joined Agility Communications,Palo
Alto,in July2000as a Director of Automated Process Platform Development,
where he led a team to establish a high volume tunable laser module assembly
line.Currently,he is a Member of Technical Staff with In?nera Corporation,
Allentown,PA.He holds?ve patents related to optoelectronic product design
and manufacturing.
Robert B.Taylor,photograph and biography not available at the time of pub-
lication.
Huan-Shang Tsai received the B.S.degree in me-
chanical engineering from National Taiwan Univer-
sity,Taipei,Taiwan,R.O.C.,in1990,and the Ph.D.
degree in electrical and computer engineering from
the University of California,Santa Barbara,in1995.
He joined the High Speed Electronics Research
Department,Lucent Bell Laboratories,Holmdel,
NJ,in1996where he was working on circuits for
wireless and?ber optic applications.In2001,he
joined In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,as a
member of Technical Staff.His current research
interests include high-speed circuits for optical communication.
Michael F.Van Leeuwen,photograph and biography not available at the time
of
publication.
Jonas Webjorn received the the M.Sc.in engi-
neering physics and the Ph.D.degree in optics from
The Royal Institute of Technology,Stockholm,
Sweden,in1987and1993,respectively.
He is currently a Member of the Technical Staff
with the Module Engineering Department,In?nera
Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA,where hs is working
on package design and manufacturing processes.His
previous positions included Director of Photonics
Development with LightLogic,Inc.,Fremont,CA;
Research Engineer with SDL,Inc.,San Jose,CA;
and Research Fellow with the Optoelectronics Research Centre,Southampton,
U.K.He has been granted?ve U.S.patents,with another seven pending.He has
authored over25journal publications and over25conference papers,several
of which were invited.
Dr.Webjorn is a member of the Optical Society of America.
Mehrdad Ziari,photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Drew Perkins received the B.S.degree in electrical
engineering,computer engineering,and mathematics
from Carnegie Mellon University,Pittsburgh,PA in
1986.
He is currently Chief Technology Of?cer(CTO)
with In?nera Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA.He has
previously been the CTO of OnFiber Commu-
nications,Cupertino,CA;CIENA Corporation,
Linthicum,MD;and Lightera Networks,Cupertino.
Mr.Perkins is a member of the Association
for Computing Machinery,the Optical Society of
America,and the International Society for Optical
Engineers.
Jagdeep Singh received the B.S.degree in computer
science from the University of Maryland,College
Park,in1986,the M.B.A.degree from the University
of California,Berkeley,in1990,and the M.S.degree
in computer science from Stanford University,
Stanford,CA,in1996.
He currently serves as CEO of In?nera Corpora-
tion,Sunnyvale,CA,which he cofounded in2001.
He was previously President of the Core Switching
Division,Ciena Corporation,Linthicum,MD,which
he joined after its acquisition of Lightera Networks,
Cupertino,CA.At Lightera,which he cofounded in1998,he served as CEO and
led the team that developed the CoreDirector transport switch.Prior to Lightera,
he was Vice-President of Technology Strategy at Shiva Corporation,Boston,
MA,and,prior to that,was founder and CEO of AirSoft Inc.,Cupertino.
Stephen G.Grubb ,photograph and biography not available at the time of pub-
lication.
Michael S.Ref ?e received the B.S.degree in elec-trical engineering from Drexel University,Philadel-phia,PA,in 1989,and the M.S.degree in engineering management from the University of Dayton,Dayton,OH,in 1996.
He was previously a Member of Technical Staff,Technical Manager,and Senior Manager with Lucent Technologies,Holmdel,NJ,where he had responsibility over all manufacturing operations at the company ’s Manufacturing Realization Center (MRC),Breinigsville,PA.He also served as Vice
President and General Manager at Agility Communications,Palo Alto,CA,where he had responsibility for package assembly and test process develop-ment,manufacturing and procurement.Currently,he is the General Manager of In ?nera Corporation ’s Allentown,PA,facility,where he oversees package design,process development,and manufacturing.
Mr.Ref ?e is a member of the International Microelectronics and Packaging
Society.
David G.Mehuys (M ’87)received the B.A.Sc.de-gree in engineering science from the University of Toronto,Toronto,ON,Canada,in 1984,and the M.S.and Ph.D.degrees in electrical engineering from the California Institute of Technology,Pasadena CA,in 1985and 1989,respectively.
He is currently Vice President of Module Engi-neering at In ?nera,Corporation,Sunnyvale,CA.Prior to joining In ?nera in 2002,he was with JDS Uniphase and SDL Inc.,San Jose CA,for a total of 13years,where he commercialized innova-tive,high-power tunable semiconductor lasers and subsystems,including erbium-doped ?ber ampli ?ers and Raman pump
lasers.
Fred A.Kish (M ’93–SM ’01)received the B.S.,M.S.,and Ph.D.degrees in electrical engineering form the University of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign,in 1988,1989,and 1992,respectively.
He currently serves as Vice-President of PIC De-velopment and Manufacturing with In ?nera Corpora-tion,Sunnyvale,CA.Previously,he held the position of R&D and Manufacturing Department Manager for Agilent Technologies,San Jose,CA,where he man-aged the III-V optoelectronic component organiza-tion for Agilent ’s ?ber-optics business.He also held
several positions in Senior Management at Agilent/Hewlett-Packard,where he was responsible for the development of visible light emitter technology and was one of the core inventors of transparent-substrate AlInGaP light-emitting diodes.He has co-authored over 50peer-reviewed publications and over 30patents in the area of III-V optoelectronic devices.
Dr.Kish received the Optical Society of America Adolph Lomb Award in 1996,the International Symposium on Compound Semiconductors Young Sci-entist Award in 1997,the IEEE LEOS Engineering Achievement Award in 1999,and the IEEE David Sarnoff Award in
2004.
David F.Welch (M ’81–SM ’90)received the B.S.degree in electrical engineering from the University of Delaware,Newark,1981,and the Ph.D.degree in electrical engineering from Cornell University,Ithaca,NY ,in 1984.
In 2001,he founded In ?nera Corporation,Sunny-vale,CA,an optical networking company and is cur-rently its Chief Development Of ?cer.Previously,he was Chief Technology Of ?cer and Vice President of Corporate Development of SDL and JDS Uniphase,San Jose,CA,where he was responsible for the tech-nology and acquisition strategies that culminated in the $41billion acquisition of SDL by JDS Uniphase.
Dr.Welch was the recipient of the Optical Society of America (OSA)Adolph Lomb Award in 1992and the OSA Fraunhofer Award in 1999.He is a Fellow of the OSA.
宗教与文化的关系
宗教与文化的关系 宗教不仅是一种复杂的社会历史现象, 而且也是一种普通而持久的文化现象。它随着社会和历史的发 展而发展, 其思想体系与社会各种思想相互交织, 成为社会文化的重要组成部分。作为传统的文化模式, 宗教不仅在文化、思想等诸多领域对社会的发展会产生重大影响, 而且对一定历史时期、一个民族文化的 发展也会注入特定的内容。人类宗教的发展与人类文化的发展相互影响、相互包容、相互渗透。在不同的 社会历史条件下, 宗教与文化的关系及其相互间的作用会以不同的形式表现出来。 一、宗教与文化的关系 宗教和文化都是人类社会发展到一定阶段的产物, 也是历史发展的标志。据考古学发现, 最初人类的宗教是与人类的文化同时形成的。在原始社会和古代神权制社会中, 整个社会的政治机构和文化形式是与 宗教融为一体的。那时, 宗教和文化构成了有机的统一, 人们几乎可以把宗教与文化等同看待。在原始社会, 人类对社会的认识被超自然、超人间的神秘境界和力量所主宰, 因此, 当时的文化实际上是一种“宗 教文化”。随着人类社会的发展,这种“宗教文化”逐渐演化出多种文化形式, 从而导致了宗教与文化的表面分离, 形成“宗教”与“世俗”两大领域。但宗教与文化最原始的联系至今仍然直接或间接地保留下来。宗教与文化的关系主要表现在两个方面: 第一, 宗教是一种文化现象, 是人类文化的一种表现形式。从表 面看, 宗教观念往往是通过文化形式来表达的, 如宗教本身有其独特的哲学观点、道德规范、律例守则文 艺形式等, 与社会的其他文化领域形成某种区别。但从整体看, 宗教从本质上讲却是一定人类文化的表现。不同的宗教只是不同文化的表现形式, 反映出不同的文化背景, 体现了迥异的文化传统。宗教在本质上讲 是不同民族精神文化象征性、神话性和寓意性的表达, 它不可能脱离文化的内容。可见, 文化是本质性的, 宗教只是文化的一种表现形式, 宗教依赖于文化, 有其具体的文化前提。由于人类文化的丰富性才决定了 世界宗教的多样性, 同样也是由于文化间的相互交流才形成了各种宗教的接触和融合。因此, 我们应该通 过宗教现象看其文化本质, 而不是相反。第二, 人类宗教的发展是与人类文化的发展交织、连接在一起的。宗教不可能离开人类的文化和历史, 因为宗教本来就是人类思想文化的一种表现形式, 它保留着丰富的人 类思想文化内容。宗教又广泛而深刻地影响着其他形态的文化, 与哲学、道德、法律、科学、文学、艺术、民俗等有着密切的关系, 互相包容, 互相渗透。 宗教之所以会对其他文化形态产生影响和作用, 是由于: 1.宗教和文化的产生存在着相互联系的内 在机制。人与其他动物不同, 人的需要不单纯是生理需要, 而且包括心理需要。现实生活中, 人在追求满 足生存需要、心理需要的过程中, 由于客观条件的限制, 难免会产生种种不如意, 由此导致恐怖情绪、依 赖情绪、崇拜情绪、祈求情绪, 从而形成宗教情绪、宗教心理、宗教意识。这就是宗教与文化的必然联系。 2.宗教结构的包容性决定了宗教对文化渗透、影响的广泛性。宗教包括教主、教义、教徒及教会组织、教规、教法等复杂内容。由宗教各种要素的内在规定性和外向辐射性, 必将情况不同地涉及到哲学、道德、 艺术、文学、语言、法律、教育、科技、民俗等, 进而影响到政治和经济。3.宗教的内容决定了对文化影 响的双重性。宗教不但可以与世俗文化形成互补关系, 而且对文化史的发展同样具有一定影响。 二、宗教文化与世俗文化 宗教作为历史较为久远、分布较为普遍、影响较为深广的人类精神文化现象之一与人类世界是紧密相 联的。人类活动的各个方面, 从哲学思想到文学艺术, 从政治经济到文化教育, 从伦理道德到律例习俗, 从科学理论到音乐美术, 无论是社会的价值取向和道德规范, 还是个人的心理状态和行为模式, 都同宗教 有着起初是浑然一体, 尔后又相互渗透、相互影响的关系。为了便于探讨宗教文化与世俗文化, 我们先剖 析一下宗教的文化结构。 首先, 从作为宗教世界观的有神论来分析。人类处于人与社会、人与自然的矛盾交合点中。社会会给 人类带来幸福, 大自然会为人类提供丰富的生活物资, 与此同时, 大自然也会给人类造成意想不到的灾 难。如生老病死、天灾人祸, 社会还会使人受压抑, 人际关系出现摩擦、冲突。如何调节人与自然、人与 社会的矛盾, 探索完美的人生, 在人类社会发展的原始阶段, 由于生产力水平低下和社会生产关系的狭隘, 人类只能借助于想像力或一种超自然、超现实的思维解释人生、解释世界。这种有神论的观念构成了宗教
电台广播稿大全
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阅读的，而广播稿是口念耳听的。正是这一特点决定了广播稿的要求：朗朗上口，声声入耳。 1．人生最重是精神最近，“钱”成了高三班同学们的热点话题。这话题是由小宋帮助因 病缺课的好友小赵补课引起的，到底该不该收下小赵母亲捎来的200元报酬金？为此，高三班在上周五召开了主题班会，班会上，大家联系实际，各自发表意见，对于 这个问题，展开了热烈的讨论。一部分同学认为，我们要适应商品经济发展的形势，更新观念，再也不必谈“钱”色变 了。根据按劳取酬的原则，谁付出了劳动，谁就有权利获得相应的报酬。小宋给小赵补课并 且收到了“学习成绩跟上来了”的效果，这200元收下来没什么不可以的。还有一部分同学保持中立，认为好友补课接受报酬，虽有道理，但是不近人情。因此， 他们主张收下也可以，不收也可以。但是大多数同学的看法是：
劳动有价，情义无价。更新观念的同时也要继承优良传统。 他们说，人是钱的主人，人之所以是人，是因为他有不同于其他动物的高尚追求。钱并不是 一切，人世间还有比金钱更珍贵的东西，那就是理想、人格、友谊、爱情等方面的精神美。 如果见钱眼开，为了钱不顾一切，连人与人之间的相互帮助也要收取报酬，那将是人类的最 大悲哀。因此，他们认为，小宋给小赵补课是同学之间的友情表现，这与出卖劳动力不是同 一回事。他们建议小宋退这笔钱。讨论会后，笔者与小宋进行了交谈，小宋第一句话就表白了自己的想法：“这zoo元我绝不会收！”他还告诉我，当初给小赵补课，压根儿就没有想到什么报酬，只觉得帮助同学是一 种友情。最后，他说同学们的发言使他很受启发，并拿出了讨论会当天晚上的日记给我看。
JAVA常见名词解释
JAVA常见名词解释 面向对象: 面向对象程序设计（Object-Oriented Programming）是一种起源于六十年代，发展已经将近三十年的程序设计思想。其自身理论已十分完善，并被多种面向对象程序设计语言（Object-Oriented Programming Language,以下简称OOPL）实现。对象是对现实世界实体的模拟，由现实实体的过程或信息牲来定义。一个对象可被认为是一个把数据（属性）和程序（方法）封装在一起的实体，这个程序产生该对象的动作或对它接受到的外界信号的反应。这些对象操作有时称为方法。区别面向对象的开发和传统过程的开发的要素有：对象识别和抽象、封装、多态性和继承。（参见百度百科：面向对象） 面向对象要素：封装、多态、继承 Java名词解释： Abstract class 抽象类:抽象类是不允许实例化的类，因此一般它需要被进行扩展继承。 Abstract method 抽象方法:抽象方法即不包含任何功能代码的方法。 Access modifier 访问控制修饰符:访问控制修饰符用来修饰Java中类、以及类的方法和变量的访问控制属性。 Anonymous class 匿名类:当你需要创建和使用一个类，而又不需要给出它的名字或者再次使用的使用，就可以利用匿名类。 Anonymous inner classes 匿名内部类:匿名内部类是没有类名的局部内部类。 API 应用程序接口:提供特定功能的一组相关的类和方法的集合。
Array 数组:存储一个或者多个相同数据类型的数据结构，使用下标来访问。在Java中作为对象处理。 Automatic variables 自动变量:也称为方法局部变量method local variables，即声明在方法体中的变量。 AWT抽象窗口工具集:一个独立的API平台提供用户界面功能。 Base class 基类:即被扩展继承的类。 Blocked state 阻塞状态:当一个线程等待资源的时候即处于阻塞状态。阻塞状态不使用处理器资源 Call stack 调用堆栈:调用堆栈是一个方法列表，按调用顺序保存所有在运行期被调用的方法。 Casting 类型转换:即一个类型到另一个类型的转换，可以是基本数据类型的转换，也可以是对象类型的转换。 char 字符:容纳单字符的一种基本数据类型。 Child class 子类:见继承类Derived class Class 类:面向对象中的最基本、最重要的定义类型。 Class members 类成员:定义在类一级的变量，包括实例变量和静态变量。 Class methods 类方法:类方法通常是指的静态方法，即不需要实例化类就可以直接访问使用的方法。 Class variable 类变量:见静态变量Static variable Collection 容器类:容器类可以看作是一种可以储存其他对象的对象，常见的容器类有Hashtables和Vectors。 Collection interface 容器类接口:容器类接口定义了一个对所有容器类的公共接口。
文学与宗教的关系
相互独立，相互影响的文学与宗教（大一文概期末） 曾几何时，宗教与文学的关系这个话题受到古今诸多学者的高度关注。因而自然地衍生出各种相关学说。然而在读完大学教材《文学理论教程》（第四版）（以下简称《文论》）关于“宗教发生说”后，突然有所触动，觉得有必要再重谈文学与宗教的关系这个由来已久的话题。 本文将简要讨论“宗教发生说”的荒诞，宗教与神话故事的辨析，以及重点讨论文学与宗教信仰之间相互独立、相互影响的关系。 《文论》中讲到了关于文学活动的发生①,不可否认，主流并且的确站得住脚的还是马克思的“劳动说”，然而书中对于“宗教发生说”却介绍得过于模棱两可，漫不经心，不负责任。何以见得呢？此学说理论来源不详，提出者无从考究。其论据倒有现场对于一些大家的与此沾边一点的话罗列出来，而断章取义的效果。 如书中将恩格斯搬出，恩格斯曾说过：“中世纪吧意识形态的其他一切形式——哲学、政治、法学，都合并到神学中，使它们成为神学中的科目。”②③但凡智力正常，有一些逻辑思维能力，在清醒状态下也不会认为这可以支撑所谓的“宗教发生说”吧？ 又如最后拖出格罗塞： 德国美学家格罗塞《艺术的起源》书中认为，艺术在其活动中与结果中都存在着丰富的情感活动。追求情感表达就是艺术的目的，审美活动只以情感表达为内在目的。游戏则介于二者之间，诗人作诗是为了个人兴趣，也是一种公共的事业，他为自己也为别人创作。这样，无处在目的的艺术要超越诗人个人心灵的限度才能实现，它就同教徒虔信宗教并非一定为了长生，发财等实际目的相类似。④ 格罗塞的观点主要不在于他论证了艺术同宗教在发生学上的联系，而是在某种意义上把艺术当成了一种宗教。⑤ 说了一大堆似乎与所谓的“宗教发生说”没有什么关系吧，仅是提到了设计宗教的只言片语便拿来当理论依据，未免过于敷衍了吧。再说了，人家格老师怎么就“在某种意义上把艺术当成了一种宗教”了，不过是个比喻罢了。 由此可见，“宗教发生说”形如浮云，有形无实，风来即散，不值一提。 那么，文学与宗教究竟是一种什么关系呢？ 由于超自然的一些东西总是成为宗教的一大特点，所以一提到宗教，很多人总是把它与鬼神联系起来。但是，如此神话传说并不能划入宗教领域。如《女娲补天》、《夸父追日》、《聊斋志异》，包括《变形记》都不能寄于宗教篱下。对此，可以将其称之为“神话文学”，或者叫“超自然文学”。超自然文学既具有违背客观事物行为规律的，又具有符合文学中对超验世界认识的审美属性。 在剔除宗教形态多余赘肉，实现瘦身后，再来谈宗教与文学，将会相对轻盈一些。 文学与宗教信仰之间是相互独立，相互影响的。《文论》在讲文学的通行含义时说到：由于人类活动的长期发展和现代分类机制的合理化作用，文学的通行含义形成了。文学是艺术门类之一，是主要表现人类审美属性的语言艺术，与此含义不相符的哲学、历史学、科学、宗教、伦理学等其他文化形态，当然就不属于文学范畴，或者就成为非文学了。⑥所以，宗教与文学应是在社会的文化过程中两种独立且平等的意识形态。 不仅如此，文学与宗教存在着不少相似性。它们都涵盖了彼岸世界的神秘性，人生价值的探讨和道德训诫的问题。最具代表性的包括柏拉图的《理想国》，那个存在于美好意念中绝对真理统治的至善永恒的彼岸超验世界。神话文学在这点上很能说明问题。还有《礼记》中所讲的“大同世界”与“彼岸世界”不正有着异曲同工之妙吗？诸多文学著作与宗教理念关于真善美的态度也属这一情况。 文学与宗教相互影响，着包括相互推动与相互限制。宗教在文学发展过程中，起到了
学校广播台简介
昔阳中学校园广播台介绍 “校园之声”广播台是在校团委指导下，由学生自主管理、自主制作节目的社团，是学校进行宣传工作的一个重要窗口,是对学生进行德育教育的一块重要阵地,也是加强校园文化建设的一项重要内容。一个好的校园广播台就是一座联系学校和学生的桥梁，也是一条团结全体同学感情的纽带。 为了丰富校园文化，提高学生的主人翁意识，给学生更多的参与学校管理的机会，方便师生之间、同学之间的交流，同时为了更好的发挥广播台在德育教育中的作用，现将学校广播台向全校教职工及广大学生做以下介绍。 一、广播台职责 1、传达上级及学校的文件政策，通知要求 2、宣传校园文化，对好人好事及时表扬 3、播报班级来稿 4、义务播报招领或寻物启事 二、广播台组成 广播站下设两个部门： 1、编辑部：编辑部是广播站的核心部门，负责修改整理记者稿件， 同时负责专栏节目的制作，是记者和播音沟通的纽带。 2、播音部：播音员负责将记者和编辑的劳动成果通过声音传播出去，向全校播报最新最快的时事咨讯，同时也献上让人能够沉静思考的优美文章。
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企业新闻宣传和社会新闻传媒的关系
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java专业术语
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属于你我的天地。我们为您提供了一个展示自我的舞台，一个实现梦想的空间，一次成就完美的机会。 十二年在古时是一个甲子，一个甲子代表一个轮回。十二年前我们带着梦想起航，十二年后的今天，我们承载了更多人的梦想与青春，让这热情的声音洋溢在活力的校园中。 （摆动荧光棒）“多年以前，我们画过蓝天；多年以后，我们翱翔在蓝天。我们是一群振翅的鸟，众志成诚”。在这十二年中我们校园广播电台不扮演任何角色，即便没有掌声，也要认真以赴，因为青春不仅仅是得到收获，我们用心做好每一件事情，我们用最真诚的心去感染周围的每一个人。我们从不在乎什么是成功，什么是失败，只知道默默不息的耕耘，或许这就是最大的成功。 “这里是伴你认真生活每一天的校园广播电台，无论晴天雨天，我们关心您生活的每一天…..”一句耳熟能详的话语，一句真诚的问候，我们一直真心努力的做好每一档节目，把快乐传递给每一个人。我们的实力与信心，正是来源于这永不停息的汗水与付出。 用心播音，用心写稿，是为了给学院发展贡献一份力量，也是为了丰富老师同学们的校园生活，更重要的是大声的宣布，不论经过多少年，梦想的声音永远不会停息。也许我们不是最好的，但是我们一直努力着做到最好,我们不会辜负老师和前辈给予我们的厚望，不管有多么的艰难，我们都会一如既往的坚持我们最初的梦想，电台一直是延续梦想的平台，它给予我们的永远是源源不断的青春与活力。感
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擎的不同进行划分。 3、不要点击 出现了负面新闻一定不要点击，这点一定要通知公司里的所有人，因为点击量是决定新闻源排名的一项重要因素。 4、稀释，解决负面新闻第一要点：稀释。 ?大型论坛的负面新闻可以联系站长删除 ?新闻媒体就不要联系删除了，毕竟信息传播是媒体的社会责任：也不要联系所 谓的“网络公关公司”删除，很容易被狠敲一笔。（视具体情况而定，若有人脉关系的新闻媒体，可沟通进行删除） 5、正面传播 ?根据收集的关键词发布相关“正面文章”，然后通过各种“新闻源平台”发布出 去，稀释网上的负面新闻，内容原创最佳。 ?这里需要注意的是，要有计划的发布，比如20篇分一周发，不要一股脑的全部 发出去，因为新闻内容的排名和普通网页不同，越新发布的内容排名越好。还可以根据公司客户地域选择“新闻源站点”，因为相关地区的“新闻源站点”排名更有优势，比如“大豫网”对应的是河南地区。 6、辅助工作 ?除了需要花钱的站点之外，各大论坛、博客也是我们需要占领的地方，每天发10 来个站点也不会占用我们太多时间。某些权重较高的负面新闻网页，可以通过刷咱们正面新闻的点击来压下去。当负面新闻集中在3-4页之后，就可以考虑收尾报告了。 四、媒体关系维护 1、为什么要维护媒体关系 媒体是消息及舆论的传播窗口，拥有向公众传播真实社会讯息，揭穿不良行为的社会责任。对我们有利益有弊，保持良好的媒体关系能让我们早预防，早发现对我们不利的消息，为提前做出正确姿态化解危机启到至关重要的作用。 2、关系维护原则 关系维护就像交朋友，感情的深厚是日积月累起来的，遇到事才想起这个“朋友” 势必达不到预期效果，所以媒体关系的维护要从小事做起，从常态化做起。 3、如何维护媒体关系
融洽媒介关系塑造企业形象
融洽媒介关系塑造企业 形象 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT
融洽媒介关系塑造企业形象 CARNOC 顾问陈淑君 摘要："水能载舟，也能覆舟"，媒介就是这能"载舟"和"覆舟"的水。在民航业已经进入市场经 济的今天，融洽媒介关系，争取媒介的了解、理解、支持与合作是现代民航企业生存、发展、壮大的一个重要公共关系手段。 关键词：媒体宣传尊重融洽 了解媒体 我们应该与媒体有良好的合作关系而不是对立情绪，这样，媒体才可能报道更多对我们企业服务有利的信息。曾经有人向我寻求怎样识别媒体人员的偏方，我感到纳闷，仔细了解后才知道，他们讨厌媒体人员。不好的企业服务被媒体爆光后，他们没有检讨自己的问题，把责任归结为记者的"可恶"，（因为记者总是"报忧不报喜"）。所以他们希望自己有"火眼金睛"，能够一眼分辨媒体人员，然后小心服务以不授"记"于柄。我没有偏方，只有正方，那就是踏踏实实、认认真真做好自己的服务。 媒体，也称媒介、传播媒体。媒体在英文中表述为media，意思是指信息传播过程中，从传播者到接受者之间携带和传递信息的任何物质工具。计算机、光盘、网络、电影、电视、无线电广播、录音、录像、图片、幻灯片、投影片和印刷材料等都属于媒体。1943年，美国图书馆协会的《战后公共图书馆的准则》一书中首先出现了媒体这一术语，现在已成为各种传播工具的总称。 从理论上讲，媒体应该负起一个国家和民族的责任，应该对祖国和人民负责！特别是在我国全面进入市场经济后，尤其是在政府更大程度地减少对社会许多方面的具体管理后，社会的正义将受到"利益驱动"的更大挑战。在这种情况下，就需要作为社会监督化身的媒体维护社会正义、维护人民大众利益，惩恶扬善应是媒体的基本工作内容。在这个过程中，媒体应表现出理性的、自觉的社会责任感。但是，我们还应该明白，媒体是为社会负责，而不是单纯的为某一个体负责，为某一企业服务。所以怎样让为社会工作的媒体为企业所用，这是每一个企业都必须思考的问题。 要让媒体为企业所用，首先就要了解媒体的生存法则，换句话说就是媒体靠什么生存，如果企业能够向媒体提供其生存的养料，媒体才可能为企业所用。目前，普遍认为媒体的生存法则是"内容为王"。"内容为王"要求媒体的内容能够迎和公众的心理需求，事实上不同媒介的做法在很大程 度上是相同，相通的。那么公众的兴趣又是什么呢 公众兴趣 要说明什么是公众兴趣，首先要看什么是公众。笔者认为公众是因共同利益而结合，由个体组成的自愿的、随机的、松散的集合体，该集合体随着共同利益的达成而解体。换句话说公众这个定义："公众是指一定社会中有着共同的利益，面对共同关注的社会问题或现象，有着大致相同的意见、态度的人群。"（《新闻学导论》李良荣高等教育出版社 P46）
宗教文化与中国文学关系
宗教文化与中国文学 塔在长安东南区，上文俯视长安是面向西北。 天宝十一载（752年），杜甫、高适、岑参、薛据、储光羲等到慈恩寺登塔游玩，除薛据外都有《同诸公登慈恩寺塔》同题诗作流传后世，成为千古传唱的名篇。 ?塔在长安东南区，上文俯视长安是面向西北。 【寺院】 ?佛寺的通称，指安置佛像、经卷，且供僧众居住以便修行、弘法的场所。略称寺，又名寺刹、僧寺、精舍、道场、佛刹、梵刹、净刹、伽蓝、兰若、丛林、檀林、旃檀林、净住舍、法同舍、出世间舍、金刚净刹、寂灭道场、远离恶处、亲近善处、清净无极园等。此外，民间也往往讹称为庙。 ?［印度］相当于‘寺院’的梵语有四︰ ?(1)音译毗诃罗，意译为住处、游行处、精舍、僧坊。 ?(2)原意指幡竿，讹译为刹。因一般习惯在佛堂前立刹，故有此称。 ?(3)音译为僧伽蓝摩、伽蓝。意译为众园、精舍。即大众共住的园林，多为国王或大富长者所施舍，以供僧侣止住。 ?(4)音译阿兰若、阿练若、兰若、练若，意译无诤、空闲处。指村外适于清静修道之所。 ?根据古寺院的遗迹，可知印度佛寺多在中央设方形佛殿，殿外有僧房围绕，殿内正面则安置佛龛。建材系采石、砖、木三种。形式有佛堂、僧房、塔婆等分别。 ?［中国］据《汉书》〈元帝纪〉注云︰‘凡府廷所在，皆谓之寺。’《大宋僧史略》卷上〈创造伽蓝〉条云︰‘寺者，释名曰寺，嗣也。治事者相嗣续于其内也。本是司名。西僧乍来，权止公司。移入别居，不忘其本，还标寺号。僧寺之名始于此也。’ ?可知在汉代，寺原为中央与地方的政事机关，如太常寺、鸿胪寺（招待诸侯及四方边民之所）。后因西域僧东来，多先住鸿胪寺，逮移居他处时，其所住处仍标寺号。从此遂称僧侣的居所为寺。又，‘院’本是周围有垣之意，转指周垣或有回廊的建筑物，亦指官舍。至于将佛教建筑称为‘院’，则始自唐代在大慈恩寺所建的翻经院。至宋代，官立的大寺亦多称院。 ?中国早期佛寺建筑的布局，大致沿袭印度形式。尔后因融入固有的民族风格，遂呈现新貌。其建材以木为主，多设于平地（如府城市街）或山中。故后世寺院除寺号、院号外，亦附加山号。又有以年号名寺者，如北魏之景明寺、正始寺、唐之开元寺。此外，寺院若依创设者而分，可分成官寺（由官府所建）、私寺（由私人营造）。若依住寺者而分，乃有僧寺、尼寺之别。若依宗派，则分为禅院（禅宗）、教院（天台、华严诸宗）、律院（律宗）或禅寺（禅宗）、讲寺（从事经论研究之寺院）、教寺（从事世俗教化之寺院）等类。 ?创建于东汉明帝时的洛阳白马寺，为我国佛寺的滥觞，其后续有建业（南京）建初寺、武昌昌乐寺、慧宝寺、金陵瑞相院、保宁寺、苏州通玄寺、扬州化城寺、四明德润寺等。西晋初年，京洛一带造寺塔图像而礼拜之风盛行，不少达官显贵或舍旧宅，或于各地立寺塔。当时佛教建筑概称为‘浮图’。后因高峻层塔渐为寺院的重要象征，‘浮图’遂转而专指高塔。 【浮图】 ?与佛图、浮屠同为佛陀的另一音译。意译为净觉。也是寺塔的别名。《广弘明集》卷二云︰‘浮图，或言佛陀，声相转也。译云净觉，言灭秽成明道为圣悟也。’另外，《佛说十二游经》云︰‘为佛作精舍，作十二佛图寺、七十二讲堂、三千六百间屋、五百楼阁。’《大智度论》卷十一云︰‘阿输伽王一日作八万佛图。’卷十六云︰‘或焚烧山野及诸聚落佛图、精舍。’等所说即指寺塔。又，《分别功德论》卷三也有此种用例。 【塔】 ?指埋藏遗骨、经卷，或为标示特别灵地而造的建筑物。塔是略称，具称为塔婆，或窣睹波、数斗婆、私偷簸、苏偷婆等，意译方坟、圆冢、归宗或高显、聚相、灭恶生善处等。 ?一般而言，造塔是为供奉遗骨，但也有为供奉佛的爪发、牙齿、钵衣之类而造塔。或在与佛陀一生行历中主要事件有关的地方设塔纪念，如在佛生处、成道处等造四塔、八塔之类。
校园广播栏目完整版教学内容
中学广播台栏目安排 周一：《新闻聚焦》 栏目内容：校园新闻、当地新闻、国家新闻、国际新闻、转播电视台直播新闻的音频 《青春点歌台》 栏目内容：也许你想对身边的朋友说点什么；也许你想给尊敬的老师送点什么；也许你更想对心中的他或她表达点什么，点一首歌、发送一份祝福说不定你会得到一份意外的收获 周二：《精彩人生》 内容：感恩社会、道德故事、心理健康、励志故事，名人成长故事 《文学星空》 栏目内容：名家名作、学生作品展、学生小说连载、广播剧连载 周三：《青春校园》 栏目内容：校园里的新闻、故事；可以进行校园人物访谈，学生做客广播室，运动员分享训练历程，比赛经验。学习标 兵分享学习经验。优秀寝室长分享寝室管理经验等等。校园好人好事。可以对校园正在进行的重要活动进行直播， 《奇趣大自然》
栏目内容：世界奇事怪闻、最新科技 《开心时分》 栏目内容：微博热门话题、轻松一刻、音乐分享 周四：《服务之声》 栏目内容：学习生活健康旅游 本节目即为广大学生提供一些切身的服务，帮助大家解决生活和学习之中的困扰。本节目在平时会为大家播出一些关于学习方法、生活保健等常识小品以及与大家贴身利益相关的内容，在节假日还会为大家送出一些旅游信息，为大家假日出游作好准备 《资讯》 栏目内容：推荐书籍、电影 节目开场白，介绍 总节目开场白与结束语： 中午： 1．各位老师， 各位同学，大家好。伴随着这熟悉的乐曲，聆听着这动人的旋律；Xx中学广播站现在开始播音。 2. 亲爱的同学们，又是温暖明媚的一天，xx中学校园广播站又带着秋风和大家见面了！首先愿每位收听我们广播的老师或同学，都在这
美好的天气里有一份很好的心情去对待一天的工作和学习 下午： 3.辛苦了一天，希望我们的节目，能让您紧张的一天得到放松（开场不用太长，只要配上优美的音乐，配上主持人缓缓的声音，效果应该不错） 4. 同学们，中午好（下午好）！xx中学广播站今天中午（下午）的播音又与大家见面了，我是今天的节目主持... 一首歌曲之后欢迎回到我们的节目中来。 结束语：同学们，今天我们的节目到此就结束了，非常感谢您的收听，让我们在明天同一时间再见！ 周五： 5. 结束语：“本周的广播到此结束，祝老师、同学们周末愉快，下周再见！” 栏目介绍开场 一．《新闻聚焦》 开场白：甲：风声、雨声、读书声，声声入耳;乙：家事、国事、天下事，事事关心。齐：新闻聚焦将为你送上最新热点新闻，欢迎收听结束语： 二．《开心时分》
政府企业与新闻媒体合作技巧
政府、企业与新闻媒体合作技巧如今的企业就好像生活在一个透明的环境里，他们的一举一动都会被世界上其它地方的人看到，而且几乎是同步的。原因很简单，互联网普及了，新闻传播速度加快了，你的信誉无处可藏，就算你不愿意也得把你最深、最暗的一面拿出来展示给大家。 全球性的快速传播能够将坏消息像传染病一样迅速扩展开来。企业要想在这种环境下不断获得壮大发展，就要求时时刻刻提醒自己是一个公众形象，并且积极维护自己的信誉，把它当作一种资产，在各种媒体中进行炒作。否则，企业的每一个有损于信誉的举动，都成为了企业的“自我毁灭”行为。如何学会与新闻媒体的沟通则成为了当前企业市场部或公关部工作人员的一门必修课。 三个月之前，笔者与一个知名企业的市场部总监接触，他的观点真是不敢恭维。他是这样说的：“我们的原则是与媒体保持距离。”可是这话刚说不到一个月，该企业的一些不愿意公开的行为被某报纸来了一个连续曝光，而且还有网上报道，四处受到转载。因为先前他们与新闻媒体没有什么接触，当曝光事件出现以后，才匆匆忙忙地去找报道该事件的记者。被动的局面可想而知。 知名的企业尚是如此，其它的一般企业就更不用说了。与新闻媒体有效沟通是一项核心的公关技巧。与新闻记者建立起稳固的关系，组织成功的新闻活动，跟踪新闻报道，保证信息的传播，将有助于企业的经营发展。为了使更多
的企业能更好地进行公关活动，充分利用媒体报道来协助企业经营，笔者以个人的心得与各位进行一下交流。 一、和媒体交朋友 与媒体良好沟通常常会带来较好的新闻报道。了解关键的新闻记者，确定他们知道你，然后通过自然的接触为企业获得优秀的新闻报道。这就要求企业相关人员要了解报刊杂志、广播和电视台是工作人员是如何开展工作的。只有相互了解才能相互支持。比如你要知道什么样的信息是媒体朋友所需要的，你才能适时的提供给他们。我记得有一次我正在为某厨房企业做策划，而当时我的一位媒体朋友正在主持这么一个专栏，很需要这方面的稿件，我们就一拍即合。这就是与媒体交朋友对企业的好处所在。与媒体交朋友，一般需要做如下工作： 1、引起关注：就是企业要学会制造一些具有新闻价值的事件，引起媒体的关注。一旦新闻人员开始向你就事件的经过寻求帮助时，就意味着融洽的关系已经建立。与媒体建立积极的关系可以塑造、提高组织形象，推广产品、陈述事件，让受众(包括普通受众、政要、商业受众、专业受众)了解企业情况。与媒体保持接触能让你对别人的说法做出反应。 2、建立联系：一般情况下，与媒体良好沟通并与媒体人士保持长久、稳固联系的企业会吸引更多的新闻报道，尤其是更多正面的报道。观看电视、收听广播，阅读报纸杂志，这样，你就能熟悉各种类型的报道以及语言运用的风格。确定可能会正面报道所在企业新闻的节目和出版物。去了解当地或行业出
java常见简答题
一、基础知识 1．简述使用文本编辑器和JDK创建并运行Java应用程序的基本步骤。 2. 对比分析Java与其它高级语言的编译和运行过程，说明Java具有平台独立性的原因？ 3.简述break和continue语句在使用时的区别？ 二、类和对象1 1.什么是类？什么是对象？类和对象有何联系？ 2.方法的重载和方法的覆盖有什么不同？ 3.类变量和实例变量有何区别？ 4.Java的成员变量修饰符有哪几种？其中哪种修饰符限定的范围最大？ 5.作用域public,private,protected,以及不写时的区别 6.说明对象的基本概念和主要特征？ 三、类和对象2 1.抽象类和抽象方法有什么特点？ 2.接口和抽象类有什么区别？ 3.什么是包？为什么要使用包？
4．简述在类的继承关系中，子类可以继承父类的哪些成员，不能继承的有哪些成员。 5.多态 多态：相同类型的变量，调用相同的方法，执行的具体代码却不同的现象称为多态 继承与多态表现形式：变量隐藏 (属性的不同表现)方法重写(方法的不同表现) 上转型对象(实例的不同表现) 方法的覆盖 规则：父类和子类方法同名；返回值类型形同；参数类型顺序相同；子类方法的权限不小于父类方法权限；子类方法只能抛出父类方法声明抛出的异常或异常子类。（异常应比父类方法更具体）p119 继承关系图 注意：子类只有在能够访问到父类方法时才能对该方法进行重写 函数重载：函数名称相同，函数的参数个数不同或参数类型不同或参数顺序不同 四、异常 1.Error类和Exception类有什么区别？ 2.什么是异常？为什么要进行异常处理？ 3.简述异常处理的过程。 4.写出下列关键字的意义和运用场合：①final；②finalize；③finally。 五、常用类库 1.Vector对象的大小与容量之间有什么区别？ 2.String类和StringBuffer类的主要区别是什么？
校园电台的广播稿
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