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对美国货币政策框架的权威介绍

U.S. Monetary Policy: An Introduction

This site provides an introduction to U.S. monetary policy as it is currently conducted by answering a series of questions:

U.S. monetary policy affects all kinds of economic and financial decisions people make in this country—whether to get a loan to buy a new house or car or to start up a company, whether to expand a business by investing in a new plant or equipment, and whether to put savings in a bank, in bonds, or in the stock market, for example. Furthermore, because the U.S. is the largest economy in the world, its monetary policy also has significant economic and financial effects on other countries.

The object of monetary policy is to influence the performance of the economy as reflected in such factors as inflation, economic output, and employment. It works by affecting demand across the economy—that is, people's and firms' willingness to spend on goods and services.

While most people are familiar with the fiscal policy tools that affect demand—such as taxes and government spending—many are less familiar with monetary policy and its tools. Monetary policy is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, the nation's central bank, and it influences demand mainly by raising and lowering short-term interest rates.

1. How is the Federal Reserve structured?

The Federal Reserve System (called the Fed, for short) is the nation's central bank. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1913 and consists of the seven members of the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., and twelve Federal Reserve District Banks (see the map; for a discussion of the Fed's overall responsibilities, see The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions).

The Congress structured the Fed to be independent within the government—that is, although the Fed is accountable to the Congress, it is insulated from day-to-day political pressures. This reflects the conviction that the people who control the country's money supply should be independent of the people who frame the government's spending decisions. Most studies of central bank independence rank the Fed among the most independent in the world.

2. What makes the Fed independent?

Three structural features make the Fed independent: the appointment procedure for governors, the appointment procedure for Reserve Bank Presidents, and funding.

Appointment Procedure for Governors

The seven Governors on the Federal Reserve Board are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. Independence derives from a couple of factors: first, the appointments are staggered to reduce the chance that a single U.S. President could "load" the Board with appointees; second their terms of office are 14 years—much longer than elected officials' terms.

Appointment Procedure for Reserve Bank Presidents

Each Reserve Bank President is appointed to a five-year term by that Bank's Board of Directors, subject to final approval by the Board of Governors. This procedure adds to independence because the Directors of each Reserve Bank are not chosen by politicians but are selected to provide a cross-section of interests within the region, including those of depository institutions, nonfinancial businesses, labor, and the public.

Funding

The Fed is structured to be self-sufficient in the sense that it meets its operating expenses primarily from the interest earnings on its portfolio of securities. Therefore, it is independent of Congressional decisions about appropriations.

3. How is the Fed "independent within the government"?

Even though the Fed is independent of Congressional appropriations and administrative control, it is ultimately accountable to Congress and comes under government audit and review. The Chairman, other Governors, and Reserve Bank Presidents report regularly to the Congress on monetary policy, regulatory policy, and a variety of other issues, and meet with senior Administration officials to discuss the Federal Reserve's and the federal government's economic programs. The Fed also reports to Congress regarding its finances.

4. Who makes monetary policy?

The Fed's FOMC (Federal Open Market Committee) has primary responsibility for conducting monetary policy. The FOMC meets in Washington eight times a year and has twelve members: the seven members of the Board of Governors, the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and four of the other Reserve Bank Presidents, who serve in rotation. The remaining Reserve Bank Presidents contribute to the Committee's discussions and deliberations.

In addition, the Directors of each Reserve Bank contribute to monetary policy by making recommendations about the appropriate discount rate, which are subject to final approval by the Governors.

What are the tools of monetary policy?

The Fed can't control inflation or influence output and employment directly; instead, it affects them indirectly, mainly by raising or lowering

short-term interest rates. The Fed affects interest rates mainly through open market operations and the discount rate, and both of these methods work through the market for bank reserves, known as the federal funds market.

5. What are bank reserves?

Banks and other depository institutions (for convenience, we'll refer to all of these as "banks") are legally required to hold a specific amount of funds in reserve. These funds, which can be used to meet unexpected outflows, are called reserves, and banks keep them as cash in their vaults or as deposits with the Fed. Currently, banks must hold between 3% and 10% of the funds they have in interest-bearing and non-interest-bearing checking accounts as reserves (depending on the dollar amount of such accounts held at each bank). Banks also may hold additional reserves needed for clearing overnight checks and other payments.

6. What is the federal funds market?

From day to day, the amount of reserves a bank has to hold may change as its deposits and transactions change. When a bank needs additional reserves on a short-term basis, it can borrow them from other banks that happen to have more reserves than they need. These loans take place in a private financial market called the federal funds market.

The interest rate on the overnight borrowing of reserves is called the federal funds rate or simply the "funds rate." It adjusts to balance the supply of and demand for reserves. For example, an increase in the amount of reserves

supplied to the federal funds market causes the funds rate to fall, while a decrease in the supply of reserves raises that rate.

7. What are open market operations?

The major tool the Fed uses to affect the supply of reserves in the banking system is open market operations—that is, the Fed buys and sells government securities on the open market. These operations are conducted by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.

Suppose the Fed wants the funds rate to fall. To do this, it buys government securities from a bank. The Fed then pays for the securities by increasing that bank's reserves. As a result, the bank now has more reserves than it is required to hold. So the bank can lend these excess reserves to another bank in the federal funds market. Thus, the Fed's open market purchase increases the supply of reserves to the banking system, and the federal funds rate falls.

When the Fed wants the funds rate to rise, it does the reverse, that is, it sells government securities. The Fed receives payment in reserves from banks, which lowers the supply of reserves in the banking system, and the funds rate rises.

8. What is the discount rate?

Banks also can borrow reserves from the Federal Reserve Banks at their "discount windows," and the interest rate they must pay on this borrowing is called the discount rate. The total quantity of discount window borrowing tends to be small, because the Fed discourages such borrowing except to meet occasional short-term reserve deficiencies (see The Federal Reserve: Purposes and Functions for a discussion of other types of discount window borrowing that are unrelated to monetary policy).

The discount rate plays a role in monetary policy because, traditionally, changes in the rate may have "announcement effects"—that is, they sometimes signal to markets a significant change in monetary policy. A higher discount rate can be used to indicate a more restrictive policy, while a lower rate may signal a more expansionary policy. Therefore, discount rate changes are often coordinated with FOMC decisions to change the funds rate.

9. What about foreign currency operations?

Purchases and sales of foreign currency by the Fed are directed by the FOMC, acting in cooperation with the Treasury, which has overall responsibility for these operations. The Fed does not have targets, or desired levels, for the exchange rate. Instead, the Fed gets involved to counter disorderly movements in foreign exchange markets, such as speculative movements that may disrupt the efficient functioning of these markets or of financial markets in general. For example, during some periods of disorderly declines in the dollar, the Fed has purchased dollars (sold foreign currency) to absorb some of the selling pressure.

Intervention operations involving dollars, whether initiated by the Fed, the Treasury, or by a foreign authority, are not allowed to alter the supply of bank reserves or the funds rate. The process of keeping intervention from affecting reserves and the funds rate is called the "sterilization" of exchange market operations. As such, these operations are not used as a tool of monetary policy.

10. How does monetary policy affect the economy?

The point of implementing policy through raising or lowering interest rates is to affect people's and firms' demand for goods and services. This

section discusses how policy actions affect real interest rates, which in turn affect demand and ultimately output, employment, and inflation.

11. What are real interest rates and why do they matter?

For the most part, the demand for goods and services is not related to the market interest rates quoted on the financial pages of newspapers, known as nominal rates. Instead, it is related to real interest rates—that is, nominal interest rates minus the expected rate of inflation.

Variations in expected inflation can make a big difference in interpreting the stance of monetary policy. In 1978, the nominal funds rate averaged 8%, but the rate of inflation was 9%. So, even though nominal interest rates were high, monetary policy actually was stimulating demand with a negative real funds rate of minus 1%.

By contrast, in early 1999, the nominal funds rate was 4-3/4% and the inflation rate was running at about 2%. This implied a positive 2-3/4% real funds rate. So the nominal funds rate of 8% in 1978 was more stimulative than the 4-3/4% nominal funds rate in early 1999.

12. How do real interest rates affect economic activity in the short run?

Changes in real interest rates affect the public's demand for goods and services mainly by altering borrowing costs, the availability of bank loans, the wealth of households, and foreign exchange rates.

For example, a decrease in real interest rates lowers the cost of borrowing and leads to increases in business investment spending and household purchases of durable goods, such as autos and new homes.

In addition, lower real rates and a healthy economy may increase banks' willingness to lend to businesses and households. This may increase spending, especially by smaller borrowers who have few sources of credit other than banks.

Lower real rates make common stocks and other such investments more attractive than bonds and other debt instruments; as a result, common stock prices tend to rise. Households with stocks in their portfolios find that the value of their holdings has gone up, and this increase in wealth makes them willing to spend more. Higher stock prices also make it more attractive for businesses to invest in plant and equipment by issuing stock.

In the short run, lower real interest rates in the U.S. also tend to reduce the foreign exchange value of the dollar, which lowers the prices of the exports we sell abroad and raises the prices we pay for foreign-produced goods. This leads to higher aggregate spending on goods and services produced in the U.S.

The increase in aggregate demand for the economy's output through these various channels leads firms to raise production and employment, which in turn increases business spending on capital goods even further by making greater demands on existing factory capacity. It also boosts consumption further because of the income gains that result from the higher level of economic output.

13. How does monetary policy affect inflation?

Wages and prices will begin to rise at faster rates if monetary policy stimulates aggregate demand enough to push labor and capital markets beyond their long-run capacities. In fact, a monetary policy that persistently attempts to keep short-term real rates low will lead eventually to higher inflation and higher nominal interest rates, with no permanent increases in the

growth of output or decreases in unemployment. As noted earlier, in the long run, output and employment cannot be set by monetary policy. In other words, while there is a trade-off between higher inflation and lower unemployment in the short run, the trade-off disappears in the long run.

Policy also can affect inflation directly through people's expectations about future inflation. For example, suppose the Fed eases monetary policy. If consumers and businesspeople expect higher inflation in the future, they'll ask for bigger increases in wages and prices. That in itself will raise inflation without big changes in employment and output.

14. Doesn't U.S. inflation depend on worldwide capacity, not just U.S. capacity?

In this era of intense global competition, it might seem parochial to focus on U.S. capacity as a determinant of U.S. inflation, rather than on world capacity. For example, some argue that even if unemployment in the U.S. drops to very low levels, U.S. workers wouldn't be able to push for higher wages, because they're competing for jobs with workers abroad, who are willing to accept much lower wages.

This reasoning doesn't hold up too well, however, for a couple of reasons. First, a large proportion of what we consume in the U.S. isn't affected very much by foreign trade. One example is health care, which isn't traded internationally and which amounts to about 14% of GDP.

Second, even when we consider goods that are traded internationally, the effect on U.S. prices is largely offset by flexible foreign exchange rates. Suppose the price of steel, or some other good, is lower in Japan than in the U.S. When U.S. manufacturers buy Japanese steel, they have to pay for it in yen, which they buy on the foreign exchange market. As a result, the value of the yen will climb relative to the dollar, and the cost of Japanese steel to U.S.

firms will go up—even though the Japanese have not changed the (yen) price they charge.

15. How long does it take a policy action to affect the economy and inflation?

The lags in monetary policy are long and variable. The major effects of a change in policy on growth in the overall production of goods and services usually are felt within three months to two years. And the effects on inflation tend to involve even longer lags, perhaps one to three years, or more.

16. Why are the lags so hard to predict?

Since monetary policy is aimed at affecting people's demand, it's dealing with human responses, which are changeable and hard to predict.

For example, the effect of a policy action on the economy will depend on what people think the Fed action means for inflation in the future. If people believe that a tightening of policy means the Fed is determined to keep inflation under control, they'll immediately expect low inflation in the future, so they're likely to ask for smaller wage and price increases, and this will help to achieve that end. But if people aren't convinced that the Fed is going to contain inflation, they're likely to ask for bigger wage and price increases, and that means that inflation is likely to rise. In this case, the only way to bring inflation down is to tighten so much and for so long that there are significant losses in employment and output.

How does monetary policy affect the economy?

The point of implementing policy through raising or lowering interest rates is to affect people's and firms' demand for goods and services. This

section discusses how policy actions affect real interest rates, which in turn affect demand and ultimately output, employment, and inflation.

17. What are real interest rates and why do they matter?

18. How do real interest rates affect economic activity in the short run?

19. How does monetary policy affect inflation?

20. Doesn't U.S. inflation depend on worldwide capacity, not just U.S. capacity?

firms will go up—even though the Japanese have not changed the (yen) price they charge.

21. How long does it take a policy action to affect the economy and inflation?

22. Why are the lags so hard to predict?

Since monetary policy is aimed at affecting people's demand, it's dealing with human responses, which are changeable and hard to predict.

How does the Fed formulate its strategies?

The Fed's job of stabilizing output in the short run and promoting price stability in the long run is made more difficult by two main factors: the long and

variable lags in policy, and the uncertain influences of factors other than monetary policy on the economy.

23. What problems do lags cause?

The Fed's job would be much easier if monetary policy had swift and sure effects. Policymakers could set policy, see its effects, and then adjust the settings until they eliminated any discrepancy between economic developments and the goals.

But with the long lags and uncertain effects of monetary policy actions, the Fed must be able to anticipate the effects of its policy actions into the distant future. To see why, suppose the Fed waits to shift its policy stance until it actually sees an increase in inflation. That would mean that inflationary momentum already had developed, so the task of reducing inflation would be that much harder and more costly in terms of job losses. Not surprisingly, anticipating policy effects in the future is a difficult task.

24. What problems are caused by other influences on the economy?

Output, employment, and inflation are influenced not only by monetary policy, but also by such factors as our government's taxing and spending policies, the availability and price of key natural resources (such as oil), economic developments abroad, financial conditions at home and abroad, and the introduction of new technologies.

In order to have the desired effect on the economy, the Fed must take into account the influences of these other factors and either offset them or reinforce them as needed. This isn't easy because sometimes these developments occur unexpectedly, and because the size and timing of their effects are difficult to estimate.

The 1997-98 currency crisis in East Asia is a good example. Over this period, economic activity in several countries in that region either slowed or declined, and this reduced their demand for U.S. products. In addition, the foreign exchange value of most of their currencies depreciated, and this made Asian–produced goods less expensive for us to buy and U.S.–produced goods more expensive in Asian countries. By themselves, these factors would reduce the demand for U.S. products and therefore lower our output and employment. As a result, this is a factor that the Fed has had to consider in setting monetary policy.

Another example is the spread of new technologies that can enhance productivity. When workers and capital are more productive, the economy can expand more rapidly without creating inflationary pressures. In the 1990s, there have been indications that the U.S. economy may have experienced a productivity surge, perhaps brought on by computers and other high-tech developments. The issue for monetary policymakers is how much faster productivity is increasing and whether those increases are temporary or permanent.

25. With all these uncertainties, how does the Fed know how and when its policies will affect the economy?

The Fed looks at a whole range of indicators of the future course of output, employment, and inflation. Among the indicators are measures of the money supply, real interest rates, the unemployment rate, nominal and real GDP growth, commodity prices, exchange rates, various interest rate spreads (including the term structure of interest rates), and inflation expectations surveys.

Economic forecasting models help give structure to understanding the interplay of these indicators and policy actions. But these models are far from

perfect—so policymakers rely on their own less formal judgments about indicators as well.

Indeed, policymakers often disagree about how important one indicator is rather than another—and this isn't surprising, because the indicators can be hard to interpret, and they can even give contradictory signals.

To illustrate the difficulties of interpreting these indicators, consider the problems with three of the most prominent: the money supply measures (M1, M2, and M3), real interest rates, and the unemployment rate.

26. What are the problems of using the money supply as an indicator of future economic performance?

Before much of the deregulation of the financial markets in the 1980s, measures of the money supply were pretty reliable predictors of aggregate spending; moreover, they could be controlled relatively well by the Fed. So the Fed paid special attention to them and to their annual target ranges during the 1970s and 1980s. In fact, from late 1979 to late 1982 the Fed explicitly targeted money on a short-term basis.

But the predictable relationship between the money supply and aggregate spending began to fall apart once financial markets were deregulated and new financial instruments were introduced. For example, consider M1, a narrow monetary measure, which includes only currency and (fully) checkable deposits. Before deregulation, banks couldn't pay explicit interest on the deposits in M1, so people tended to keep only as much in them as they needed for their transactions; that made those deposits track spending pretty closely.

Once banks were allowed to pay explicit interest nationwide on checkable deposits, M1 no longer reflected spending so well, because people

started to leave money in those deposits over and above what they needed for transactions. Furthermore, once private financial markets started introducing instruments that competed with M1 deposits, some people shifted their funds to those instruments, and that also weakened the relationship between M1 and spending. Ultimately, the same kinds of deterioration occurred with the broader money supply measures, M2 and M3.

The Fed still establishes annual ranges for M2 and M3, as well as for total nonfinancial debt, as required by Congress. However, given the problems with the reliability of the aggregates, they have come to play a less central role in the formulation of monetary policy in the 1990s.

27. What are the problems with using real interest rates as indicators of future economic performance?

Real interest rates are natural variables to consider as policy indicators, since they are influenced by the Fed and they are a key link in the transmission mechanism of monetary policy. But real interest rates are problematic as indicators of real GDP for at least two reasons.

First, it is not always obvious when real rates are "high" or "low." The reason is that real rates are figured as the nominal rate minus expected future inflation. The level of expected future inflation may be hard to estimate.

Second, it also is not obvious how to determine the equilibrium real interest rate—that is, the rate that would be consistent with the full employment of labor and with real GDP being on its long-run growth path. This rate is needed as a benchmark to judge whether a given real interest rate is expansionary or contractionary.

The equilibrium real rate varies over time in ways that are difficult to measure or predict, and it depends on many factors, such as the productivity of

investment, fiscal policy, tax rates, and preferences for risk and saving. So, unless real interest rates are extremely high or low relative to historical experience, it can be difficult to interpret the implications of observed market interest rates for future economic developments.

28. Why is it hard to pinpoint the natural rate of unemployment?

The unemployment rate sometimes is used as an indicator of future inflation. In judging the inflationary implications of the unemployment rate, some economists focus on the so-called "natural rate" of unemployment as a benchmark. The natural rate is the unemployment rate that would occur when short-run cyclical factors have played themselves out—that is, when wages have had time to adjust to balance labor demand and supply. All else equal, if unemployment is below the natural rate, inflation would tend to rise; likewise, if unemployment is above the natural rate, inflation would tend to fall.

But it is difficult to know what the natural rate of unemployment is, because it can change if the structure of the labor market changes. For example, the natural rate rose temporarily in the 1970s as more women sought jobs. And in recent years, some economists have argued that the natural rate has fallen because of worker "insecurity" stemming from rapid changes in the job skills needed by firms as computers and other new technologies were introduced.

29. Is that why policymakers look at so many indicators?

Although all of the indicators mentioned above provide some useful information, none is reliable enough to be used mechanically as a sole target or guide to policy.

As a result, each FOMC policymaker must process all the available information according to his or her own best judgment and with the advice of

the best research available. They then discuss and debate the policy options at FOMC meetings and try to reach a consensus on the best course of action.

2007-2010年历年货币政策

2007-2010年历年货币政策 1997年亚洲金融危机之后，为应对当时的严峻经济形势，中国开始实行稳健的货币政策。 1998年至2002年，中国面临通缩压力，那时稳健的货币政策取向是增加货币供应量。 2003年以来，面对经济中出现的贷款、投资、外汇储备快速增长等新变化，稳健的货币政策内涵开始发生变化，适当紧缩银根，多次上调存款准备金率和利率。 2007年6月13日，国务院召开常务会议，货币政策开始“稳中适度从紧”。 2007年12月5日，中央经济工作会议将2008年宏观调控的首要任务定为“两个防止”：防止经济增长由偏快转为过热、防止价格由结构性上涨演变为明显通货膨胀。会议要求实行从紧的货币政策。 2008年7月以来，面对国际金融危机加剧、国内通胀压力减缓等情况，中国人民银行调整金融宏观调控措施，连续三次下调存贷款基准利率，两次下调存款准备金率，取消对商业银行信贷规划的约束，并引导商业银行扩大贷款总量。 2008年11月5日，国务院常务会议根据世界经济金融危机日趋严峻的形势，要求实行积极的财政政策和适度宽松的货币政策，确定了进一步扩大内需、促进经济增长的十项措施。 2009年7月23日，中共中央政治局召开会议，指出要继续把促进经济平稳较快发展作为经济工作的首要任务，保持宏观经济政策的连续性和稳定性，继续实施积极的财政政策和适度宽松的货币政策。国务院总理温家宝近日就当前全国

财政工作作出重要批示时指出，要继续坚定不移实施积极的财政政策和适度宽松的货币政策。8月5日，中国人民银行此间发布的《中国货币政策执行报告（２００９年第二季度）》指出，下阶段中国人民银行将坚定不移地继续落实适度宽松的货币政策，根据国内外经济走势和价格变化，注重运用市场化手段进行动态微调。 2009年12月5日至7日，中央经济工作会议提出,2010年要保持宏观经济政策的连续性和稳定性，继续实施积极的财政政策和适度宽松的货币政策。货币政策要保持连续性和稳定性，增强针对性和灵活性。要密切跟踪国内外经济形势变化，把握好货币信贷增长速度，加大信贷政策对经济社会薄弱环节、就业、战略性新兴产业、产业转移等方面的支持，有效缓解小企业融资难问题，保证重点建设项目贷款需要，严格控制对高耗能、高排放行业和产能过剩行业的贷款，着力提高信贷质量和效益。要积极扩大直接融资，引导和规范资本市场健康发展。央行：2010年继续实施适度宽松货币政策 2010年3月5日，温家宝总理在十一届全国人大三次会议上作政府工作报告时指出，2010年继续实施积极的财政政策和适度宽松的货币政策，保持政策的连续性和稳定性，根据新形势新情况不断提高政策的针对性和灵活性，把握好政策实施的力度、节奏和重点。 2010年7月初，中国人民银行货币政策委员会第二季度例会提出，下半年要继续实施适度宽松的货币政策，保持政策的连续性和稳定性，增强调控的针对性和灵活性，把握好政策实施的力度、节奏和重点。 2010年7月22日，中共中央政治局召开会议。会议强调，要坚持把处理好保持经济平稳较快发展、调整经济结构和管理通胀预期的关系作为宏观调控的核心，继续实施积极的财政政策和适度宽松的货币政策。

美联储货币政策变化对中国的影响

全球嘹望目 73 主持人：张　林着金融市场逐步企稳，美国经济复苏迹象显现，美联储正考虑逐步退出危机期间推出的量化宽松货币政策。美联储货币政策的变动，将会通过溢出效应间接影响到中国宏观经济金融的运行。决策当局需要对此作出前瞻性的政策调整，降低这种变动对中国经济运行带来的负面影响。短期国际资本流动可能发生逆转在美联储量化宽松货币政策的作用下，联邦基金利率处于历史低位，美元呈贬值趋势。美元走弱使得人民币面临较大的升值压力。2009年3月下旬以来，境内外远期市场人民币逐步走强。10月20日1年期人民币预期升值幅度一度接近2.5%和4.0%的年内最高点，至10月末分别回落至0.8%和2.6%。基于人民币升值预期、中美利差倒挂和中国经济企稳回升的良好预期，2009年短期国际资本呈现出加速流入中国的态势。按照错误与遗漏的方法测算，2009年上半年短期国际资本流入额为228亿美元；按照残差法的测算，这一数字达452亿美元。未来一段时间里，短期国际资本流入中国的趋势仍将延续。首先，随着美国大型金融机构“去杠杠化”进程的结束，美联储向金融市场注入的大量流动性，会通过各种渠道流向包括中国在内的新兴市场国家。其次，在一系列刺激性政策的推动下，中国经济已企稳回暖。发达国家在2010年上半年仍将处于重建库存的阶段，中国出口有望稳步回升，经济复苏的步伐也将快于其他国家。再者，目前美国联邦基金利率已降至接近零利率的水平，短期内美联储加息的可能性不大，中美利差倒挂的局面仍将维持。最后，美联储量化宽松货币政策削弱美元长期信用，全球金融市场企稳使得美元作为避险工具的作用下降。然而，随着美国经济步入持续复苏轨道，通货膨胀预期将会抬头，美联储必将逐步退出量化宽松货币政策，从而推升美国金融市场的利率水平。这将使使部分套利交易平仓和美元走强，一些投机性资金将流出中国，造成资产价格的波动，给中国的金融稳定带来威胁。上世纪90年代初期，美联储和日本央行因经济陷入衰退而大幅下调利率，导致1991～1995年的美元贬值和日元套利交易兴起。而同期东亚国家利率明显高于美国和日本，短期国际资本纷纷流入东亚国家，助推这些国家的资产泡沫。1994年初美国启动加息周期， 1995年初美元止跌回升，加上随后美国因 IT革命进入快速增长阶段，大量资金开始流出东亚国家，导致东亚国家的泡沫破裂并爆发金融危机。人民币汇率调整进退两难量化宽松货币政策加大了美元汇率的波动，增加了人民币汇率机制改革的难度。2005年7月21日汇率形成机制改革以来，人民币汇率水平和波动幅度都发生了明显变化。然而，从2008年7月～2009年 3月，金融危机急剧恶化，避险情绪升温，国际金融机构和企业纷纷将资金撤回美国或兑换成美元资产，导致美元对主要货币汇率保持升值，人民币重归盯住美元的汇率制度。2009年3月下旬，美国量化宽松货币政策的推出导致美国通胀预期上升、国债融资风险增加和美元融资套利交易活跃，加上全球经济反弹使得美元作为避险工具的需求大大减弱，以美元资产保值的资金重新追逐高收益资产，美元呈贬值趋势，使得人民币有效汇率持续贬值。根据国际清算银行的数据，2009年前3个月，人民币名义有效汇率和实际有效汇率各升值4.09%和2.92%，此后人民币汇率随美元走弱，连续7个月呈贬值态势，名义有效汇率和实际有效汇率各贬值9.17%和 7.67%。在美元贬值和短期国际资本涌入的背景下，人民币将再次陷入缓慢升值还是大幅升值的尴尬选择。如果采取大幅升值策略，人民币汇率很可能出现超调，资金流向逆转的风险很大，或者是大幅升值以后如果没有升到位，可能还会有下一次的升值预期，造成过多的投机性资金流入。无论是哪一种情形，都会造成资金大进大出，产生宏观金融风险。如果采取慢速升值，货币当局需要面对投机性资金流入、资产价格泡沫浮现和通胀预期升温带来的严重挑战。笔者认为，在当前国际经济环境仍然存在不确定性、出口尚未得到实质性恢复的情况下，人民币兑美元的汇率很可能在2010年上半年维持不变。其后，当确信中国出口好转和经济持续复苏后，人民币进入温和、渐进和可控的升值通道。一旦美联储逐步退出量化宽松货币政策，美元贬值的趋势将出现反转。根据历史经验，美联储加息周期的启动往往带来美元的走强。1994年美联储将基准利率迅速从3%开始升息，并在1995年中期维持在6%左右的高位后，美元指数迅速上升。 2004年中期美联储开始加息，到2005年 12月13日共加息8次，美元对欧元、日元美联储货币政策变化对中国的影响■　谭小芬随

当前我国的货币政策实施情况及其未来走向.

要求:请就当前我国的货币政策实施情况及其未来走向写一篇不少于600字的短文。写作思路: 1、首先说明我国货币政策的主要内容及其实施背景; 2、对我国的货币政策走向进行预测分析,要结合我国当前的宏观经济形势和国际宏观经济政策的变化,特别是金融危机发生近两年来的情况; 3、最好简要分析货币政策转向后的利弊得失。 4、题目自拟(参考题目:试论我国当前的货币政策;我国货币政策的未来;试论国内外货币政策的协调等; 5、要言之有据,言之有理,字数控制在800字左右。我国当前的货币政策及未来取向 2008年,在美国次贷危机演变为全球性金融危机的背景下,我国的宏观经济运行发生了转折性变化,经济由持续升温转为步人下行通道,物价涨幅由逐步升高转为持续下降。面对这种金融形势的变化,我国的宏观经济政策由“双防”转向“一保一控”,再转向“保增长”,货币政策则经历由“从紧”到“灵活审慎”、再到“适度宽松”的转变过程。从总体情况看,年初“从紧”的货币政策对抑制通货膨胀、防止经济过热发挥了重要作用,也为我国更好地应对国际金融危机的冲击奠定了基础。2008年7月以后国家实施逐步放松的货币政策对于保持经济较快增长和金融体系平稳运行产生了积极效果。目前国家经济下滑趋势有所抑制,但全球金融危机还有可能进一步恶化,世界经济金融形势也将更为严峻。货币政策需要进一步发挥调节作用,促进同内需求扩大和经济的平稳发展。一、2009年货币政策运行环境分析

1.全球经济金融环境存在继续恶化的可能。尽管在全球性金融危机后,各国政府、中央银行纷纷出台应对金融危机的措施,主要出台了大规模的救市政策,采取央行降息。注入流动性。但到日前为止,还未看到这场百年难遇的金融危机有出现根本性转机的迹象,世界经济仍存在进一步恶化的可能。主要原因,首先由于金融危机的起因是次贷危机,次贷衍生产品的风险高,影响面广泛,投资者对金融市场的信心尚未恢复,市场的流动性进一步紧缩。其次,金融机构的资产负债表的恶化以及金融系统的功能受到严重损害,短期内也很难恢复金融机构和金融系统的正常功能。再次,金融危机已向实体经济发展,全球普遍有企业和居民财富缩水、消费者信心不足、生产萎缩、就业减少等情况。全球经济增长速度将进一步走低,经济形势的恶化反过来会进一步加重金融危机。 2.国内经济增长速度缓慢。一是外需可能进一步下降。由于世界经济增长速度会下降,国际市场需求会进一步减少,与此同时,外需下降的影响会带来国内的投资和消费,从而对经济增长产生更大的影响:二是投资较快增长的困难较大。尽管国家出台了4万亿的经济刺激方案,各地政府进一步加大刺激规模。但由于企业利润增幅大幅度下降,银行信贷总量增长存在一定的“虚增”成分,加上投资者对经济前景看淡,这些都会对投资增长带来影响:三是消费需求可能减缓,虽然国家采取家电下乡、农民增收等刺激消费的政策,但从当前企业效益下降、就业困难、财政收入减少等情况看,居民收入增长逐渐趋缓,居民的消费需求受到一定程度的影响,与此同时,这几年消费结构升级加快,住房和汽车消费迅速增长是带来消费加快增长的重要原因。但近期居民住房和汽车消费增长放缓,消费结构升级放缓,消费增长缺乏强有力的带动因素。因此消费需求形势不容乐观。 3.金融风险将会增大。国际金融危机对我国金融体系的直接冲击主要表现在三个方面:一是我国金融机构在国外投资受损;二是引起在华投资机构的连锁反映;三是引起国际资本流动的急剧变化。由于我国金融机构的对外投资相对较少,在华外资机构出现问题的也不多,至今尚未出现大规模资本流出现象。目前随着国际金融危机通过对我国经济增长产生负面影响的深入,我国金融机构面临的金融风险将进一

美国的发展及其货币政策。

美国的发展及其货币政策。 1.美国的货币制度（一）美国的中央银行美国联邦储备系统是美国的中央银行，成立于1913年12月23日，主要职责是保障美国货币和金融体系的安全、灵活和稳定。《美国联邦储备法》规定，成员银行需向联邦储备银行缴纳相当于其资本和盈余总和的6％数量的资本。联邦储备银行则被要求每年向其成员银行支付其缴入资本的6％的红利，通常每年分两次支付。截止2006年12月31日，联邦储备银行的注册资本为135.36亿美元，占其总资本的51.2％。根据1913年的《联邦储备法》规定，美国在12个主要城市设立储备银行，成为联储体系的组成部分。这12家地区储备银行的职责包括为其成员银行进行支票交换、回收损毁货币并发放新币、对合并申请进行评估、向该区的成员银行投放贴现贷款、审查属于联邦储备成员的州立银行、就地方银行和经济状况提出分析和报告，以及进行一般的银行与经济研究并出版部分刊物。联邦储备理事会是联邦储备系统中的重要组成部分。理事会由七位理事组成。他们均由美国总统任命并经参议院确认，任期14年。联邦储备理事会办公地点设在华盛顿，通常每周会晤若干次商讨与货币政策和银行监管有关的问题。（二）美元美元硬币由美国财政部发行，币值有1美分、5美分、10美分、25美分、50美分和1美元六种；美元纸币由美国联邦储备系统发行，面额为1美元、2 美元、5美元、10美元、20美元、50美元和100美元七种。二、美国的货币政策（一）货币政策目标根据《美国联邦储备法》，美国的货币政策目标是控制通货膨胀，促进充分就业。目前，美联储货币政策的操作目标是联邦基金利率。美国联邦基金利率是指美国同业拆借市场的利率，其最主要的是隔夜拆借利率。这种利率的变动能够敏感地反映银行之间资金的余缺，美联储瞄准并调节同业拆借利率就能直接影响商业银行的资金成本，并且将同业拆借市场的资金余缺传递给工商企业，进而影响消费、投资和国民经济。（二）美国货币政策的决定联邦公开市场委员会是美联储系统中最重要的货币政策制定部门。其由7 位联邦储备理事会成员以及5位地区储备银行行长组成，其中纽约联邦储备银行行长为固定成员。一般来说，联邦储备理事会主席任联邦公开市场委员会主席，纽约联邦储备银行行长任副主席。委员会通常每五到八星期在华盛顿会晤一次，对具体货币政策操作进行投票。联邦公开市场委员会的政策指令及会议概要于会后六周对外公开。

中国货币政策有效性分析分析

中国货币政策有效性摘要：货币政策作为国家宏观调控经济的重要手段，在整个国民经济宏观调控体系中居于十分重要的地位。货币政策有效性对于我国货币政策的制定和国民经济的健康发展具有十分重要的作用。中国社科院财经战略研究院5日发布《中国宏观经济运行报告(2014-2015)》指出，新常态下的中国经济宏观调控必须坚持多目标的“区间调控”、“定向调控”和“结构调控”，一方面要保就业、稳增长、防风险、稳物价；另一方面也要调结构、惠民生、促改革。这份逢年底发布的年度报告提出，面对经济下行压力，2015年中国经济宏观调控政策应坚持实施“新常态下的新对策”，在潜在增长率下移、去产能、去杠杆的过程中，确保经济运行在合理区间。 5日召开的中央政治局会议提出，2015年中国经济要主动适应经济发展新常态，保持经济运行在合理区间，继续实施积极的财政政策和稳健的货币政策。而货币政策作为国家宏观调控政策的一部分，其有效性却仍有争议。 1.货币政策狭义的货币政策是指中央银行为实现其特定的经济目标而采用的各种控制和调节货币供应量或信用量的方针和措施的总称，包括信贷政策、利率政策和外汇政策。广义的货币政策则是指政府、中央银行和其他有关部门所有有关货币方面的规定和采取的影响金融变量

的一切措施。而两者的不同主要在于后者的政策制定者包括政府及其他有关部门，他们往往影响金融体制中的外生变量，改变游戏规则，如硬性限制信贷规模，信贷方向，开放和开发金融市场。前者则是中央银行在稳定的体制中利用贴现率，准备金率，公开市场业务达到改变利率和货币供给量的目标。中国实行的是:稳健的货币政策和积极的财政政策。 2.稳健的货币政策稳健的货币政策是具有中国特色的一种提法，它讲的是制定货币政策的指导思想和方针，它不同于经济学教科书关于货币政策操作层面的提法(如“宽松的”、“中性的”或“紧缩的”货币政策)。稳健的货币政策与稳定币值目标相联系，它包含既防止通货紧缩又防止通货膨胀两方面的要求，它\不妨碍根据经济形势需要对货币政策实行或扩张、或紧缩的操作。 1998年以来实行稳健的货币政策取得了巨大的成功。主要表现在四个方面：一是货币信贷总量平稳增长。1998～2001年，广义货币供应量增幅基本控制在14%～15%之间，与过去一些年代货币和信贷大起大落相比，近几年我们终于把货币信贷的增长调控得比较平稳了。二是信贷结构有了大幅度的调整。在一系列信贷政策的推动下，个人住房贷款、基础设施贷款和农业贷款比重大幅度上升，在当年贷款新增额中上述三项贷款大体占七成，信贷结构的这种调整有力促进了国民经济结构的调整。三是保持了国内金融稳定和人民币汇率的稳

对美国货币政策框架的权威介绍

U.S. Monetary Policy: An Introduction This site provides an introduction to U.S. monetary policy as it is currently conducted by answering a series of questions: U.S. monetary policy affects all kinds of economic and financial decisions people make in this country—whether to get a loan to buy a new house or car or to start up a company, whether to expand a business by investing in a new plant or equipment, and whether to put savings in a bank, in bonds, or in the stock market, for example. Furthermore, because the U.S. is the largest economy in the world, its monetary policy also has significant economic and financial effects on other countries. The object of monetary policy is to influence the performance of the economy as reflected in such factors as inflation, economic output, and employment. It works by affecting demand across the economy—that is, people's and firms' willingness to spend on goods and services. While most people are familiar with the fiscal policy tools that affect demand—such as taxes and government spending—many are less familiar with monetary policy and its tools. Monetary policy is conducted by the Federal Reserve System, the nation's central bank, and it influences demand mainly by raising and lowering short-term interest rates. 1. How is the Federal Reserve structured? The Federal Reserve System (called the Fed, for short) is the nation's central bank. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1913 and consists of the seven members of the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., and twelve Federal Reserve District Banks (see the map; for a discussion of the Fed's overall responsibilities, see The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions).

2020中国货币政策目标是什么

2020中国货币政策目标是什么货币政策的外部因素从汇率情况来看，近期人民币汇率采取类似于一种参考双“锚”模式，即美元和一篮子货币：在美元走强时参考一篮子货币，而美元走弱时则参考美元。也就是说，在美元上涨的时候人民币对美元相对走弱，但对一篮子货币仍然是上涨的。这有助于防止或减缓人民币贬值预期的形成。同时，我国货币政策的重心对内将是“去杠杆，抑制资产泡沫”，对外将是保持人民币汇率稳定。而主动挤压泡沫，防范金融风险，也是货币政策势在必行的趋势。货币政策的内部因素从内部因素来看，当前的金融形势、经济基本面、四部门的债务状况等都是影响货币政策的重要因素。而当前的金融形势以及过去几年金融业的发展历程，是货币政策参考的重中之重。 1.当前的金融形势当前政策已从放松金融管制阶段，逐步进入加强管制和引导规范阶段。次贷危机以来，特别是2011年以后，我国逐渐放松金融管制。2015年我国金融业产值增速15.9%，远远超过GDP增速。中国金融业增加值占GDP比例今年已经上升到10.2%，较2012年的6.3%，短短四年时间提升了近4个百分点。在这四年中，整个经济和金融系统的风险也逐渐聚集。为防范金融风险，2016年特别是下半年以来，金融管制逐步加强。而市场对资金的需求规模并没有减少，如险资举牌就对资金有巨大的需求，但央行并没有放任市场资金供给，导致10月中下旬开始资金面趋向紧张。市场从“资产荒”到“资金荒”的切换十分迅速，以至于近

期发生了一次类似于2013年的小规模利率风暴。随着市场流动性紧张预期进一步加大，利率走高，债市也发生了大幅波动。债市大幅波动，主动打压了资产泡沫，短期释放了风险。因此，从我国当前金融状况来看，货币政策势必将以抑制资产泡沫的进一步加大为目标，以防止金融空转给整个金融系统带来风险。从这个角度来看，在即将到来的2017年，货币政策进一步宽松的可能性并不大。 2.实体经济基本面再看实体经济基本面，2016年下半年以来经济逐渐企稳。规模以上工业增加值增速已经连续8个月超过6%，利润同比增长8.4%; 前三季度城镇新增就业人数1067万，提前一个季度完成全年1000 万的就业目标;投资也出现好转，特别是民间投资，10月份民间投资增长5.9%，较6月的负增长高出约6个百分点。此外，PPI由负转正，CPI温和上升，PMI连续3个月在临界点之上，市场预期明显改善。因此，从实体经济角度来看，稳增长压力减小，也给货币政策相对从紧创造了条件。如果单考虑通胀因素，预计2017年通胀水平将进一步提高，也会使得货币政策进一步宽松的可能性变小。 3.债务负担目前我国整体债务负担较为沉重，2015年底全社会杠杆率249%，四部门的负债情况各有不同。政府方面，2015年中期至2016年中期有一波强劲的加杠杆过程，负债同比增速由不足10%上涨到超过30%。2016年中期以后政策开始有所收敛，但11月增速仍然在25%以上。对于居民部门来说，其负债大多用于购房。伴随着房价上涨，今年以来居民部门杠杆率迅速增加。在10月份楼市调控加码情况下，增速依然高达22.1%。

中国货币政策最终目标的选择与效果分析

一、引言货币政策最终目标的选择一直是理论界与实际工作部门关注的一个重要问题，一般包括物价稳定、充分就业、经济增长和国际收支平衡四个部分。它们虽然分别表示了一个经济体内外部的最优均衡状态，但是之间存在冲突，如物价稳定与充分就业目标在短期内相冲突，这导致了经济体需要对其货币政策的最终目标进行选择。货币目标制度一般包括以单一目标值和多重目标制。单一目标制为货币学派所推崇，弗里德曼认为多重目标难以兼顾，易引起政策的过度调整；而凯恩斯学派则认为多重的权衡性货币目标制度能更好地解决错综复杂的经济问题。我国现在实行“保持货币币值的稳定，并以此促进经济增长”的货币政策目标制度。近几年来，次贷危机造成全球金融海啸，对我国的经济产生重大冲击，使我国的政策方向由控制通胀的紧缩型转变为刺激经济增长的宽松型政策；而随着美国量化宽松政策的启动，国际市场中大量流动性涌入中国，对中国造成输入性通胀压力，同时由于国内货币供给量的剧增，我国的通胀率一度远超3%-3.5%的警戒区间，货币政策再次进入紧缩阶段。在复杂的国际国内经济金融形式下，研究货币政策最终目标的选择具有十分重要的意义。本文将首先对货币最终目标的含义及各目标之间的具体关系与存在冲突进行介绍，然后会结合我国的经济现状分析现行的货币政策目标制度并用VEC模型检验两个最终目标之间的关系，并提出当今经济环境下应当选择的货币政策目标。二、文献综述及我国现状货币政策目标及其制度的选择一直受到理论界的密切关注。货币主义学派支持货币中性论，即货币政策的扩张和紧缩仅仅能影响通货膨胀率的波动而对产出和就业产生系统性的影响。因此，货币主义学派主张采用通货膨胀率作为货币政策调控的长期目标。而凯恩斯学派则持相反意见，他们认为经济现象错综复杂，现实社会中的经济问题也往往是多方面的，单一的货币政策目标难以兼顾，多重的货币政策目标能够更好的解决经济问题。国内，不少学者就我国货币政策目标的选择进行了研究。在单一目标与多目标制之争方面，谢平（2000）、宋海林和刘澄（2003）等就认为多目标约束的货币政策“要求过高”，“货币政策无论短期好还是长期都应该坚持稳定物价的单一目标”。而周俊（2002）提出根据我国政治经济形式及当前的经济任务，我国应采用多重货币政策目标，即以币值稳定与经济增长为主。何运信与曾令华（2004）则依据总供给曲线特征进行实证分析，由于正斜率总供给曲线的存在及该曲线的不稳定性及其测度上的不确定性，货币政策需要盯住通货膨胀与经济增长双重目标，而不能只注重物价稳定的单一目标。就具体的货币政策目标选择方面，卢宝梅（2008）提出，我国应改变长期以来偏重经济增长目标而忽视价格稳定目标的政策导向，建立起灵活的通货膨胀目标制的货币政策。陈之荣（2009）则提出在金融危机的影响下，中国货币政策的调控重点应当着眼于保证经济的平稳增长，同时也应预防扩张政策可能引发的通货膨胀风险。徐茂魁（2010）通过VAR模型及脉冲响应模型证明中国以信贷扩张为主的货币政策比货币供应量为主货币政策更能有效地带动中国经济增长，并带来更小的通货膨胀，因此，在后金融危机时代，中国可以继续适度实施适度宽松的货币政策，但要更加注重货币政策的运用。由此可见，在不同的经济金融形势下，中央银行应采取不同的货币政策目标。

中国货币政策有效性问题的综述分析

中国货币政策有效性问题的综述分析一、引言货币政策目标体系可以分为两种，一是多目标体系，包括经济增长、充分就业、物价稳定和国际收支平衡；二是单一目标体系，即只盯住通货膨胀。周小川曾表示中国目前的货币政策属于多目标体系。宋国青认为“相对于当前的经济增长速度，CPI仍然偏高，难以期望货币政策显著放松”，所以稳定通胀仍是中央银行制定货币政策的主要目标。《金融业发展和改革“十二五”规划》提出，“十二五”期间要优化货币政策目标体系，更加突出价格稳定目标，关注更广泛意义的整体价格水平稳定。因此对于我国的货币政策，其效力是否有效的发挥要着重看其是否能使物价稳定并促进经济发展。货币政策的首要目标是稳定物价，而我国目前的通货膨胀压力还是相当大的，通货膨胀导致物价的上涨，不仅影响了人们的生活水平，加剧了社会紧张程度，在一定程度上也影响了我国的经济发展。政府一直在用积极的经济政策加以调控，近期通胀压力有所缓解，但长期通胀形势依然严峻。从2010年初一直到2011年8月CPI涨幅一直处于上升态势，中央银行先后5次上调基准利率、13次上调存款准备金率，但收效不大，即使之后CPI有所下降，同2010年之前相比仍然较高。截至2011年7月末，CPI涨幅已达6.5%，为2008年7月以来的最高水平。随着物价水平持续攀升，人民自身生活质量下降，也威胁着我国低收入阶层的基本生活水平，同时对中国经济持续稳健的

增长有着不利影响，因此，这一经济现象逐渐引起社会各阶层的广泛关注。为抑制经济过热与通货膨胀，我国在2010至2012年之间大量使用货币政策手段，从2008年底之后，存款准备金率和人民币存款利率有大幅上升调整。尽管我国不断采取紧缩政策，货币供应量大幅减少，但对我国通货膨胀的有效控制和预期依然存在一定的差距，调控经济的效果明显不强。所以找出问题的根源，提高我国货币政策的有效性，已经成为当前我国经济领域所面临的一个重要问题。因此本文希望能找到现有货币政策有效性不佳的原因并提出更加合理有效调节宏观经济的方法。二、货币政策有效性讨论综述国内部分学者认为，中国货币政策是有效的。胡艳艳，耿菲（2010）选取货币供应量、信贷总量、利率、产出以及物价指标为变量，从实证的角度肯定了货币供应量作为中介目标的合理性，而随着市场经济的发展，贷款规模已不能真实反映经济的运行状况，信贷渠道对产出和价格水平的贡献在逐步削弱。并得出货币供应量在短期内影响物价、长期内影响产出的结论。张兵（2010）以中国历年统计数据为依据，把财政政策和货币政策与通货膨胀水平作为一个系统建立计量经济模型，结果显示货币供应量对通货膨胀具有较强的解释作用，货币供应量依然是中央银行调控通货膨胀的合适目标变量。宋保庆（2012）采用HP滤波法从物价稳定角度对货币政策有效性进行分析，表明货币供应量M1和M2对物价的影响都十分明显，且货币供应量M1对物价的影响程度显著大于货币供应量M2对物价的影响程度。总体而

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我国货币政策工具及其效果评价.

我国货币政策工具及其效果评价 08金融3班08050315 钱晨摘要：制定和实施货币政策，对国民经济实施宏观调控，是中央银行的基本职责之一。货币政策作为宏观经济间接调控的重要手段，在整个国民经济宏观调控体系中居于十分重要的地位货币政策目标的选择、决策程序的科学合理和政策工具的正确使用是货币政策作用有效发挥的重要前提。在本文中，我们将讨论我国当前货币政策面临的主要问题，了解当前的货币政策目标和为实现目标使用的货币政策工具，以及对政策的效果评价关键字：货币政策货币政策工具汇率利率政策效果正文：货币政策指中央银行为实现既定的目标运用各种工具调节货币供应量来调节市场利率，通过市场利率变化来改变民间资本投资，影响总需求进而影响宏观经济运行的各种方针措施。当前,我国金融经济的总体运行态势是好的,但由于正处于市场化改革的特殊历史时期,一些不良因素和倾向值得警惕。货币政策面临着巨大挑战和严俊考验。当前货币政策存在的主要问题是汇率和货币政策独立性之间存在冲突,以及多重因素导致的人民币升值压力加大。目前我国正处于金融业对外开放、金融机构健全性改革以及汇率、利率和资本市场等市场化改革齐头并进的特殊历史时期,金融经济运行的总体态势是好的,但是有些不良因素和倾向也值得警惕,包括国际热钱大量流入、人民币升值预期强烈、流动性过剩、贷款增长偏快以及房地产价格居高不下等。货币政策面临着巨大挑战和严峻考验。我国当前货币政策的面临的主要问题（一）汇率稳定和货币政策独立性之间存在冲突一方面,为了保持人民币汇率稳定,央行试图使人民币与美元利率之间保持一定的差距,这样不但可以减小“热钱”的套利空间,还可以鼓励国内资金外流,进而减轻本币升值压力;另一方面,国内流动性过剩,信贷增速偏快,直接导致了固定资产投资增长过快,房地产、部分能源和原材料市场价格偏高。经济形势本身要求提高利率,紧缩流动性。当前这种格局符合“蒙代尔三角”的描述:一个国家在资本自由流动、汇率稳定和保持货币政策独立性之间只能三取其二。就国内已经大量涌入的热钱数量来看,资本管制的效力有限,我国存在实际上的资本自由流动,因此,汇率稳定和保持货币政策独立性这两者从理论上讲不能同时作为货币政策目标,但实际上央行却一直在努力三者兼得,这使货币政策回旋空间十分狭窄。上半年央行的货币政策思路是在尽量不提高利率(特别是存款利率)的前提下,通过公开市场业务、提高存款准备金率和窗口指导来紧缩流动性,以达到同时稳定利率和汇率的目的。（二）多重因素导致人民币升值压力加大在汇率和利率这一对矛盾中,汇率处于主导地位。对人民币升值原因的深入探讨应该作为对当前货币政策进行深入研究的逻辑起点。归纳起来,人民币升值的主要原因有以下三点: 第一,经济全球化和国际产业转移。第二,国内资金缺少国际投资出口。第三,多种预期因素导致热钱涌入。面对我国货币政策所存在的问题，要调整货币政策以完成我国当前的货币政策目标，宏观经济的四大目标我们已经了解，即：经济增长、增加就业、物价稳定及国际收支平衡。

2008年金融危机以来货币政策框架的演变

2008年金融危机以来货币政策框架的演变在清华大学五道口全球金融论坛上，七十三分钟的演讲中，周小川以2008年的全球金融危机为切分点，阐述了各国的货币政策前后不同以及出现的新名词，通过穿插评论的方式向台下听众详解相关名称的由来，同时引申提出中国在下一步改革开放中，人民银行所要做的事情。周小川：货币政策出现了很多新的名词。我就用一个这样的方式将新名词串联起来，然后给大家做一个介绍。从演变的过程来说，我会讲到一些国际情况，其中会夹杂着对国内货币政策框架改革发展演变过程一些评论。我们说危机以前和危机发生以后，货币政策框架有很多新的变化、新的名词，如数量宽松货币政策、零下界、前瞻性指引等内容。我想说我们既不是研究性也不是普及性的讲演，我想把这些新的概念串联起来。首先，危机以来，货币政策的目标出现复杂化。在危机之前，有二十多年时间，中央银行货币政策的目标就是保持低通胀，即通货膨胀目标论。而且是越简单越好，这样大家的理解、与央行的沟通越好，使得效果越好。所以，最简单的说法就是央行制定一个目标—通货膨胀，一个利率—政策利率。但是后来发现情况变得复杂。总的来讲，应对未来的复杂形式，央行制定了更多的货币政策目标。例如美联储将目标定为保持低通胀和充分就业。也有很多国家制定了很多不同的目标。总之单一的目标，对应对危机略显不足。中国的货币政策历来是四目标：低通胀、保持适度的经济增长、创造适度的就业机会和保持国际收支平衡。这就是说中国已开始实行多目标的货币政策。对于中国的多目标，有些人评论认为第二个、三个目标有可能比较重叠。这个说法也是有道理的，但不是100%的准确。而保持国际收支平衡，各个国家的做法不同。有的国家认为，如果你是已经采纳了自由浮动的汇率机制后，国际收支平衡不是太重要的目标，央行可以不管理他。从中国的实际情况看，国际收支平衡是我们一个非常难对付的要点。

金融学论文-我国近年货币政策

我国近年货币政策分析 2012年以来，我国经济告别过去两位数高增长模式，进入中高速增长阶段。同时，宏观经济面临着产业结构、区域结构、收入结构的多重结构失衡的局面。经济增速下调和经济结构调整业已成为“新常态”下中国经济需长期面对和解决的问题。在“新常态”的宏观环境下，经济环境的变化暴露出原有货币政策调控带来的产能过剩、地方债务以及房地产泡沫等多重经济风险，如若继续保持传统的数量扩张刺激经济的调控方式，不仅不会实现经济结构调整的目标，还会带来更大的风险和隐患。不仅如此，在“新常态”条件下，随着国内金融创新与利率市场化的推进，原有货币政策的操作手段和实施工具效力受到削弱，货币政策执行效果大打折扣。与此同时，国际宏观经济形势和宏观政策分化也削弱了传统货币政策的有效性。长期以来，通过外汇占款实现基础货币的投放已成为我国货币政策操作的主要手段，为了控制外汇占款发行基础货币的规模，央行需要对外汇占款数量有着准确地预测。但近年来，我国外汇占款越来越多地呈现出不稳定趋势，甚至多次出现外汇占款结余为负的情况。进入2015年，全球经济形势呈现出较强的分化局面，美国经济持续复苏，欧洲和日本的经济增长乏力；未来美联储降息或削减其自身资产负债表必将导致全球范围内的流动性收缩，加速国际资本回流。受此影响，未来我国外汇占款的趋势性下降必然影响基础货币的投放，传统的通过结售汇和发行央票来发行基础货币的货币政策面临巨大挑战。在此情况下，作为宏观调控的重要手段和工具的货币政策亟需转型。在我国金融创新和利率市场化的背景下，传统的以总量调控为特征的货币政策效果大打折扣；另一方面，面临宏观经济“新常态”条件下的多重结构失衡，传统货币政策亦无助于解决产能过剩和化解宏观经济金融风险。在此背景下，我国货币政策亟需转型。总体而言，“新常态”下我国货币政策面临双重转型任务：一是需借鉴发达国家经验形成完善的货币政策框架，以及进一步明确货币政策目标、操作规则和政策工具；二是货币政策需承担经济结构调整的重任，在较长时间内需发挥结构性货币政策的作用。明确货币政策目标，形成完善的货币政策框架完善现有的货币政策框架是“新常态”下我国货币政策转型的首要任务，这包括明确货币政策目标首先，就最终目标而言，在发达国家货币政策转型过程中，其货币政策经历了由多目标向突出物价稳定目标的过程；相比之下，我国货币政策调控较多地强调经济增长和充分就业的目标，而对于物价稳定和国际收支平衡目标重视程度较弱。在经济“新常态”格局下，由于潜在增长率下滑，宏观调控的政策权衡空间缩小，高速的经济增长不宜再成为货币政策追求的主要目标；相反，“新常态”经济下的货币政策调控则应强调稳定和均衡目标，尤其应致力于稳定通货膨胀和促进经济结构均衡。相应地，在货币政策的中介目标方面，也应下调货币供应量增速目标；同时，考虑到利率市场化和金融自由化削弱了货币供应量目标与最终目标的相关程度，应将汇率、利率、国际收支情况以及资本市场变化等指标纳入货币政策中介目标范畴。其次，在操作目标方面，一国中央银行的货币政策操作目标有两类，一类是价格型操作目标，如货币市场利率；另一类是数量型操作目标，如超额准备金、基础货币等。从西方发达国家的货币政策来看，一般采用价格型操作目标，比如：美联储选择联邦基金利率，欧洲央行选择主要再融资利率，英格兰银行选择14天期限的国债回购利率。值得指出的是，从西方国家的货币政策转型经验来看，其对操作目标的确定几经反复，将近三十年才最终走向成熟。以美国为例，其货币政策操作目标经历了从联邦基金利率到货币供应量再到贴现窗口最终回到联邦基金利率的一个曲折的过程。美联储确定货币政策操作目标如此曲折，其背后的逻辑在于：战后的利率管制刺激了金融创新使得利率管制趋于无效，

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