《环境工程专业英语》马志毅编中文翻译

1.　The Environment and Environmental Engineering

环境和环境工程学

Simply said, the environment can be defined as one's surroundings. In terms of the environmental engineer's i nvolvement, however, a more specific definition is needed. To the environmental engineer, t he word environment may take on global dimensions, may refer to a very localized area in which a specific problem must be addressed, o r may, in the case of contained e nvironments, refer to a small volume of liquid, gaseous, or solid materials within a treatment plant reactor.

简单的说，环境可以定义为我们的周围。但是就环境工程师参与的角度来说，需要一个

更加明确的定义。对于环境工程师来说，环境这个词可能包含全球范围；也可能专指非常局

部的一个地区，在这个地区中涉及到一些具体要解决的问题；或者也可能在密闭的环境中，

指处理厂反应器内的一小块液体、气体或固体。

The global environment consists of the atmosphere, the h ydrosphere a nd the lithosphere in which the life-sustaining resources of the earth are contained. The atmosphere, a mixture of gases extending outward from the surface of the earth, evolved from elements o f the earth that were gasified during its formation and metamorphosis. The hydrosphere consists of the oceans,the lakes and streams and the shallow groundwater bodies that interflow with the surface water.The lithosphere is the soil mantle that wraps the core of the earth.

全球环境由大气圈、水圈和岩石圈所组成，其中包含了维系地球上生命的资源。大气圈，

从地球表面向外延伸的一种混合气体，它从地球的形成和变化过程中气化产生的元素演变而

来。水圈由海洋、湖泊、溪流以及与地表水互通的浅层地下水体所组成。岩石圈是指包围地

核的土质地幔。

The biosphere, a thin shell that encapsulates the earth, is made up of the atmosphere a nd lithosphere adjacent t o the surface of the earth, together with the hydrosphere. I t is within the biosphere that the life forms of earth, including humans, live.Life-sustaining materials in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms are cycled through the biosphere, providing sustenance t o all living organisms.

生物圈是包裹住地球的薄薄的外壳，是由大气圈和地表附近的岩石圈，以及水圈组成的。

地球上的生命形式，包括人类、动物存在于生物圈内。气态、液态和固态形式的生命维持物

在生物圈内循环，向所有生命体提供营养物质。

Life-sustaining resources?a?aair, food, and water?a?aare withdrawn from the biosphere. It is also into the biosphere t hat waste products in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms are discharges. From the beginning of time, the biosphere h as received and assimilated the wastes generated by plant and animal life. Natural systems have been ever active, dispersing smoke from forest fires, diluting animal wastes washed into streams and rivers, and converting debris, of past generations of plant and animal life into soil rich enough to support future populations.

维持生命的资源?a?a空气、食物和水?a?a是从生物圈内提取的。废物也是以气态、液态

和固态形式排放到生物圈中的。从刚开始的时候起，生物圈就接受和消化植物和动物产生的

废弃物。自然生态系统已经空前活跃，将森林大火产生的烟扩散，稀释冲入小溪和河流中的

动物排泄物以及把过去几代植物和动物的残骸转化成足以供养后续生物的肥沃土壤。

biological characteristics o f the environment, for every incident that eroded the quality of the immediate, or local environment, there were natural actions that restored that quality. Only in recent years has it becomes apparent that the sustaining and assimilative capacity of the biosphere, though tremendous, is not, after all, infinite.Though the system has operated for millions of years,

it has begun to show signs of stress, primarily because o f the impact of humans upon the environment.

对于每种自然行为的污染，对于环境在每种物理、化学、生物特性上不可取的变化，对

于每种侵蚀当下或当地环境质量的事件，有自然行为会恢复那种质量。只是到了近几年，生

物圈的维持和消化能力尽管巨大，但毕竟不是无限的这一事实才变得明显。尽管系统运行了

几百万年，但它开始发出有压力的信号，主要是由于人类对环境的影响。

Environmental engineering has been defined as the branch of engineering that is c oncerned

with protecting the environment from the potential, deleterious effects of human activity, protecting human population from the effects of adverse e nvironmental factors, and improving environmental quality for human health and well-being.

环境工程被定义为工程学的一个分支，其主要关注保护环境不受人类活动的潜在有害影

响，保护人类不受不利环境因素的影响以及为人类的健康和幸福而改善环境质量。

As the above definition implies, humans interact with their environment?a?asometimes adversely impacting the environment and sometimes being adversely impacted by pollutants in the environment. An understanding of the nature of the environment and of human interaction with it

is a necessary prerequisite to understanding the work of the environmental engineer.

上述定义表明，人类与环境相互影响?a?a有时对环境造成不利影响，有时受到环境污染

物的不利影响。了解环境的本质以及人类与环境的相互作用，是了解环境工程师工作的一个

必要的先决条件。

2.　Ecology

生态学

The recognition that all life forms are inextricably dependent o n one another and on the physical environment is a fairly recent phenomenon. The word ?°ecology?± was not even invented until the mid-1800s, and the study of ecology as a branch of natural sciences was not widespread until a few decades ago.

所有生命形式不可避免的相互依赖且依赖自然环境是一个最近认识到的现象。?°生态学?±

这个单词直到19世纪中叶才发明，而直到几十年前生态学才作为一门自然学科流传开来。

The science of ecology defines ?°ecosystems?± as groups of organisms which interact with

each other and the physical environment, and which affect the population of the various species in the environment. For example, the simplest type of ecosystem consists of two animals such as the hare and the lynx. If the hare population in a specific locality is high, the lynx have an abundant food supply, procreate, and increase in population until they outstrip the availability of hares. As

the lynx population decreases due to the unavailability of food, the hares increase since the number of predators is fewer, and the cycle repeats. Such a system is dynamic in that the numbers of each population are continuously changing, but over a long time span is at a steady state

biological characteristics o f the environment, for every incident that eroded the quality of the immediate, or local environment, there were natural actions that restored that quality. Only in recent years has it becomes apparent that the sustaining and assimilative capacity of the biosphere, though tremendous, is not, after all, infinite.Though the system has operated for millions of years,

it has begun to show signs of stress, primarily because o f the impact of humans upon the environment.

对于每种自然行为的污染，对于环境在每种物理、化学、生物特性上不可取的变化，对

于每种侵蚀当下或当地环境质量的事件，有自然行为会恢复那种质量。只是到了近几年，生

物圈的维持和消化能力尽管巨大，但毕竟不是无限的这一事实才变得明显。尽管系统运行了

几百万年，但它开始发出有压力的信号，主要是由于人类对环境的影响。

Environmental engineering has been defined as the branch of engineering that is c oncerned

with protecting the environment from the potential, deleterious effects of human activity, protecting human population from the effects of adverse e nvironmental factors, and improving environmental quality for human health and well-being.

环境工程被定义为工程学的一个分支，其主要关注保护环境不受人类活动的潜在有害影

响，保护人类不受不利环境因素的影响以及为人类的健康和幸福而改善环境质量。

As the above definition implies, humans interact with their environment?a?asometimes adversely impacting the environment and sometimes being adversely impacted by pollutants in the environment. An understanding of the nature of the environment and of human interaction with it

is a necessary prerequisite to understanding the work of the environmental engineer.

上述定义表明，人类与环境相互影响?a?a有时对环境造成不利影响，有时受到环境污染

物的不利影响。了解环境的本质以及人类与环境的相互作用，是了解环境工程师工作的一个

必要的先决条件。

2.　Ecology

生态学

The recognition that all life forms are inextricably dependent o n one another and on the physical environment is a fairly recent phenomenon. The word ?°ecology?± was not even invented until the mid-1800s, and the study of ecology as a branch of natural sciences was not widespread until a few decades ago.

所有生命形式不可避免的相互依赖且依赖自然环境是一个最近认识到的现象。?°生态学?±

这个单词直到19世纪中叶才发明，而直到几十年前生态学才作为一门自然学科流传开来。

The science of ecology defines ?°ecosystems?± as groups of organisms which interact with

each other and the physical environment, and which affect the population of the various species in the environment. For example, the simplest type of ecosystem consists of two animals such as the hare and the lynx. If the hare population in a specific locality is high, the lynx have an abundant food supply, procreate, and increase in population until they outstrip the availability of hares. As

the lynx population decreases due to the unavailability of food, the hares increase since the number of predators is fewer, and the cycle repeats. Such a system is dynamic in that the numbers of each population are continuously changing, but over a long time span is at a steady state

成不利影响。例如，最脆弱的生态系统之一深海，但一些工程师极力主张用海洋来处理有害

的废物。把生态原理列入工程决策中是环境工程专业的一个重要组成部分。

3.　Environmental Problems

环境问题

1 Our Fragile World

Anyone who has had an opportunity to observe even a small fraction of the natural wonders of our planet would agree that we live in a marvelous world. The majesty of the Rocky Mountains, the beauty of the Maine coast o n a clear summer day, and the colors of a desert sunset a re all

?ˉs bounties by the smell impressive sights. On a more mundane level, we are reminded of the Earth

and feel of freshly plowed Iowa farmland, by a breath of fresh air on a brisk fall day, or the taste

of fresh, clean water on a hot summer day.

1.我们脆弱的世界

任何一个人只要有机会去见证我们的行星，哪怕只是自然奇观的一个小片段，他都会

认同我们正住在一个不可思议的世界。雄伟的落基山脉，清爽夏日里缅因州海岸的美丽，还

有沙漠里日落的色彩都是能给人留下深刻印象的景观。在一个更为世俗的层次，我们会想起

地球的恩赐?a?a感受爱荷华州新耕土地的泥土清香，呼吸秋季凉爽的新鲜空气，在炎炎夏日

品尝甘甜、洁净的饮水。

It goes without saying that all of these things are threatened b y a broad range of human activities. In an effort to increase s hort-term agricultural production, farmland in many areas i s cultivated improperly, resulting in extreme erosion that threatens its v ery existence. Many urban dwellers would agree that a breath of fresh air is a rare commodity in the city. In many industrialized areas, ground water sources of drinking water are being threatened by the insidious movement of hazardous waste chemical leachates through ground water aquifers. The protection of our environment must be given the highest priority because on it d epends the p reservation of human kind, itself.

不用说，所有这些事物被大范围的人类活动所威胁着。努力去谋求农产品的短期增长，

农田在许多地区的不合理耕耘，导致了威胁其生存的极端侵蚀。很多城市居民都认为新鲜的

空气在城市里是稀有品。在许多工业地区，有害废物的化学沥滤液通过地下水潜移扩散，威

胁着地下水饮用水源。必须给予环境最优先的保护，因为人类自身的保护依赖于此。

In order to combat threats to our environment, it is necessary to understand the nature and magnitude of the problems involved. Before discussing t hese p roblems further, it is essential to recognize the fact that science and technology must play key roles in solving environmental problems. Only through the proper application of science and technology, u nder the direction of people with a strong environmental consciousness and a basic knowledge of the environmental sciences, can humankind survive on the limited resources of this planet.

为了应对那些对我们环境的威胁，我们有必要了解性质和所涉及的问题的大小。在进

一步讨论这些问题之前，必须承认科学技术在解决环境问题时起着关键作用这一事实。只有

通过科学技术的正确应用，在具有强烈环保意识和环境科学基本知识的人的指导下，人类才

能在这个资源有限的星球上生存。

2. Classifying Environmental Problems

Environmental problems are always interrelated. Sometimes a solution to one problem actually creates another problem. For example, when people are sick and dying from disease, it is natural to want to improve human health. When health is improved and infant mortality is reduced,

a population explosion may result. To feed this growing population, natural habitats are often destroyed by turning them into farmland. As natural habitats are destroyed, the wild plants, predatory animals, and parasites t hat once lived there are killed as well. Because of the lack of predators and parasites, outbreaks of insect pests become more common. Farmers use pesticides to control the pests and protect the crops, but in the process the environment becomes polluted. The development of this entire cycle in itself consumes fossil fuel supplies that are becoming scare. In addition, when fuels are burned, air pollutants are generated.

2.环境问题的分类

环境问题总是互相关联的。有时一个问题的解决实际上引起了另外一个问题的产生。例

如，当人们因为生病或因病死亡时，自然想到要改善人们健康状况。当人类健康得以改善及

婴儿的死亡率下降时，又可能会导致人口数量爆炸。为了养活这些不断增长的人口，自然栖

息地常常被破坏变成耕地。当自然栖息地被破坏，曾经生长在那里的野生植物、掠夺性动物

和寄生虫也被杀死。由于缺乏捕食者和寄生虫，病虫害的暴发变得越来越普遍。农民使用农

药去抑制虫害保护庄稼，但在这一过程中污染了环境。经历这一完整循环，本身要消耗日渐

不足的化石燃料供应。此外，燃料被燃烧的同时，空气污染产生了。

4.　The Impact of Humans upon the Environment

人类对环境的影响

In a natural state, earth?ˉs life forms live in equilibrium with their environment. The numbers

and activities of each species are governed by the resources available to them. Species interaction is common, with the waste product of one species often forming the food supply of another. Humans alone have the ability to gather resources from beyond their immediate surroundings and process those resources into different, more versatile forms. These abilities have made it possible for human population to thrive and flourish beyond natural constraints. But the natural and manufactured w astes generated a nd released i nto the biosphere b y these increased numbers of human beings have upset the natural equilibrium.

在一种自然状态下，地球上的生命体与所处的环境保持平衡.每个物种的数量和活动受

控于他们所能得到的资源。物种间普遍存在相互作用，往往一个物种的废弃物能成为另一个

的食物供应。唯独人类拥有从他们周围的环境之外收集资源的能力，并把那些资源加工成不

同的、更加多功能的东西。这些能力使人类人口的兴旺和蓬勃发展有可能超出自然的限制。

但是，由于增加的人口所产生和释放到生物圈的天然和人造的废物破坏了自然平衡。

Anthropogenic, or human-induced, pollutants have o verloaded the system. The overloading came relatively late in the course of human interaction with the environment ,perhaps because

early societies were primarily concerned with meeting natural needs, needs humans share in common with most of the higher mammals. These peoples had not yet begun to be concerned with meeting the acquired needs associated with more advanced civilizations.

人类产生的、人为引起的污染使系统超载。超载在人类与环境相互作用的过程中来的相

对较晚，或许因为早期社会主要关注满足自然需求，人类和大部分较高等的哺乳动物共同分

享的那些必需品。这些民族还没想到要把更先进的文明与所需求的联系起来。

Satisfying Natural Needs 满足自然需求

Early humans used n atural resources to s atisfy their needs f or air, water, food, and shelter. These n atural, unprocessed resources w ere readily available in the biosphere, a nd the residues generated by the use of such resources were generally compatible with, or readily assimilated by

the environment. Primitive humans ate plant and animal foods without even disturbing the atmosphere w ith the smoke from a campfire. Even when use of fire became common, the relatively small amounts of smoke generated were easily and rapidly dispersed and assimilated by the atmosphere.

早期人类使用自然资源来满足他们对空气，水，食物和庇护所的需求。这些天然的、未

经加工的资源在生物圈很容易用到，并且利用这些资源所产生的残留物一般兼容，或容易被

环境同化。原始人吃植物和动物性食物时甚至没有用篝火产生的烟雾污染大气。甚至当用火

普及时，相当少量的烟的产生能简单迅速分散并被大气同化。

Early civilizations often drank from the same rivers in which they bathed and deposited their wastes, y et the impact of such use was relatively slight, as natural cleansing mechanisms easily restored water quality. These early humans used caves and other natural shelters of else fashioned their homes from wood, dirt, or animal skins.Oftennomadic, e arly populations left behind few

items that were not readily broken down and absorbed by the atmosphere, h ydrosphere, or lithosphere .And those items that were not broken down with time were so few in number and so innocuous as to present no significant solid waste problems.

早期文明经常在他们沐浴并存入其废物的水中汲水喝，但这样使用的影响相对轻微，因

为自然的净化机制很容易恢复水质。这些早期人类利用洞穴和其他的天然庇护物，通过木材、

泥土、或兽皮塑造自己的家园。早起的游牧民族往往遗留下了几件不容易分解或被大气圈、

水圈或岩石圈所吸收的东西。那些没有随着时间推移而分解的东西数量很少且无害而没有呈

现出显著的固废问题。

Only as early peoples b egan to gather together in larger, more or less stable g roupings did

their impact upon their local environments begin to be significant. In 61 A.D., cookings and heating fires caused air pollution problems so severe that the Roman philosopher Seneca complained of ?°the stink of the smoky chimneys?±. By the late eighteenth century, the waters of the Rhine and the Thames had become too polluted to support game fish. From the Middle Ages the areas where food and human waste were dumped harbored rats, flies, and other pests.

只有当早起的民族开始大量聚集起来时，或多或少的稳定集团对他们当地环境的影响开

始变得显著。公元61年，由于食物和取暖用火造成的空气污染问题非常严重，罗马哲学家

塞内卡抱怨“排黑烟的烟囱臭”。十八世纪后期，莱茵河和泰晤士河的水已被严重污染而不

能戏鱼了。从中世纪开始，食品和人类废物被倾倒的地方滋生老鼠、苍蝇和其他害虫。

Satisfying Acquired Needs 满足收购需求

But these early evidences of pollution overload were merely the prelude to greater overloads

to come. With the dawn of the industrial revolution, humans were better able than ever to satisfy

their age-old needs of air, water, food, and shelter. Increasingly they turned their attention to other needs beyond those associated w ith survival. By the late nineteenth centuries, automobiles, appliances, and processed foods and beverages had become so popular as to seem necessities, and meeting these acquired needs had become a major thrust of modern industrial society.

但这些早期污染超负荷的证据仅仅是更严重的超负荷来临的前奏。伴随着工业革命的曙

光，人类比以往任何时候都能够更好地满足他们古老的对空气，水，食品和住房的需求。他

们把注意力越来越多地转向了那些超出生存范畴的需求。十九世纪后期，汽车、家电、加工

食品和饮料已变得如生活必需品般受欢迎，并且满足这些购买的需求已成为现代工业社会的

主要推动力。

Unlike the natural needs discussed earlier, acquired needs are usually met by items that must be processed or manufactured o r refined, and the production, distribution, and use of such items usually results in more complex residuals, many of which are not compatible with or readily assimilated by the environment.

与前面所讨论的自然需求不同，收购需求通常由必须处理或制造或改进的物品来满足，

生产、分配和使用这类物品通常产生更复杂的剩余物，其中有许多是不兼容或环境不能轻易

同化的。

Take, for example, a familiar modern appliance—the toaster. The shell and the heating elements a re likely to be made of steel, the handle of the lift lever of plastic. Copper wires and synthetic insulation may be used in the connecting cord, and rubber may be used on the plug. In assessing the pollutants generated by the manufacture and sale of this simple appliance, it would be necessary to include all the resources expended in the mining of the metals, the extracting and refining of the petroleum, the shipping of the various materials, then the manufacturing, shipping, and selling of the finished product. The potential impact of all of these activities upon air and water quality is significant. Furthermore, if the pollution potential involving the manufacture and

use of the heavy equipment needed for the extraction and processing of the raw materials used in the various toaster components is considered, the list could go on ad nauseam. And the solid-waste disposal problems that arise when it is time to get rid of the toaster become a further factor.

举个例子来说，一个常见的现代家电，烤面包机。外壳和加热元件可能用钢制，手柄升

降杆用塑料制成。连接线可能用铜线及合成绝缘体，插头可能用橡胶。在评估这个简单的设

备制造和销售中产生的污染物时有必要包括金属采矿所消耗的所有资源，提取和精炼石油，

各种材料的运输，还有制造、运输和销售成品。所有这些活动对空气和水质的潜在影响是显

著的。此外，如果考虑到各种烤面包机组件所用原料的开采和加工所需的重型设备的制造和

使用上存在潜在污染，这个名单可以继续增加到令人生厌。当摆脱烤面包机成为进一步因素

时，固体废物的处置问题就出现了。

As a rule, meeting the acquired needs o f modern societies generates m ore residuals than meeting natural needs, and these r esiduals are likely to be less c ompatible with the environment

and less likely to be readily assimilated into the biosphere. As societies ascend the socioeconomic ladder, the list of acquired needs, or luxuries, increases, a s do the complexity of the production chain and the mass and complexity of the pollutants generated. C onsequently, t he impact of modern human populations upon the environment is of major concern to the environmental engineer.

作为一条规则，满足现代社会的收购需求比满足自然需求产生更多的剩余物，这些剩余

物可能几乎不与环境兼容，且不太可能轻易被吸收到生物圈中。随着社会经济的发展，必需

品或奢侈品的名单在增加，而生产环节和物质的复杂性以及所生产的污染物的复杂性也在增

加。因此，现代人类群体对环境的影响是环境工程师的主要关注（对象）。

5．The Role of the Environmental Engineer

环境工程师的角色

As pollutants enter air, water, or soil, natural processes such as dilution, biological conversions, and chemical reactions convert waste material to more acceptable forms and disperse them through a larger volume. Yet those natural processes c an no longer perform the cleanup alone. The treatment facilities designed by the environmental engineer are based on the principles of self-cleaning observed in nature, but the engineered processes a mplify and optimize the operations observed in nature to handle larger volumes of pollutants and to treat them more rapidly. Engineers adapt the principles of natural mechanisms to engineered systems for pollution control when they construct tall stacks t o disperse a nd dilute air pollutants, design biological treatment facilities for the removal of organics from wastewater, use chemicals to oxidize and precipitate out the iron and manganese i n drinking water supplies, or bury solid wastes in controlled landfill operations.

当污染物质进入空气、水或者土壤的时候，自然的转变比如稀释、生物转化和化学反应

会使这些废物转化成能吸收的形式，并分散成更大的体积。然而那些自然转变不能单独地执

行净化。由环境工程师设计的处理设施是基于从自然界观察到的自净原理，但工程工艺使这

种自然观察到的操作得到扩大和优化，从而能更多更快地处理污染物。当他们修高烟囱来分

散和稀释空气污染物，设计生化处理装置来移除废水中的生物组织，使用化学剂来氧化并沉

淀出饮用水当中的铁和锰，或者把液态废物埋到受控制的垃圾填埋区时，工程师们使自然机

理受用于污染控制工程系统。

Occasionally, the environmental engineer must design to reverse or counteract natural processes. For example, the containers used for disposal of hazardous w astes such as toxic chemicals and radioactive materials must isolate those materials from the environment in order to prevent the onset of the natural, but highly undesirable, processes of dilution and dispersion.

有时候，环境工程师必须设计一些设施来抵消和中和自然进程。例如，用于处置危险废

物如有毒化学品和放射性物质的容器必须与自然环境隔离开，以防止那些不期望的却自然引

发的稀释和分散过程。

As will be demonstrated t hroughout this text, an understanding o f natural and engineered purification processes requires an understanding of the biological and chemical reactions involved in these processes. Thus, in a ddition to being knowledgeable in the mathematical, p hysical, and engineering science, the environmental engineer must also be well grounded in the subject areas of chemistry and microbiology, subject areas not usually emphasized i n engineering curricula. Indeed, an understanding of biological and chemical principles is as essential to the environmental engineer as the understanding of statics and strength of materials is to the structural engineer.

正如贯穿全文所将要表达的，要了解自然以及工程化净化工艺需要了解这些过程中所涉

及的生物和化学反应。因此，除了在数学、物理和工程学方面知识渊博，环境工程师还必须

在化学和微生物学课领域有扎实的基础，学科领域不仅限于工程课程。事实上，环境工程师

对生物和化学原理的认识就如结构工程师对静力学和材料强度的认识一样重要。

The environmental engineer?ˉs unique role is to build a bridge between biology and technology by applying all the techniques made a vailable by modern engineering technology to

the job of cleaning up the debris left in the wake of an indiscriminate use of that technology. The delicate balance of our biosphere has been disturbed, and the state in which we now find ourselves is a direct consequence of our having ignored the limits of the earth?ˉs ability to overcome heavy pollution loads, and our having been ignorant of the constraints i mposed by the limits of the

self-cleaning mechanisms of our biosphere.

环境工程师的独一无二的职责是在生物学与技术之间建立一座桥梁，把靠现代工程技术

达成的技艺应用于清理伴随那种技术的任意使用而来的残骸。我们生物圈的微妙生态平衡已

经被干扰，而我们现在发现自己所处的状态是我们忽视了地球对严重污染负荷的承受能力，

以及我们不了解生物圈的自净机制的限制所产生的约束的直接结果。

A keen awareness o f these natural constraints plays an important role in the work of environmental engineers. For example, the laws of conservation of mass a nd energy p revent the destruction of pollutants,and the engineer is bound by these limits. The principles of waste treatment must therefore be to convert the objectionable material to other, less objectionable forms; to disperse the pollutants so that their concentrations a re minimal, or to concentrate them for isolation from the environment.

对那些自然约束敏锐的认识在环境工程师的工作上起着重要的作用。例如，质量和能量

的守恒定律保护污染物不被破坏，工程师将被这些限制所束缚。对废物的处理原则也必须是

把有害的物质转化成其他的，没那么有害的物质；分散污染物使其浓度达到最小，或使之集

中然后与环境隔离开来。

In all instances, the end products of the treatment of polluted water or air or of the disposal of solid wastes must be compatible with the existing environmental resources and must not overtax the assimilative powers of hydrosphere, atmosphere, o r lithosphere. In structural engineering,the engineer can simply specify a larger or stronger beam to carry a heavier load. The environmental engineer, o n the other hand, must accept the carrying capacity of a stream, an airshed, or a landmass because these can seldom be changed.

在所有情况下，处理后的污水或空气或固体废物处置后的终态物，都必须与现存的环境

资源可以和谐共存，而且不能过分使用水圈、大气圈和岩石圈的同化能力。在结构工程规划

时，工程师可以简单地通过设定更大更强的梁来承受更重的物件。另一方面，环境工程师必

须接受河流、气流或陆地的承载能力，因为它们很少能被改变。

It is the purpose of this text to demonstrate how the environmental engineer, working within these c onstraints, u ses a ll available technological tools to design efficient control and treatment devices that are modeled after the natural processes that have so long preserved our biosphere. For only by bringing technology into harmony with the natural environment can the engineer hope to achieve the goals of the profession?athe protection of the environment from the potentially deleterious effects of human activity, the protection of human populations from the effects of adverse environmental factors, and the improvement of environmental quality for human health

and well-being.

这篇课文的目的是证明环境工程师如何在这些约束条件里，使用所有可利用的技术工具

来设计有效的控制和处理装置，它们模仿这些长时间保护我们的生物圈的自然过程。只有把

技术与自然环境相协调，才能达成环境工程师的职业目的?a?a保护环境免受人类活动潜在危

害的影响，保护人类免受不利环境因素的影响，以及改进环境质量，让人们更健康。

6. Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere

大气的组成和结构

A necessary first step toward understanding air pollution and its control is understanding the composition and structure of the atmosphere. T he total mass of each gas in the atmosphere i s given in Table 6-1.

理解大气污染及其控制必要的第一步就是要理解大气的组成与结构。表6-1罗列了各

种气体在大气中的所占的质量。

Varying amounts of most of these gases may be found in each of the four major layers of the atmosphere?a?athe troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, and the thermosphere (see Fig 6-1).

大部分这些气体的大小不同，可能存在于四个主要的大气层中?a?a对流层，平流层，中

间层以及热层（见图6-1）。

As indicated in Table 6-2 the air in the troposphere, the air which we breathe, c onsists, by volume, of about 78 percent Nitrogen (N2), 21 percent Oxygen (O2), 1 percent Argon (Ar), and

0.03 percent carbon dioxide (CO2). Also present are traces of other gasses, most of which are inert.

如表6-2所示，在对流层中的空气，即我们呼吸的空气，其体积由约78％的氮气，21%

的氧气，1%的氩气，以及0.03％的二氧化碳组成。其他气体所占百分比很小，其中大部分

是惰性气体。

The layer of greatest interest in pollution control is the troposphere, since this is the layer in which most living things exist。One of the more recent changes in the troposphere involves the phenomenon of acid rain. Acid rain, or acid deposition, results when gaseous emissions of sulfur oxides (SO x) and nitrogen oxides (NO x) interact with water vapor and sunlight and are chemically

SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These converted to strong acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid (H

2

compounds along with other organic and inorganic chemicals are deposited on the earth as aerosols and particulates (dry deposition) or are carried to the earth by raindrops, snow flakes, fog, or dew (wet deposition).

在污染控制中的最受关注的是对流层，因为很多生物存在于这层中。对流层中最近多数

变化之一就是酸雨现象。酸雨，或称酸性沉淀，是排放的二氧化硫和二氧化氮气体与水蒸气

和阳光相互作用且发生化学反应转化强酸化合物，比如硫酸和硝酸。这些化合物连同其他有

机和无机化学物质堆积在地面上成为大气微粒和颗粒（干沉淀），或者通过降雨、降雪、雾

气或露水的方式带到地面（湿沉降）。

The effects of acid deposition vary according to the sensitivity of the ecosystems upon which the deposits fall. In some highly buffered areas a cidic compounds c ould be deposited f or years without causing any appreciable increase in soil or surface water acidity, but the same deposition could cause sharp increases in acidity in poorly buffered areas.

酸性沉淀的影响根据沉积下降处的生态系统的敏感性而不同。在一些缓冲性能高的地区

的酸性物质可以存放多年，而不会造成任何土壤或地表水酸度的明显增加，但在缓冲性能很

差的地区，相同的沉积可能会导致酸度急剧增加。

Acid rain has caused considerable damage to buildings and monuments in highly industrialized areas, b ut damage i s not limited to the immediate area of industrialization. Tall stacks d isperse p ollutants into the upper reaches o f the troposphere w here they may remain for days, often being carried long distance. For example, there is substantial evidence that prevailing winds may be carrying significant amounts of emissions of SO x and NO x from industrialized areas

of the Midwest into New England and Canada, w here the emissions m ay return to earth as acid rain. Pollutants that are generated in one country and deposited in another have become a matter of international concern and of international negotiation.

高度工业化地区的酸雨对建筑物和古迹造成了相当大的损害，但危害不仅限于临近工业

化的地区。高烟囱排出污染物到对流层的上层，他们在那里可能会留几天，飘散很长距离。例如，有大量证据表明，盛行风可能会携带大量从中西部工业地区排放的硫化物和氮氧化物到

新英格兰和加拿大，这些排放物可能会以酸雨的形式返回地面。在一个国家所产生的污染物

而在另一个国家沉积，已成为国际关注与谈判的问题。

Other changes in the atmosphere as a whole may not be quite so obvious. For example, the twentieth century has seen widespread use of radioactive materials, and concern over the long-range effects of release o f these substances into the a tmosphere h as led to investigation of possible methods of safe disposal by deep burial in the earth or ocean.

其他大气整体变化可能并不那么明显。例如，二十世纪已经普遍使用放射性物质，对

这些向大气释放而引起长期影响的物质的关注引发了对可能的深埋地底或海底

的安全处理方式的研究调查。

Recently, the National Academy of Science reported that the ozone (O3) layer in the stratosphere is being depleted as ozone reacts with chlorine released from the fluorocarbons used as aerosol spray propellants. Since the O3 in the atmosphere reduces the ultraviolet radiation that reaches t he earth?ˉs surface, and since ultraviolet radiation at high levels can damage p lants and animals, loss of O3represents a potentially serious problem. In light of this danger, some industrialized nations have banned the use of fluorocarbons.

近日，国家科学院的报告称，平流层中的臭氧层因臭氧和由用做喷雾推进剂的碳氟化合

物所产生的氯反应而正在耗尽。由于大气中的臭氧降低了到达地球表面的紫外线辐射，而

紫外线过高会破坏植物和动物，所以臭氧的缺失代表了一个潜在的严重问题。鉴于这种危险，

一些工业化国家已禁止使用碳氟化合物。

The amount of tropospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is reported to be increasing at a rate of

1.8mg/m3per year, a process t hat may not be reversible. Furthermore, this increase has been accompanied b y an equivalent decrease in atmospheric o xygen (O2). Currently, there are more than 700 billion tons of carbons in the form of CO2in the atmosphere. E ach year this figure increases by

2.3billion tons the equivalent of 3 percent increases every decade.

报告中提到对流层中的二氧化碳的数量每年的增加率为 1.8mg/m3，而这一增长过程可

能是不可逆的。此外，这种增长一直伴随着相当于大气中氧气的减少。目前，有超过700

亿吨碳以二氧化碳的形式存在于大气中。这个数字每年上升 2.3亿吨，相当于每十年增加3%。

Fossil fuel consumption and agricultural, forestry and land use practices of various types

contribute to the CO2 buildup. As CO2 strongly absorbs long-wave (infrared) terrestrial radiation, and continued CO2 buildup could lead to a significant enough rise in earth?ˉs surface temperatures to melt the Arctic ice peak. If the warming trend can be confirmed and positively linked to CO2 buildup, then global action such as reforestation may eventually have to be pursued to remove

CO2 from the atmosphere.

化石燃料的消耗和农业、林业和各类土地利用的作法有助于二氧化碳的累积。由于二

氧化碳会强烈吸收长波（红外）地面辐射，继续积累CO2会导致地表温度明显增高直到北极

冰山融化。如果这种变热的趋势能被证实而且与CO2积累肯定相关，那么最终就必须采取森

林再造等全球性行动，以便从大气中去除CO2。

8.Atmosphere cleansing processes

大气净化处理

The atmosphere, like a s tream or a river, has natural, b uilt-in self-cleansing processes without which the troposphere would quickly become unlivable for humans. Most of the

air-pollution-control devices discussed i n this chapter, for both stationary and mobile sources, make use of some of the principles involved in the natural atmospheric cleansing processe.

大气，诸如溪流或河流，都拥有自然的、自带的自净过程，如果没有这个过程的话对流层

会很快的变得人类无法生存。大部分在本章所讨论的空气污染控制设备，用于固定和流动污

染源，都利用到自然大气清洗过程中所涉及的一些原理。

Dispersion, gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption (involving washout and scavenging), rainout and adsorption are some of the most significant natural removal mechanisms at w ork in

the atmosphere. T hough not literally a removal mechanism, d ispersion of pollutants by wind currents lessens the concentrations of pollutants in any one place. Gravitational settling is one of the most important natural mechanisms for removing particulates from the atmosphere, especially particles larger than 20μm.

分散、重力沉降、絮凝、吸收（包括冲洗和清除）、雨水冲刷和吸附是一些大气中最显著

的自然去除机制。即使不是真正的去除机制，但在任何一个地方，污染物被气流分散以降低

其浓度。重力沉降是最重要的去除大气中微粒的自然机制之一，尤其是对于大于20微米的

微粒。

Gravitational settling also plays a key role in several of the other natural atmospheric cleansing processes. For example, thr ough flocculation, particles smaller than 0.1|ìm c an be settled out.In

this phenomenon, larger particles act as receptors for smaller ones. Two particles bump together to form a unit, and the process i s repeated u ntil a small floc particle is formed that will be large enough and heavy enough to settle out.

重力沉降也在其他几个自然大气净化处理中起到了关键作用。例如，通过絮凝作用，小于

0.1μm颗粒可以被处理。在这一现象中，较大的颗粒作为较小颗粒的载体。两个粒子撞在

一起，形成一个单位，并重复这个过程，直到形成一个足够大且足够重的小絮状颗粒来处理。

In the natural absorption process, particulates or gaseous pollutants are collected in rain or mist, then settle out with that moisture. This phenomenon, known as washout or scavenging takes place below cloud level. The potential for scavenging gases and particulates depends on many factors, including the intensity of rainfall and the nature of the contaminants being scavenged.Under

collected, with most small particles remaining in the air that flows around the falling drop. Recent

.

re search indicates that washout may be negligible for particles less than 1|ìm in diameter

在自然吸收过程中，颗粒物或气态污染物收集雨水或雾，然后形成水分。这种现象，称作

冲洗或清除，发生在云层以下的地方。清除气体和微粒的潜在能力取决于许多因素，包括降

雨强度和正在清理污染物的性质。一般情况下，只有小部分在雨滴下降路径中的粒子会被收

集，大多数小颗粒将留在降雨区周围流动的空气中。最近的研究表明冲刷可能对于直径小于

1μm的颗粒是不起作用的。

Gases may be dissolved without being chemically changed,or they may, in some instances,enter into chemical reactions with the rainwater. For example, SO2 gas, which is simply dissolved into rain, falls with the droplets as SO2. However, SO2 may also react w ith rainwater to form H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)or H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) mists, mists known as“acid rains”and potentially far more harmful than the original SO2.

没有发生化学变化的气体可能会消散，或在某些情况下，他们可能进入雨水而发生化学反

应。例如,SO2气体很容易与水相容，作为SO2液体落下。然而，二氧化硫也可能与雨水反

应形成H2SO3亚硫酸或H2SO4（硫酸）的薄雾，这薄雾被称为“酸雨”，且可能会远远比原

来的二氧化硫有害。

Rainfall through uncontaminated air has a PH of 5.6. However, in the western hemisphere, PH values as low as 2 have been recorded for rainfall from a single precipitation event. This low PH

of rain fall can have far-reaching effects.As noted earlier, acid rain runoff can cause e xtensive erosion of some surfaces (notably limestone)and can change the PH in streams and rivers, thereby influencing the species of algae which predominate in those streams.

通过未受污染的空气降雨的PH值是5.6。然而，在西半球，一个单一的降水事件中所记

录PH值已经低到2了。这种低PH值的降雨会产生深远的影响。如前所述，酸雨径流可引

起一些表面的广泛侵蚀（特别是石灰岩），可以改变溪流和河流中的PH值，从而影响支配

那些溪流的藻的种类。

Rainout is another natural atmospheric cleansing process involving precipitation.Whereas washout occurs below cloud level when falling raindrops absorb pollutants,rainout occurs within clouds when submicron particulates s erve as condensation n uclei around which drops of water

may form.The phenomenon has resulted in increased rainfall and fog formation in urban areas.

雨洗效应包括降水是另一种自然的大气清洁过程。当雨滴下落吸收污染物时，冲刷发生在

云层下方；而当亚微米颗粒物充当周围可能形成水珠的凝结核时，雨洗效应发生在云里。这

种现象导致了市区降雨的增加和雾的形成。

Adsorption occurs primarily in the friction layer of the atmosphere,the layer closest to the earth's surface.In this phenomenon,gaseous,liquid,or solid contaminants are attracted(generally electrostatically)to a surface,where t hey are concentrated a nd retained.Natural s urfaces s uch as soil,rocks,leaves,and blades of grass can adsorb and retain pollutants.Particles may be brought into contact with an adsorption surface by gravitational setting or by inertial impaction,a process by which particulates or gaseous pollutants are transported to surfaces by wind currents.Impaction is particularly effective for particles in the 10 to 15|ìm rang e, and numerous small surfaces ?asuch as

collected, with most small particles remaining in the air that flows around the falling drop. Recent

.

re search indicates that washout may be negligible for particles less than 1|ìm in diameter

在自然吸收过程中，颗粒物或气态污染物收集雨水或雾，然后形成水分。这种现象，称作

冲洗或清除，发生在云层以下的地方。清除气体和微粒的潜在能力取决于许多因素，包括降

雨强度和正在清理污染物的性质。一般情况下，只有小部分在雨滴下降路径中的粒子会被收

集，大多数小颗粒将留在降雨区周围流动的空气中。最近的研究表明冲刷可能对于直径小于

1μm的颗粒是不起作用的。

Gases may be dissolved without being chemically changed,or they may, in some instances,enter into chemical reactions with the rainwater. For example, SO2 gas, which is simply dissolved into rain, falls with the droplets as SO2. However, SO2 may also react w ith rainwater to form H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)or H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) mists, mists known as“acid rains”and potentially far more harmful than the original SO2.

没有发生化学变化的气体可能会消散，或在某些情况下，他们可能进入雨水而发生化学反

应。例如,SO2气体很容易与水相容，作为SO2液体落下。然而，二氧化硫也可能与雨水反

应形成H2SO3亚硫酸或H2SO4（硫酸）的薄雾，这薄雾被称为“酸雨”，且可能会远远比原

来的二氧化硫有害。

Rainfall through uncontaminated air has a PH of 5.6. However, in the western hemisphere, PH values as low as 2 have been recorded for rainfall from a single precipitation event. This low PH

of rain fall can have far-reaching effects.As noted earlier, acid rain runoff can cause e xtensive erosion of some surfaces (notably limestone)and can change the PH in streams and rivers, thereby influencing the species of algae which predominate in those streams.

通过未受污染的空气降雨的PH值是5.6。然而，在西半球，一个单一的降水事件中所记

录PH值已经低到2了。这种低PH值的降雨会产生深远的影响。如前所述，酸雨径流可引

起一些表面的广泛侵蚀（特别是石灰岩），可以改变溪流和河流中的PH值，从而影响支配

那些溪流的藻的种类。

Rainout is another natural atmospheric cleansing process involving precipitation.Whereas washout occurs below cloud level when falling raindrops absorb pollutants,rainout occurs within clouds when submicron particulates s erve as condensation n uclei around which drops of water

may form.The phenomenon has resulted in increased rainfall and fog formation in urban areas.

雨洗效应包括降水是另一种自然的大气清洁过程。当雨滴下落吸收污染物时，冲刷发生在

云层下方；而当亚微米颗粒物充当周围可能形成水珠的凝结核时，雨洗效应发生在云里。这

种现象导致了市区降雨的增加和雾的形成。

Adsorption occurs primarily in the friction layer of the atmosphere,the layer closest to the earth's surface.In this phenomenon,gaseous,liquid,or solid contaminants are attracted(generally electrostatically)to a surface,where t hey are concentrated a nd retained.Natural s urfaces s uch as soil,rocks,leaves,and blades of grass can adsorb and retain pollutants.Particles may be brought into contact with an adsorption surface by gravitational setting or by inertial impaction,a process by which particulates or gaseous pollutants are transported to surfaces by wind currents.Impaction is particularly effective for particles in the 10 to 15|ìm rang e, and numerous small surfaces ?asuch as

collected, with most small particles remaining in the air that flows around the falling drop. Recent

.

re search indicates that washout may be negligible for particles less than 1|ìm in diameter

在自然吸收过程中，颗粒物或气态污染物收集雨水或雾，然后形成水分。这种现象，称作

冲洗或清除，发生在云层以下的地方。清除气体和微粒的潜在能力取决于许多因素，包括降

雨强度和正在清理污染物的性质。一般情况下，只有小部分在雨滴下降路径中的粒子会被收

集，大多数小颗粒将留在降雨区周围流动的空气中。最近的研究表明冲刷可能对于直径小于

1μm的颗粒是不起作用的。

Gases may be dissolved without being chemically changed,or they may, in some instances,enter into chemical reactions with the rainwater. For example, SO2 gas, which is simply dissolved into rain, falls with the droplets as SO2. However, SO2 may also react w ith rainwater to form H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)or H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) mists, mists known as“acid rains”and potentially far more harmful than the original SO2.

没有发生化学变化的气体可能会消散，或在某些情况下，他们可能进入雨水而发生化学反

应。例如,SO2气体很容易与水相容，作为SO2液体落下。然而，二氧化硫也可能与雨水反

应形成H2SO3亚硫酸或H2SO4（硫酸）的薄雾，这薄雾被称为“酸雨”，且可能会远远比原

来的二氧化硫有害。

Rainfall through uncontaminated air has a PH of 5.6. However, in the western hemisphere, PH values as low as 2 have been recorded for rainfall from a single precipitation event. This low PH

of rain fall can have far-reaching effects.As noted earlier, acid rain runoff can cause e xtensive erosion of some surfaces (notably limestone)and can change the PH in streams and rivers, thereby influencing the species of algae which predominate in those streams.

通过未受污染的空气降雨的PH值是5.6。然而，在西半球，一个单一的降水事件中所记

录PH值已经低到2了。这种低PH值的降雨会产生深远的影响。如前所述，酸雨径流可引

起一些表面的广泛侵蚀（特别是石灰岩），可以改变溪流和河流中的PH值，从而影响支配

那些溪流的藻的种类。

Rainout is another natural atmospheric cleansing process involving precipitation.Whereas washout occurs below cloud level when falling raindrops absorb pollutants,rainout occurs within clouds when submicron particulates s erve as condensation n uclei around which drops of water

may form.The phenomenon has resulted in increased rainfall and fog formation in urban areas.

雨洗效应包括降水是另一种自然的大气清洁过程。当雨滴下落吸收污染物时，冲刷发生在

云层下方；而当亚微米颗粒物充当周围可能形成水珠的凝结核时，雨洗效应发生在云里。这

种现象导致了市区降雨的增加和雾的形成。

Adsorption occurs primarily in the friction layer of the atmosphere,the layer closest to the earth's surface.In this phenomenon,gaseous,liquid,or solid contaminants are attracted(generally electrostatically)to a surface,where t hey are concentrated a nd retained.Natural s urfaces s uch as soil,rocks,leaves,and blades of grass can adsorb and retain pollutants.Particles may be brought into contact with an adsorption surface by gravitational setting or by inertial impaction,a process by which particulates or gaseous pollutants are transported to surfaces by wind currents.Impaction is particularly effective for particles in the 10 to 15|ìm rang e, and numerous small surfaces ?asuch as

Some physical contaminants include (1) temperature change (thermal pollution). This is the case of relatively warm water discharged industrial plants after use in heat exchangers (coolers); (2)color (e.g. , cooking liquors discharged by chemical pulping plants); (3) turbidity (caused by discharges c ontaining suspended s olids); (4) foams detergents s uch as alkylbenzene sulfonate (ABS) constitute important cause of foaming; and (5) radioactivity.

一些物理性质污染包括（1）温度改变（热污染）。这种情况是通过热交换器（冷却塔）

后排出工厂的相对温水；（2）色素（例如化学制浆厂排出的煮液）；（3）浑浊（由排放的悬

浮物造成）；（4）泡沫、洗涤剂如烷基苯、磺酸盐（ABS）是引起泡沫的主要原因；（5）放

射现象。

Biological contaminants are responsible for transmission of diseases by water supplies. Some of the diseases transmitted by biological contamination of water are cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, and shistosomiasis.

生物污染是造成通过供水传播疾病的原因。一些通过生物污染的水传播的病有：霍乱、

伤寒、副伤寒以及血吸虫病。

15. Principles of biological reactions

生物反应原则

Biological reactions may be classified ad aerobic, anaerobic, or photosynthetic according to

the predominate type of microbial activity and all three are of importance in biological processes used for wastewater treatment. There are several basic principles which are common to all three of these c lassifications. I n each e ase a source of cellular building blocks, such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorous a s either organic or inorganic compounds m ust first be transported i nto the cell in a soluble form. Rates of solution or mass transfer into the cell can therefore limit the overall reaction rate. Hydrogen acceptors must be present and aerobic organisms use oxygen for this purpose while anaerobic organisms use such compounds as sulfates, nitrates, carbon dioxide, or organic compounds. Energy must be supplied to the organism either in the form of energy contained in chemical compounds or as radiant energy form sunlight. A fraction of this energy is used to drive a synthesis reaction for the production of more microorganisms; the remainder is dissipated as heat. The effect of the heat generated on the reactor temperature can usually be neglected since the low concentration of organics in most wastewaters results in the generation of only a small amount of heat.

生物反应，可分为好氧、厌氧或光合作用，根据微生物的活动所占的优势来分，三者在

废水处理的生物过程都很重要。这里有所有这3个类别的几个常见的基本原则。在每种细胞

质组成部分的元素中，比如碳，氧，氢，氮，磷，无论是有机或无机化合物，必须先以一种

可溶性形式运送到细胞中。速率控制或进入细胞的传质能够限制总的反应速率。好氧生物为

此利用氧和厌氧生物体利用诸如硫酸盐、硝酸盐、碳氧化物、或有机化合物这些化合物时，

受氢体必须参与。能源必须提供给生物体，无论是以化学化合物形式的能量或阳光形式的辐

射能。一小部分这样的能量是用来驱动合成反应，为了生产更多的微生物；剩下的以热量形

式消耗。产生热量对反应器温度的影响通常可以被忽略，因为大多数低有机浓度的废水只产

生少量热。

The microorganisms also form waste products with the type of product being dependent on

the species o f microorganisms and environmental conditions. The more desirable products are

gases, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, or methane, which can be easily separated from the liquid phase. Some gases and volatile compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, amines, mercaptand, etc., are undesirable because of their odor which may create air pollution problems in the vicinity of the treatment plant. A special requirement f or most biological processes used in wastewater treatment is the production of flocculant microorganisms that can be easily separated from the liquid stream in a concentrated form by such physical processes as gravity sedimentation, centrifugation, or vacuum filtration. From a pollution control viewpoint, the microorganisms produced must be considered as an undesirable product since, being organic matter,they can place a pollutional burden on the receiving waters. Ease of separation from the liquid phase and

self-destruction of the microorganisms through autooxidation are therefore of considerable importance.

微生物也能形成废物，其类型取决于微生物的种类和环境条件。更符合人们希望的的产

物是气体，如二氧化碳，氮，氧，或甲烷，可以很容易地与液相分离。一些气体和挥发性化

合物，如硫化氢、胺、硫醇等，目前并不可取，因为它们的气味可能造成污水处理厂附近的

空气污染问题。对于大多数污水处理中所用生物过程的一个特殊的要求，是絮状微生物的产

物可以通过重力沉降、离心或真空过滤等物理过程的浓缩形式简单地与液流分离。从控制污

染的角度来看，微生物产生的，必须将其视为一个不希望产生的产品，因为作为有机质，他

们会对受纳水体形成污染负荷。因此，易于与液相分离以及通过自动氧化使微生物自行分解

具有相当的重要性。

More detailed information concerning the basic biological principles which have been discussed may be found in textbooks on microbial metabolism and physiology.

更多关于基本生物原理讨论的详细资料，我们可以在微生物新陈代谢和生理学的教科书

中找到。

20. Solid Waste Management?a?aAn Overview

固体废物管理?a?a综述

Recognizing that our world is finite and that the continued pollution of our environment will,

if uncontrolled, be difficult to rectify in the future, the subject of solid-waste management is both timely and important. The overall objective of solid-waste management is to minimize the adverse environmental effects caused by the indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes, especially of hazardous wastes. To assess the management possibilities it is important to consider (1) materials flow in society, (2) reduction in raw materials usage, (3) reduction in solid-waste quantities, (4) reuse o f materials, (5) materials recovery, (6) energy recovery, and (7) day-to-day solid-waste management.

当认识到我们的世界是有限的，而且对我们环境的持续污染，如果不加控制，在未来将

很难纠正，固体废物管理的问题是及时的和重要的。固体废物管理的总体目标是，以尽量减

少不加区别地处置固体废物而对环境造成的不良影响，特别是危险废物。为了评估管理的可

能性，需要重点考虑（1）物质在社会中的流动性，（2）减少在原材料的使用，（3）减少固

体废物数量，（4）物料再利用，（5）物料回收，（6）能量回收，以及（7）日常固体废物的

管理。

(1) Materials Flow in Society物质在社会中的流动性

An indication of how and where solid wastes are generate in a technological society is shown in the simplified materials-flow diagram presented in Fig. 20-1. Solid wastes (debris) are generated at the start of the process, beginning with the mining of raw material. Thereafter, solid wastes a re generated a t every step in the process a s raw materials are converted to goods for consumption. It is apparent from Fig. 20-1 that one of the best ways to reduce the amount of solid wastes to be disposed is to reduce the c onsumption of raw materials and to increase the rate of recovery and reuse of waste materials. Although the concept is simple, effecting this change in a modern technological society has proved extremely difficult.

固废在科技型社会中如何以及在何地产生的流程，它的简化物质流程图如图20-1所示。

固体废物（碎片）是在流程的最初从原材料的开采中产生的。此后，固体废物在原料转化为

消费商品过程的每一步中产生。从图20-1中很明显的看出，减少固废排放量的最佳途径之

一是减少原材料的消耗以及增加废物料的回收和再利用率。虽然这个概念很简单，但在现代

科技社会中使这个变化生效已被证明是非常困难的。

(2)Reduction in Raw Materials Usage减少原材料的使用

The general relationships shown in Fig. 20-1 can be quantified relatively, as shown in Fig.

20-2. To satisfy the principle of conservation of mass the input must equal the output. Clearly, if a reduction in the usage of raw materials is to occur either the input or output must be reduced. Raw materials usage can be reduced most effectively by reducing the quantity of municipal and industrial wastes. For example, to meet EPA mileage restrictions American cars are now (1984) on the average, 20 percent smaller than they were in the late 1950s and early 1960s. This reduction in size has in turn resulted in less mining for the iron ore used t o make steel. While most people would agree that it is desirable to reduce the usage of raw materials, others would argue that as the usage of raw materials is decreased jobs in those industries are also decreased.

图20-1中的一般关系可以量化比较，如图20-2所示。为了满足质量守恒定律，输入必

须等于输出。显然，如果原材料的使用减少了，那么输入或输出必须减少。通过减少市政和

工业废物的数量可以最有效地减少原材料的使用。例如，为了满足EPA（环保局）的里程限

制，现在（1984年）的美国车辆比二十世纪50年代末和二十世纪60年代初的车辆小20%。

这个尺寸上的减小反过来减少了炼钢所需铁矿石的开采量。大多数人认为减少原材料的使用

是可取的，但是其他人则认为随着原材料使用的减少而减少的那些行业里的工作（岗位）也

会减少。

Clearly, the question o f reduced raw materials usage is c lose related to n ational policies. In more recent times, it has become clear that such usage is also related to the world economy. For example, the increase i n oil prices has led to more usage o f wood as an alternative source of energy.

显然，减少原材料使用这一问题与国家政策紧密相连。在最近时期，我们清楚认识到这

一点也与世界经济有着联系。例如，原油价格的提高导致了更多使用木材作为一种替代能源

的来源。

21. Magnitude of the Hazardous Waste Problem

危险废弃物问题的等级

Over the years, the term ?°Hazardous?± has evolved in a confusing setting as different groups advocate m any criteria for classifying a waste as ?°hazardous?±. Within the federal government,

hazardous. D ifferent states had other classification systems, as did the National Academy of Sciences a nd the National Cancer Institute. Selected classification criteria are described in more detail in Table 21-1.

多年来，由于不同组织倡导了许多标准来把废弃物列为危险的，?°危险?±一词已演变为一

个模糊的定位。在联邦政府中，不同机构使用说明，例如?°有毒的、?±?°易爆的?±和?°有放射性

的?±，把废物标注为危险的。不同的州有不同的分类系统，正如?°国家科学院?±和?°国家癌症研

究所?±所做的。分类标准的选择，在表21-1中有详细的描述。

The federal government attempted t o impose a nationwide classification system under the implementation of RCRA, wherein a hazardous w aste is defined by the degree of ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and/or toxicity. This definition includes acids, toxic chemicals, explosives

and other harmful or potentially harmful waste. In this chapter, this will be the applicable definition of hazardous waste. Radioactive wastes are excluded. Such wastes obviously are hazardous, b ut because t heir generation, handing, processing a nd disposal differ so drastically

from non nuclear hazard, the radioactive waste problems is addressed separately in chapter 15.

联邦政府试图根据RCRA（资源保护和回收法）的实行，强加一个全国性的分类系统，

其中危险废物被按照易燃性、腐蚀性、反应性和/或毒性来分级定义。这个定义包括酸，有

毒化学品，爆炸品及其他有害的或潜在的有害废物。在这一章中，这将是危险废物的适用性

定义。放射性废物不包括在内。这些废物显然是危险的，但是因为他们的产生、移交、处理

和处置是与非核危废非常的不同，所以放射性废物问题在第15章中个别论述。

Given this somewhat limited definition, more than 60 million metric tons, by wet weight, of hazardous waste are generated annually throughout the United States. More than 60% is generated by chemical and allied products industry, and the machinery, primary metals, paper and glass products industries each generate between 4 and 10% of the nation?ˉs total. Approximately 60% of the hazardous w aste is liquid or sludge. Major generating s tates, including New Jersey, Illinois, Ohio, California, Pennsylvania, T exas, New York, Michigan, Tennessee and Indiana, contribute more than 80% of the generator property. More than 80% of all disposal is in inadequately designed and operated pits, ponds, landfills and incinerators.

鉴于这个有些局限性的定义，在全美国每年有超过6千万公吨湿重的危废产生。超过

60％（的危废）是由化学品及有关产品行业所产生的，而且机械行业、初级金属、造纸和玻

璃制品行业，每种产生占全国总量4%到10%（的危废）。大约60％的危险废物是液体或污

泥。主要产生（危废）的州，包括新泽西州、伊利诺斯州、俄亥俄州、加利福尼亚州、宾夕

法尼亚州、得克萨斯州、纽约、密歇根州、田纳西州和印第安纳州，贡献了超过80%的产

量数据。在所有的处置中，超过80%是在设计不足和运作不良的坑、池塘、堆填区和焚化

炉中（处置）。

A hasty reading of these hazardous waste facts points to several interesting, though shocking, conclusions. Firstly, most hazardous waste is generated a nd inadequately disposed of in the eastern portion of the country. In this region, the climate is wet with patterns of rainfall that permit infiltration and /or runoff to occur. Infiltration permits the transport of hazardous waste into groundwater supplies, and surface runoff leads of the contamination of streams and lakes. Secondly, most hazardous waste is generated a nd disposed of in areas where people rely on

hazardous. D ifferent states had other classification systems, as did the National Academy of Sciences a nd the National Cancer Institute. Selected classification criteria are described in more detail in Table 21-1.

多年来，由于不同组织倡导了许多标准来把废弃物列为危险的，?°危险?±一词已演变为一

个模糊的定位。在联邦政府中，不同机构使用说明，例如?°有毒的、?±?°易爆的?±和?°有放射性

的?±，把废物标注为危险的。不同的州有不同的分类系统，正如?°国家科学院?±和?°国家癌症研

究所?±所做的。分类标准的选择，在表21-1中有详细的描述。

The federal government attempted t o impose a nationwide classification system under the implementation of RCRA, wherein a hazardous w aste is defined by the degree of ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and/or toxicity. This definition includes acids, toxic chemicals, explosives

and other harmful or potentially harmful waste. In this chapter, this will be the applicable definition of hazardous waste. Radioactive wastes are excluded. Such wastes obviously are hazardous, b ut because t heir generation, handing, processing a nd disposal differ so drastically

from non nuclear hazard, the radioactive waste problems is addressed separately in chapter 15.

联邦政府试图根据RCRA（资源保护和回收法）的实行，强加一个全国性的分类系统，

其中危险废物被按照易燃性、腐蚀性、反应性和/或毒性来分级定义。这个定义包括酸，有

毒化学品，爆炸品及其他有害的或潜在的有害废物。在这一章中，这将是危险废物的适用性

定义。放射性废物不包括在内。这些废物显然是危险的，但是因为他们的产生、移交、处理

和处置是与非核危废非常的不同，所以放射性废物问题在第15章中个别论述。

Given this somewhat limited definition, more than 60 million metric tons, by wet weight, of hazardous waste are generated annually throughout the United States. More than 60% is generated by chemical and allied products industry, and the machinery, primary metals, paper and glass products industries each generate between 4 and 10% of the nation?ˉs total. Approximately 60% of the hazardous w aste is liquid or sludge. Major generating s tates, including New Jersey, Illinois, Ohio, California, Pennsylvania, T exas, New York, Michigan, Tennessee and Indiana, contribute more than 80% of the generator property. More than 80% of all disposal is in inadequately designed and operated pits, ponds, landfills and incinerators.

鉴于这个有些局限性的定义，在全美国每年有超过6千万公吨湿重的危废产生。超过

60％（的危废）是由化学品及有关产品行业所产生的，而且机械行业、初级金属、造纸和玻

璃制品行业，每种产生占全国总量4%到10%（的危废）。大约60％的危险废物是液体或污

泥。主要产生（危废）的州，包括新泽西州、伊利诺斯州、俄亥俄州、加利福尼亚州、宾夕

法尼亚州、得克萨斯州、纽约、密歇根州、田纳西州和印第安纳州，贡献了超过80%的产

量数据。在所有的处置中，超过80%是在设计不足和运作不良的坑、池塘、堆填区和焚化

炉中（处置）。

A hasty reading of these hazardous waste facts points to several interesting, though shocking, conclusions. Firstly, most hazardous waste is generated a nd inadequately disposed of in the eastern portion of the country. In this region, the climate is wet with patterns of rainfall that permit infiltration and /or runoff to occur. Infiltration permits the transport of hazardous waste into groundwater supplies, and surface runoff leads of the contamination of streams and lakes. Secondly, most hazardous waste is generated a nd disposed of in areas where people rely on

(完整版)环境工程专业英语考试重点词汇

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5. 絮凝作用:flocculation （评分标准：每小题中所用单词意思基本吻合，单词拼写正确，且单词词态正确，得2分；错一个单词得1分；错两个及以上单词，得0分。） 三、 请根据下列英文解释写出相应的英文词汇：（本题共4小题，每题2分，共10分） 1. The physical and biotic habitat which surrounds us. Environment 2. A natural gas which is formed from decaying matter and burns easily, sometimes causes explosions in mines. Methane 3. Too many people in a given area, too high a population density. Overpopulation 4. The process by which water passes through a membrane that is impermeable to dissolved ions. Osmosis 5. A kind of chemical which can speed up/down a chemical reaction rate. Catalyst （评分标准：每小题中所用单词意思基本吻合，单词拼写正确，且单词词态正确，得2分；否则得0分。） 四、阅读理解：（本题共20分，每小题2分） Passage1 A growing number of these attractions now allow customers to print e-tickets at home with large discounts off the gate price, in part to spur attendance that has declined in recent years. After boom times in the late 1990s, theme park attendance began to decrease, with an overall decline of about 4% over the past few years at North America’s 50 most- visited establishments, says James Zola, editor of Amusement

工程管理专业英语翻译(第二版)徐勇戈

U2-S1什么是项目管理？ 建筑项目管理不仅需要对设计和实施过程有所理解，而且需要现代管理知识。建设项目有一组明确的目标和约束，比如竣工日期。尽管相关的技术、组织机构或流程会有所不同，但建设项目同其他一些如航天、医药和能源等准等领域的项目在管理上仍然有共同之处。 一般来说，项目管理和以项目任务为导向的企业宏观管理不同，待项目任务的完成后，项目组织通常也会随之终止。（美国）项目管理学会对项目管理学科有如下定义：项目管理是一门指导和协调人力物力资源的艺术，在项目整个生命周期，应用现代管理技术完成预定的规模、成本、时间、质量和参与满意度目标。 与此形成对照，一般的工商企业管理更广泛地着眼于业务的更加连贯性和连续性。然而，由于这两者之间有足够的相似和差异，使得现代管理技术开发宏观管理可以用于项目管理。 项目管理框架的基本要素可以用图2-1表示。其中，应用宏观管理知识和熟悉项目相关知识领域是不可或缺的。辅助性学科如计算机科学和决策科学也会发挥重要作用。实际上，现代管理实践与各专业知识领域已经吸收应用了各种不同的技术和工具，而这些技术和工具曾一度仅仅被视作属于辅助学科领域。例如，计算机信息系统和决策支持系统是目前常见的宏观管理工具。同样，许多像线性规划和网络分析这样的运算研究工具，现在广泛应用在许多知识和应用领域。因此，图2- 1反映了项目管理框架演变的唯一来源。 具体来说，建设项目管理包含一组目标，该目标可能通过实施一系列服从资源约束的运作来实现。在规模、成本、时间和质量的既定目标与人力、物力和财力资源限制之间存在着潜在冲突。这些冲突应该在项目开始时通过必要的权衡和建立新备选方案来解决。另外，施工项目管理的功能通常包括以下: 1. 项目目标和计划说明书中包括规模、预算安排、进度安排、设置性能需求和项目参与者的界定。 2. 根据规定的进度和规划，通过对劳动力、材料和设备的采购使资源的有效利用最大化。 3. 在项目全过程中，通过对计划、设计、估算、合同和施工的适当协调控制来实施项目各项运作。 4. 设立有效的沟通机制来解决不同参与方之间的冲突。 项目管理学会聚焦九个不同独特领域，这些领域需要项目经理所具有的知识和关注度： 1. 项目宏观管理，确保项目要素有效协调。 2. 项目范围管理，确保所需的所有工作（并且只有所需的工作）。 3. 项目时间管理，提供有效的项目进度。 4. 项目成本管理，确定所需资源和维持预算控制。 5. 项目质量管理，确保满足功能需求。 6 . 项目人力资源管理，有效地开发和聘用项目人员。 7 . 项目沟通管理，确保有效的内部和外部通信。 8. 项目风险管理，分析和规避潜在风险。 9. 项目采购管理，从外部获得必要资源。

环境科学与工程专业英语

1环境工程与科学 Environmental Engineering and Science 2环境监测与评价 Environmental monitoring and assessment 3温室气体 greenhouse gases 4地表水 the surface water 浅层水 the subsurface water 地下水 the ground water 5环境影响评（EIA ）environmental impact assessment 6臭氧层减少 ozone depletion 7沙漠化 desertification 8点源 point sources 非点源 nonpoint sources 9初级污染物 primary pollutant 次级污染物 secondary pollutant 10光化学烟雾 photochemical smog 11室内污染 indoor air pollution 12固体及有害废弃物污染 solid and hazardous waste pollution 13生物多样性减少biodiversity loss 14传统决策 traditional decision making 15原生环境 primary environment 次生环境 secondary environment 16不可再生资源 nonrenewable resources 17生态示范区 ecological demonstrate area 18保护林 protection forest 19环境危机 environmental crisis 20环境预测environmental forecasting 21环境效应environmental effect 22环境承载力environmental capacity 23环境演化evolution of environment 24草地退化 grassland degeneration 25水中悬浮物 suspended solids 26孔隙水 void water 27岩溶水 karst water 28流域保护 water basin protection 29淡水 fresh water 海水 salt water 30降雨量 amount of precipitation 降雨强度 intensity of precipitation 31 海洋倾倒 ocean dumping 32水力工程 hydro-engineering 33水环境功能区 function district of water environment 34土壤肥力 soil fertility 33土壤酸碱度 soil acidity and alkalinity 36土壤盐渍化 soil salination 37土壤酸化 soil acidification 38缓冲能力 buffer capacity 39盐基饱和度 base saturation percentage 40污水灌溉 wastewater irrigation 41事后评价 afterwards assessment 42大气扩散 atmospheric diffusion 43而授限度 limits of tolerance 44生命周期评价 life cycle assessment 45慢性毒性实验 chronic toxicity test 46生物富集 bioaccumulation 47生物浓缩 bioconcentration 48生物放大 biomagnification 49边缘效应 edge effect 5总悬浮颗粒物 total suspended particulates(TSP) 51化学需氧量 chemical oxygen demand (COD) 52生物化学需氧量 biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 53总有机碳 total organic carbon （TOC ） 54活性碳 active carbon 55萃取剂 extracting agent 56有机高分子絮凝剂 organic pdymer flocculant 57固定大气污染源 stationary sources of air pollution 移动大气污染源 mobile sources of air pollution 5环境优先污染物environmental priority pollutant 59回归分析 regression analysis 相关分析 correlation analysis 60相关系数 correlation coefficient 61系数误差 systematic error 62随机误差 random error 63土壤修复 soil-remediation 64绝对湿度 absolute humidity 相对湿度 relative humidity 65热辐射 thermal radiation 湍流扩散 turbulent diffusion 6煤的综合利用 comprehensive-utilization of coal 67清洁生产 cleaner production 68采矿排水 mining drainage 69分子筛吸附NOx 化物过程 control of NOx by adsorption process with molecular sieve 70公害 public nuisance 71涡流 eddy current 72富营养化废水 eutrophic wastewater 73富营养化 eutrophication 74中度营养湖泊 mesotrophic lake 75贫营养湖泊 oligotropic lake 76腐殖质化 humification 77土壤质地 soil texture 78海水淡化 desalination of seawater 79检出限 detection limit 80生态位 niche 81生态型 ecotype 82表面活性剂 surfactant 83光催化作用 photo catalysis 84催化作用 catalysis 85格栅 grill 86筛网 grid screen 87气浮池 floatation basin 88微电解法 micro-electroanalysis 89微生物合成代谢 micro-organism synthetic metabolism 90杀菌 sterilization 除味 taste removal 91紫外光消毒 disinfection with ultroviolet vays 93脱臭 odor removal 94脱色decoloration 95污泥浓缩sludge thickening 污泥硝化sludge digestion 污泥脱水sludge dewatering 污泥干燥sludge drying 96陆地填埋landfill 97焚烧incineration 98渗滤液处理leachate treatment 99最大允许浓度maximum permissible concentration 100理境伦理学environmental ethics 101环境适宜度environmental suitability 102排放总量控制total discharge control of pollutant 103谁污染谁治理pollutant-treats 104谁开发谁保护explorer-protects 105国家级生态示范区national ecological demonstration area 106环境管理信息系统information system for environmental management I07环境标记物environmental label 108外部经济性external economics 外部非经济性external diseconomics 109生态足迹the ecological footprint 110代际公平equality between generation 111公众参与public participantion 112回收水系统water reuse system 113绿化用水greenbelt sprinkling 114自然沉降plain sedimentation 115过程水process water 116未预见用水量unforeseen water demand 117絮凝沉淀coagulation sedimentation 118垃圾处理sewage disposal 119居民生活垃圾domestic sewage 居民生活污水 domestic water 120市政垃圾municipal sewage 121水体自净self-purification of waterbodies 122一级处理primary treatment 二级处理secondary treatment 生物处理biological treatment 123活性污泥处理activated sludge process 124污泥焚烧sludge incineration

中英文对照翻译工程施工管理

5.1 现场布置 5.1 Site Layout 5.1.1项目组织机构图 5.1.1 Project Organization Chart 5.1.2组织机构说明

5.1.2 Introduction of Organization 根据本工程的特点，本着“精干、高效”的原则组建南苏丹Magwi-Lobone公路项目部，项目经理为项目的第一责任人。 In accordance with features of the project and under the principle of “high capability and efficiency”, establish the Southern Sudan Magwi-Lobone Highway Project Department, and the project manager is the primary person in charge of the project. 项目部下设： The Project department comprises: ◆决策层：项目经理、项目副经理、总工程师； ◆Decision-making level: Project Manager, Deputy Project Manager, General Project Engineer; ◆管理层：施工部、技术部、合同部、财务部、QHSE部、机物部、行政部； ◆Management level: Construction Dept., Technology Dept., Contract Dept., Financial Dept., QHSE Dept., Mechanical Materials Dept., Administration Dept.; ◆工区作业层：根据本工程特点，按照工区管理作业队及班组的形式。设置4个工区，即土方一工区、土方二工区、路面工区、综合工区。 ◆Work area operation level: in accordance with features of the project and as per work area’s form to manage operation teams and groups, set up 4 work areas, namely Earthwork area I, Earthwork area II, Road pavement area, Complex processing area. 5.1.3主要管理层的主要工作内容及职责 5.1.3 Main Work Content and Duties of Main Management Level 施工部：负责施工现场的调度及生产组织等。负责测量队的归口管理及协调工作。

环境工程专业英语汇总

专业英语 环境：环境工程： 环境保护：环境意识： 环境问题：环境效应： 环境污染：环境要素： 环境因子：环境化学： 环境生态学：环境质量： 环境自净作用： 水环境：水体： 流域：水质： 水资源：供水： 废水：水处理： 物理性水质指标：水污染物： 生物性水质指标：水质标准： 化学性水质指标： ：： ：： ：： ：值： ：总氮：总磷 ：： ：： ：： ：： 物理处理：过滤： 生物处理：沉淀： 化学处理：气浮： 物理化学处理： 蒸发：稀释： 扩散：吹脱： 好氧处理：生物膜法： 厌氧处理：生物滤池： 活性污泥法：生物接触氧化： ：苯乙烯-丁二烯 （流式厌氧污泥床）：活性污泥：改进型：一级处理： 二级处理：三级处理： 高级氧化处理：生活污水： 生产废水：城市生活污水： 电镀废水： 印染废水：浊度： 硬度：水质净化： 混凝沉淀：活性炭吸附：

隔油池：中和池： 调节池：生物反应池： 加药设备：沉淀池： 初沉池：二沉池： 絮凝剂：混凝剂： 生物降解：生物累积： 飘尘：可吸入颗粒物： 能见度：酸雨： 一次污染物： 二次污染物：氮氧化物： 硫氧化物： 硫化氢：碳氧化物： 硝酸：盐酸： 硫酸：二氧化硫： 除尘工艺： 吸收：吸附： 静电除尘：重力除尘： 臭氧： 光化学烟雾：喷淋（洗涤）： 土壤：热污染：噪声：放射性： ： （计算机辅助设计）： 大气污染控制工程： 水污染控制工程： 固体废物污染控制工程： 污染源： 同化作用：固体废物： 危险废物： 化学污泥： 生物污泥： 工业固废：分选处理：矿业固废：破碎处理： 农业固废：压实处理： 污泥脱水：？ 污泥浓缩： 带式压滤： 离心脱水： 筛分： 堆肥和堆肥化： 沼气和沼气化： 热解与焚烧： 生物转化作用： 热化学转化作用： 固化和稳定化作用：资源化： 减量化： 无害化： 固体废物全过程控制：固体废物污染控制： 固体废物处理： 处置： 物质回收：物质转化：能量回收：能量转化： 1., , , .（2页） 环境工程学是环境工程的分支学科，其研究内容包括①保护环境免受人类活动改造形成的潜在和不利影响②保护人类免受不利环境因素的影响③持续改善环境质量，以造福于人类健康与福祉。 2. a .（2页）

环境工程专业英语钟理_翻译

第一单元环境工程 这本书主要关于什么？ 这本书的目标是使工程和科学的学生了解学科间的研究环境问题：它们的起因，为什么它们被关注，我们怎么控制它们。这本书包括： ●描述环境和环境系统意味着什么 ●关于环境破坏基础原因的信息 ●理解环境问题本质和能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识 ●目前运用在水,空气,污染问题的环境控制技术的状况 ●我们目前在很多关于理解和控制人类活动、自然之间复杂相互作用的科学知识上存在着相当大的空白●很多环境问题能运用目前的技术消除或减少，但因为社会缺少意愿这么做或在很多例子中因为缺乏资源去这样做，这些环境问题没有被处理 一些重要的定义： 在这本书中，它们第一次被使用，定义被以大写或印刷成黑体字的形式展示 环境是围绕在我们周围的物质生命的栖息地，在这儿我们能看到,听到,触摸,闻到,和品尝到 系统依据韦氏字典,被定义为“一组或一系列能形成一个整体或者有机整体的相互关联的事物”，例如，太阳系统，灌溉系统，供应系统，世界和宇宙。 污染被定义为“在大气，水或土地中的物质的，化学的或生物的特性的不合意的改变，这一改变有害地影响人类或其它生物的健康，生存，或活动”。 当改进环境质量的目标被用来改进人类福利，“环境”一词扩展成包括所有的社会，经济和文化方面的容。这一扩展在许多真实情况下是不可行的以及在一本被设计为一学期课程的教科书中也是不实际的。我们对环境问题的考察因此限于我们对“环境”的定义。 系统的相互作用 许多不同的环境问题都与水，空气或土地系统有关联。许多这些问题都只适用于这些系统中的一个，这为这些种类中的细目分类提供了充分的理由。这样的分类也更有用于及易于理解一个系统的相关问题。而且，这样做是明智的，这是因为由于管理上的和行政上的原因，这些有关空气污染，水供应，废水处理和固体废物处理的子域通常由政府机构分别处理。 很遗憾的是，很多重要的环境问题不仅仅限制于空气，水或土地系统，还包括系统间的相互作用。现在举个例子，酸雨问题起源于从发电站烟囱，冶炼厂和汽车尾气中向大气排放的含硫二氧化物和氮氧化物。接着这些气体由气流运输到广阔的区域，降雨“将它们洗去”，产生了有害于水生生命，森林和农作物的酸雨。两个有关于系统间相互作用引起的环境问题有：空气中的二氧化碳的增加的全球问题，及通常具有地域性质的酸雨问题。 环境问题 许多对我们生活标准的主要改进能被归因于科学和技术的运用。这里举一些例子，你能想出其它例子吗？ ●生产更多及更好质量的食物 ●创造能避免极端环境的保护所和生存空间 ●快速和可靠的运输方法的建立 ●各种交流系统的发明 ●代替人类和动物体力的机器的发明 ●安全水的供应和废物处理 ●对很多传染疾病的消除 ●通过在发达国家运用改进的水技术对大部分水传染的疾病的消除 ●通过更好的生产力（带来的）闲余时间的有效性，为文化的，娱乐的活动提供机会。 ●避免例如洪水，干旱，地震，火山爆发的自然灾害的最坏影响 然而，通过这些改进，已经带来了不良的负面影响，例如耕地的丧失，消失的森林，环境的污染和