英美国家概况总结
英国概况
英格兰面积最大
苏格兰，爱丁堡为首府
威尔士，加的夫，Cardiff为首府
北爱尔兰，贝尔法斯特Belfast为首府
伦敦，UK首都，皇家法庭royal courts of justice 及圣保罗大教堂st paul’s cathedral在这里。威斯敏斯特westminster，伦敦市的一个行政区，也叫西敏寺，这里有议会houses of parliament，包含大钟楼big ben，白厅whitehall即英国政府，白金汉宫buckingham palace即英国皇宫，还有st james’ hall 圣詹姆斯宫。
The great charter in 1215,1215年大宪章，亦称the great charter or Magna Charta,确保一些平民的政治权利与自由，保障教会不受国王的控制，改革了法律和司法，限制国王及王室官员的行为。
议会雏形，1265年，Simon de Montford 召集the Great Council在西敏寺开会，就是最早的议会，后来发展了House of Lords上议院，House of Commons下议院。
玫瑰战争和英国宗教改革：
Richard 三世和Henry Tudor都铎（duduo）打了玫瑰战争，都铎胜利，终成五代都铎王朝。
亨利八世进行宗教改革，想切断英国教会与罗马教皇的关系，使英国教会独立起来。宗教改革的真正进行是在亨利八世的儿子爱德华时期，新教是Protestant，即基督教，改革叫做“The Reformation”。伊丽莎白一世时期，伊丽莎白为女王统治英国，她是基督教徒，大力推行新教，从此英国都是信奉新教。
文艺复兴运动The English Renaissance
文艺复兴是中世纪到现代的过渡时期，从1350-1650，有300年，从意大利发起，达芬奇等人为代表。在这段时期，罗马教会经历新教改革，人文主义兴起，海外探索（大航海时代？）。
英国内战The Civil Wars
是国王和议会间的战争，Norttingham King Charles和议会开战，国王军是Cavaliers(骑士)，议会军是Roundheads(圆颅党)，因为他们短发。查尔斯战败，克伦威尔Cromwell称王。英国内战又称清教徒革命，因为国王的反对者多是清教徒Puritan。清教徒是基督教新教中的一派。这场战争颠覆了英国的封建制度，甚至动摇了欧洲的封建制度，被认为是世界现代史的开端。
王朝复辟The Restoration
克伦威尔死后，儿子Richard 继位，但是统治失败，议会选择让上代国王流放法国的儿子King Charles 二世回归。
光荣革命The Glorious Revolution
奥兰治王室（William of Orange橘子？英国的名字真搞笑），用一场不流血的政变夺了王室的权，William and Mary 共同接受了Bill of Right(1689)权利法案，英国“光荣革命”后巩固资产阶级与封建贵族联合专政、确立君主立宪政体的宪法性文件之一。君主立宪由此开始。
辉格党和托利党（Whigs and Tories）
两党名称来自光荣革命，辉格党就是后来的Liberal party，托利党是Conservative party
宪章运动Chartist Movement
由于对改革法案《Reform Act》和新贫困法《New Poor Law》的不满，工人组织了伦敦工人联盟London Working Men’s Association，起草了人民宪章《People’s Charter》，想让议会通过但是失败，宪章运动是第一次全国性的工人运动。
工会和工党Trade Unions and Labor Party
工人意识到联合的重要性，于是工会出现，Grand National Consolidated Trade Union成立，是全国的大公会，后来Trade Union Congress 开始。
殖民扩张Colonial Expansion
自1583年开始，英国在新大陆Newfoundland开始殖民统治，1900日不落帝国形成，“on which the sun never set”
君主政体
英国是君主立宪制constitutional monarchy, 元首head of state is king or queen。Head of the commonwealth 是女王，现在是伊丽莎白二世。
议会组成
House of lords 上议院house of commons 下议院下议院最有权力
政党：工党Labor Party 和Conservative Party保守党，政党的领导人是总理
Tony Blair是有史以来最年轻的工党领导人，总理。
枢密院the Privy Council，是国家执行力机构，chief source of executive power in the state,可追溯到King’s Council
司法特点：no single legal system, no complete code,法律的来源包括：statutes法令，大量的common law，equity law衡平法，european community law。
二战后英国经济的发展
50s-60s稳定发展阶段，70s经济萧条，80s经济恢复：撒切尔夫人Mrs. Thatcher当选总理，推行中期财政计划Medium-term Financial Strategy
国教established chruches：在英国church of england，在苏格兰church of scotland
非国教unestablished churches：英国圣公会anglican chruches，自由教free churches，天主教roman catholic church
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美国概况
国旗：13条状红白相间，代表original的13个州，50颗星，代表50个州
1492年，哥伦布发现新大陆，Christopher Columbus.
独立战争the war of independence
1774年，第一届大陆国会continental congress在费城philadelphia召开，呼吁抵制英国货
1775年，lexington（列克星敦）和concord（康科德）打仗独立战争开始。同年，第二届大陆会议在费城召开，乔治?华盛顿为领导人
1776年，汤玛斯?杰佛逊起草独立宣言
1783年，巴黎条约签署treaty of paris，英国承认美国独立。
1812年战争，the war of 1812
美国和英国间的最后一场战争，对美国影响很深，人们意识到强大的政府的重要性，加强了统一感和爱国感
美国内战the civil war
1861-1865，打了四年，北方胜利，北方为联邦军union army，南方为邦联军confederate army。
林肯有名的葛底斯堡演说gettysburg address“that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”
1865年，第13修正案终结了奴隶制。
经济发展
镀金时代gilded age，借自马克吐温的书名，指内战到20世纪初，工业发展
亨利福特henry ford大规模生产汽车，莱特兄弟wright brothers设计第一架飞机升天，都在这个时候
1920s的大萧条与新政the great depression and the new deal
1929年，大萧条开始，持续4年
罗斯福新政，Franklin D Roosevelt, the new deal
美国与二战
1941年，珍珠港被袭击，美国正式参战，核心国axis powers
北大西洋公约组织the founding of NATO
1949年，北大西洋条约签署，North Atlantic Treaty,任何对缔约国的攻击视为对所有缔约国的攻击。条约的生效标志着美国在苏联周围建立军事联盟的开端。苏联采取了类似的行动，建立了德国民主共和国set up the German Democratic Republic.至此，冷战全面开始。
1950s民权运动the civil rights movement
罗莎?帕克Rosa Parks,一位黑人女性，阿拉巴马，她拒绝给白人让座，被捕。马丁路德金开始领导黑人抵制。1956年，最高法院宣布阿拉巴马州的segregation laws unconstitutional。
越南战争the vietnam war1950-1975(打了25年，有够长的)
为了实施对共产主义的牵制政策，the policy of containment of communism,美国与越南战争，结果这是美国有史以来最长的战争。1973年美国和北越南north vietnam签署停火协议，cease-fire agreement。简单来说，越南当时像朝鲜般南北分裂，南方是社会主义的，北方是当时的统治阶级，南方想要解放全国，统一南北。美国横插一脚，支持北方，搞了25年，最终还是南方的社会主义胜利，统一了全国。西贡Saigon 是原来的首都，后来改名为胡志明市Ho Chi Minh City。
因为越南战争，美国国力下降，社会分歧，形象下降。
水门事件（Watergate scandal，或译水门丑闻）是美国历史上最不光彩的政治丑闻之一，其对美国本国历史以及整个国际新闻界都有着长远的影响，在1972年的总统大选中，为了取得民主党内部竞选策略的情报，1972年6月17日，以美国共和党尼克松Nixon竞选班子的首席安全问题顾问詹姆斯?麦科德（James W. McCord, Jr.）为首的5人闯入位于华盛顿水门大厦的民主党全国委员会办公室，在安装窃听器并偷拍有关文件时，当场被捕。由于此事，尼克松于1974年8月8日宣布将于次日辞职，从而成为美国历史上首位辞职的总统。
中美关系
1972年，Nixon总统访华，签署上海公报Shanghai Communique。1979年，中美建交。
美国宪法起草于1789年，世界上最早的成文宪法。共有7个articles。
Articla I，the Legislative Article立法
只有国会有权立法，two-chamber system，包括senate参议院，house of representatives众议院。参议院100人，每个州来两人，众议院基于每个州的人口比例设立席位。
Article II，Executive Article执法
总统任期4年
Article III，Judicial Article 司法
Supreme Court是国家的最高法院，以下是联邦法院federal court，最高法院和联邦法院的法官是总统任命，法官是终身职位。唯有最高法院有权解释宪法。
三权分立checks and balances
立法，执法，司法三权分立，legislative，executive，judicial，国会可立法，总统可否决，国会可通过三分之二选票再次通过，总统不可否决，但最高法院可以判定它违反宪法而否决它。
宪法修正案provisions for amendment
前十条宪法修正案称为bill of rights权利和自由法案
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加拿大概况
首都：渥太华Ottawa, 最大省：魁北克Quebec
第一大城市：多伦多，2：蒙特利尔，3：温哥华，4：渥太华
世界最大渔业出口国
国家元首：伊丽莎白二世
总督：履行女王职务governor general，实际政府领导人：总理prime minister
立法：议会立法parliament，议会由两部分组成senate（总督任命）和house of commons（根据人口），和美国类似，法律要两院通过，最后总督签字。
政党：自由党liberal party和保守党progressive conservative party
澳大利亚概况：
首都：堪培拉Canberra
第一大城：悉尼，2：墨尔本
世界最大羊毛出口国
国家元首：英女王，和加拿大一样有总督和总理，联邦制国家
政党：工党（最大党）australian labour party和自由党liberal party，
和英国不同，澳大利亚有成文宪法
议会参照英国，上议院senate（the upper house）和下议院house of representatives（the lower house）
新西兰概况
首都：惠灵顿Wellington
第一大城：奥克兰Auckland
世界最大羔羊肉，羊肉和奶制品出口国，称为the world’s biggest farm
国家元首：英女王
政体：议会制君主立宪制
爱尔兰概况（注意不是北爱尔兰哦，不是英国的一部分呢）
首都：都柏林dublin
国家元首：注意了是总统
专八人文知识
1. A Tale of Two Cities was written by Charles Dickens.
2. Phonology: The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.音位学;在语言或一门语言中，对有关其分类和模式以及为大家所默认的发音规则的研究音韵学,音系学
3. Syntax: The study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences.句法，研究词或其它句子成分如何联合起来形成合乎语法的句子规则的学科
4. Semantics: The study or science of meaning in language forms.语义学，以语言形式表示意思的研究或科学
5. acronym :首字母组合词，首字母缩略词，比如，NATO, UNESCO, BASIC,它们可以连拼，但VOA 是Initialism。
6. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated, as in the use of Washington for the United States government or of the sword for military power.换喻或转喻，一种,一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法，如用华盛顿代替美==或用剑代替军事力量，对面来了三个“红领巾”也是，以红领巾指代少先队员。
7. Simile: A figure of speech in which two essentially unlike things are compared, often in a phrase introduced by like or as, as in How like the winter hath my absence been or So are you to my thoughts as food to life (Shakespeare).明喻,一种修辞手法，把两种基本不相像的东西进行比较，通常在由like或as引导的短语中，如“我的离开好象是冬天来临”或“你对我的思想就象食物对于生命一样重要”（莎士比亚）
8. Metaphor: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison, as in a sea of troubles or All the world's a stage(Shakespeare)隐喻一种语言表达手法，通常用指某物的词或词组来指代他物，从而暗示它们之间的相似之处，如“忧愁之海”或“整个世界一台戏”(莎士比亚) the ship of desert沙漠之舟
9. Oxymoron: A rhetorical figure in which incongruous or contradictory terms are combined, as in a deafening silence and a mournful optimist.矛盾修饰法,一种把互相矛盾或不调和的词合在一起的修辞手法，如在震耳欲聋的沉默和悲伤的乐观cruel kindness
10. The affection name given to the clock tower of the Houses of Parliament, Westminster is Big Ben.
11. John Milton the poet wrote of Adam and Eve’s expulsion from the Garden of Eden in Paradise Lost. Paradise Regained was also written by him.
12. Sonnet: A 14-line verse form usually having one of several conventional rhyme schemes.十四行诗体,一种由十四行组成的诗歌形式，通常有一种传统的押韵形式,莎士比亚用过此诗体。
13. Slang: A kind of language occurring chiefly in casual and playful speech, made up typically of short-lived coinages and figures of speech that are deliberately used in place of standard terms for added raciness, humor, irreverence, or other effect.俚语主要出现在非正式的、游戏性的话语中的一种语言，基本由存在时间很短的派生词和修辞构成，它们被故意地用来取代标准的词语以达到生动、幽默、无礼或其它效果
14. Catch Phrase: A phrase in wide or popular use, especially one serving as a slogan for a group or movement.警句，妙句，吸引人的词句广泛使用的或流行的用语，尤指用作集团或运动的口号的用语。
15. Jargon: The specialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group.行话,一个行业、职业或类似的团体中使用的专业的或技术的语言.
terminology
16. Platitude: A trite or banal remark or statement, especially one expressed as if it were original or significant.陈腔滥调,陈腐的或平庸的评论或陈述，尤指某人表述它时好象它是新颖的或有意义的
17. Hyperbole: A figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect, as in I could sleep for a year or This book weighs a ton.夸张法,一种比喻，使用夸张来强调或产生某种效果，比如在我能睡一年或这书有一吨重
18. onomatopoeia: The formation or use of words such as buzz or murmur that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.象声词,词的构成或用法，例如buzz或nurmur模仿事物或行动的声音.
19. hypotaxis:从属关系
20. parataxis:并列结构，指短语或分句间不用连词，如：I came, I saw, I conquered.
21. Transcendentalism: A literary and philosophical movement, associated with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Margaret Fuller, asserting the existence of an ideal spiritual reality that transcends the empirical and scientific and is knowable through intuition.超验主义,一种文学和哲学运动，与拉尔夫•沃尔多•爱默生和玛格丽特•富勒有关，宣称存在一种理想的精神实体，超越于经验和科学之处，通过直觉得以把握
22. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote the Scarlet Letter.美国
23. Morphology: The study of the structure and form of words in language or a language, including inflection, derivation, and the formation of compounds.词法，词态学，形态音位学,语言或某一语言中对于单词的结构和形式的研究，包括词尾变化、派生和合成词的构成
24. affricate: A complex speech sound consisting of a stop consonant辅音followed by a fricative摩擦; for example, the initial sounds of child and joy.塞擦音由闭塞音伴随着摩擦音而形成的复杂的语音；例如child和joy的第一个音Also called: affricative.
25. Vanity Fair名利场was written William Makepeace Thackray
26. Neil Armstrong was the first person to walk on the moon. Edwin Aldrin, Michael Collins 尼尔．阿姆斯特朗、埃德温．奥尔德林、迈克尔．柯林斯
27. The title of the national anthem国歌of Canada is O Canada.此种类型题同学们可自己多找几个国家。
28. Henry David Thoreau’s work, Walden, has always been regarded as a masterpiece of New England Transcendentalism.
29. etymology: the history of a word.词源学
30. The dominant accent in the United States is General American.除纽约市、南方、新英格兰
31. John Lennon is a member of the band of Beatles披头士或甲壳虫乐队in the 1960s.
32. In Gulliver’s Travels格列佛游记, Jonathan Swift describes the island of the Houyhnhnms as the world’s most perfect society.有理智和人性的马Houyhnhnms are horses in fact.
33. Ceoffrey Chaucer wrote Canterbury Tales in fourteenth century.
34. morpheme: A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word, such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts.词素,
一种含有一个单词的有意义的语言单位，如-ed在单词walked中，不能被划分为更小的有意义单位
35. The name of the famous stadium露天体育场in the north of London is Wembley.
36. Wimbledon温布尔登[英国英格兰东南部城市](位于伦敦附近,是著名的国际网球比赛地)
37. Toad in the hole is a Traditional English recipe食谱, originating from Yorkshire, a county in the north of England. 烤面拖牛肉，，面拖烤香肠
38. Boycott: To act together in abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with as an expression of protest or disfavor or as a means of coercion（强制）.联合抵制,联合起来拒绝使用、购买或经销以示抗议、不满或作为强制的手段
39. Segregation: The policy and practice of imposing the social separation of races, as in schools, housing, and industry, especially so as to practice discrimination against people of color in a predominantly white society.种族隔离,强制实行种族的社会分离政策及实践，如在学校、居住和工业中，尤指在白人居多的社会中实行有色人种歧视的政策
40. Apartheid: An official policy of racial segregation practiced in the Republic of South Africa, involving political, legal, and economic discrimination against nonwhites.种族隔离制,南非共和国实行的一种官方的种族隔离政策，包括在政治、法律和经济诸方面对非白色人种的歧视.
41. Integration: The bringing of people of different racial or ethnic groups into unrestricted and equal association, as in society or an organization; desegregation.种族或宗教融合,在社会或组织中，使不同的种族或宗教派别的人处于无限制的平等的关系中；取消种族隔离
42. The majority of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec.
43. Sir Thomas More coined the word “Utopia”, it means nowhere land in Greek.
44. The Hemingway Code heroes are best remembered for their indestructible spirit.
45. Phoneme: any one of the set of smallest distinctive speech sounds in a language that distinguish one word from another音位，音素,语言中最小的语音单位，如英语里mat中的m和bat 中的b
46. polysemy:一词多义
47. patron saint：保护圣徒,守护神
48. Parentese:父母语
49. back formation:逆构词脱落一词的词缀以构成新词typewriter→typewrite
50. allomorph: Any of the variant forms of a morpheme. For example, the phonetic s of cats, z of dogs, and z of horses and the en of oxen are allomorphs of the English plural morpheme.语素变体,语素的一种变体形式，如语音学的中之s在cats中，z在dogs中，和iz在horses中，还有en在oxen中都是英语复数语素的语素变体.
英语国家概况美国部分精讲系列
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