The Japanese Approach to Management

PASSAGE II The Japanese Approach to Management

During the 1970s and 1980s, American managers invested much time and money studying Japanese approaches to management because of the fine quality of Japanese products and the general productivity of their organizations. While the American and Japanese cultures differ significantly in many ways, it is still possible to examine Japanese management and discover several relevant principles.

Extensive studies of Japanese organizations have demonstrated that Japanese managers stress the following:

1. Bottom-up Initiative. Japanese managers believe that change and initiative within an organization should come from those closest to the problem. So they elicit change from below. Top-level Japanese managers see their task as creating an atmosphere in which subordinates are motivated to seek better solutions.

2. Top Management as Facilitator. Japanese managers do not view themselves as having all the answers. When a subordinate brings in a proposal, the manager neither accepts nor rejects it. Rather, he tactfully, politely asks questions, makes suggestions, and provides encouragement.

3. Middle Management as Impetus for and Shaper of Solutions. In the Japanese system, junior (middle) managers are initiators who perceive problems and formulate tentative solutions in coordination with others; they are not functional specialists who carry out their boss's directives. Because so much emphasis is placed on coordination and integration, solutions to problems evolve more slowly, but they are known and understood by all those who have been a part of the solution generation process.[1] Horizontal communication[2] is stressed as essential to the coordination of problem-solving efforts.

4. Consensus as a Way of Making Decisions. The Japanese are less inclined to think in terms of absolutes, that is, the solution (which is right) versus the alternatives (which are wrong).[3] Rather, they recognize a range of alternatives, several of which might work and all of which possess advantages and disadvantages. When a group makes a decision, all members become committed to the chosen solution. From a Japanese perspective, that commitment, and the ensuing dedication toward working to make the solution successful, is probably more important than the objective quality of the decision. The Japanese have an interesting concept of consensus. Those who consent to a decision are not necessarily endorsing it. Rather, consent means that each person is satisfied that his point of view has been fairly heard, and although he or she may not wholly agree that the decision is the best one, he or she is willing to go along with it and even support it.

5. Concern for Employees' Personal Well-being. Japanese managers have a kind of paternalistic attitude toward their employees. Traditionally, Japanese organizations have offered their workers housing, extensive recreational facilities, and lifetime employment. The Japanese believe that it is impossible to divorce a worker's personal and professional lives.[4] Good managers express concern for workers as persons with homes and families as well as for the quality of the products the workers produce. Managers typically work alongside their subordinates, counsel them regarding their personal lives, and encourage much peer interaction.

It is interesting that principles that are considered by many to be advantages of the Japanese system can also be viewed as problems, at least from an American perspective. There is a fine line between encouraging consensus and forcing it.[5] When groups place too much emphasis on being agreeable and conforming to organizational expectations, poor quality decision making is a likely

outcome. Moreover, the Japanese notion of taking care of employees can extend into an extreme form of paternalism with which few well-educated Americans would be comfortable. It is appropriate to protect children or others who cannot think for or look after themselves. But professionals hardly fall into these categories. Most Americans would prefer an organizational system that makes it possible for them to function as mature, intelligent human beings, responsible for their own security and well-being.

Finally, some authors have suggested that Japanese style management as adapted to American organizations is little more than a tool for even greater management control.[6] An employee who has a life commitment to a particular organization, for instance, becomes vulnerable. Since he does not perceive viable options, he is more likely to tolerate existing working conditions, even if he finds them unpleasant. The employee is also encouraged to become a generalist rather than a specialist. Thus, a person's expertise in a particular area is rarely sufficiently developed so that the organization actually grows to depend on him or her as an irreplaceable employee. Instead, substitutes are readily found. Moreover, should an employee who has worked in this kind of organizational environment decide to abandon his commitment to this organization after a few years of working as a generalist, he would be poorly equipped to move into other American organizations since he would be competing with specialists.

The body of research on Japanese organizations continues to grow. Recent research suggests that one cannot generalize about Japanese workers — that males and females, young and old, differ in their decision-making style and management preference. One study reported that Japanese workers were more passive than commonly thought, preferring to be persuaded of the value of a decision by their supervisor over making the decision themselves.[7] However, a different study found that Japanese managers place a far greater emphasis on corporate participation and cooperation than their American counterparts. Thus, a consistent and coherent view of Japanese organizations does not yet exist.

Like the other approaches to management, the Japanese approach is very interesting. In reminding us of the value of the individual, the need for participative decision making, and the potential of facilitative management, it has been extremely useful. It is not a panacea, however. Because of extreme differences between the Japanese and American cultures, some Japanese management practices are simply poorly suited to American organizations. (950 words)

New Words

agreeable

adj.

1) being in harmony 符合的，一致的

e.g. His reasoning is agreeable to the philosophical principles of Sir Isaac Newton.

2) willing to do something or to allow something to be done 欣然同意的，乐意的

e.g. Bring your wife too, if she is agreeable (to coming).

3) pleasing to the mind or senses 令人愉快的

e.g. The hotel was good and the weather agreeable.

alongside

1) working in the same place and cooperating with them 和......在一起

e.g. I ) The idea is to get them working on simple things alongside other people.

II) He had worked alongside Frank and Mark and they had become friends.

2) being next to something 在......旁边，沿着......的边

e.g. Much of the industry was located alongside rivers.

adv. close by, along the side, in parallel position 在旁边，沿着边，并排地

e.g. He waited several minutes for a car to pull up along-side.

coherent

adj.

1) well planned so that it is clear and sensible and all its parts go well with each other 一致的，协调的

e.g. He has failed to work out a coherent strategy for modernizing the service.

2) talking in a way that is clear and easy to understand （话语等）条理清楚的，连贯的

e.g. At last his sister was coherent enough to explain.

consensus

n. general agreement amongst a group of people about a subject or about how something should be done （意见等的）一致，一致同意

e.g. There is no consensus among experts about the causes of global warming.

coordination *

n. the act or action of coordinating 协作，协调

e.g. I) There should be greater coordination between doctors and biologists.

II) Both countries agreed to intensify efforts at economic policy coordination.

directive *

n. an official order or instruction 指示，命令

e.g. The management has issued a new directive about the use of company cars.

emphasis

n. (pl. emphases) special importance, value, or prominence given to something 强调，重点

e.g. I) In Japan there is a lot of emphasis on politeness.

II) We should put as much emphasis on preventing disease as we do on curing it.

endorse

v. express formal support or approval for someone or something 赞同，支持

e.g. The committee has endorsed our proposals.

ensuing *

adj. happening after a particular action or event, especially as a result of it 继而发生的

e.g. When the computer cracked, the ensuing problem gave me a headache.

adj. being in use or in operation 现存的，目前的

e.g. Changes will be made to the existing laws.

facilitative *

adj. making something easier 使便利的

facilitator *

n. a person who helps another person to do something or to achieve a particular thing 帮助者

e.g. I see my role as that of a facilitator, enabling other people to work in the way that suits them best.

functional *

adj. of or having a special activity, purpose, or task 职能的，职务上的，起作用的

e.g. There are important functional differences between left and right brain.

generalist

n. one whose skills, interests, or habits are varied and unspecialized （有多方面知识和经验的）通才，多面手

horizontal

adj.

1) of or relating to a position or individual of similar status 相同地位的，同行业的

e.g. All vice-presidents in the company hold horizontal positions, thus have equal power.

2) in a flat position, along or parallel to level ground 水平的，与地平线平行的

e.g. I ) Every horizontal surface in the room was piled high with books.

II) Coal is found in horizontal layers beneath the soil surface in most large coal deposits of the world.

housing *

n. the houses or conditions that people live in [总称]房屋，住房

e.g. The college offers students housing in the dorms.

impetus

n. a force that moves one to action, impulse 推动力，原动力

e.g. The present conflict might provide fresh impetus for peace talks.

initiator *

n. a person who is responsible for thinking of a plan or process or starting it 开始者，发起者

e.g. He was one of the initiators of the tumultuous （混乱的）changes in Eastern Europe.

irreplaceable *

adj. too special, valuable, or unusual to be replaced by anything else 不能为其他事物所替代的e.g. We'll miss him when he leaves the company, but no one is irreplaceable.

panacea

n. a solution or remedy for all difficulties or diseases 治百病的万灵药，对付一切困难的万能措施

participative *

adj. relating to, or being a style of management in which subordinates participate in decision making 由多人一起参加的

e.g. A participative management style has been developed in Japan to induce better cooperation.

paternalism

n. the system, principle, or practice of managing or governing individuals, business, nations, etc., in the manner of a father dealing benevolently and often intrusively with his children 家长式管理，家长式领导

paternalistic

adj. managing or governing in the manner of a father dealing with his children 家长管理式的，家长作风的

recreational *

adj. relating to things people do in their spare time to relax 消遣的，娱乐的

e.g. The city park provides many recreational activities.

subordinate

n. someone who has a lower position and less authority than someone else in an organization 下级，部属

e.g. Haig tended not to seek guidance from subordinates.

adj. placed in or belonging to a lower order or rank; of less importance 下级的；次要的

e.g. I) The new recruit was subordinate to all of the officers.

II) It was an art in which words were subordinate to images.

viable

adj. capable of working, functioning or developing adequately 可行的，能发展的

e.g. It is important for farms to remain economically viable units.

vulnerable

adj. easily harmed or hurt emotionally, physically, or morally 易受伤害的，脆弱的

e.g. The company would be in a vulnerable position.

wholly

adv. completely 完全地，全部地

e.g. While the two are only days apart in age, they seem to belong to wholly different generations.

Phrases and Expressions

bring in

introduce something 引进，提出

e.g. I ) The government intended to bring in a new law about wearing safety belts in cars.

II) Congress brought in reforms to prevent abuse of presidential power.

carry out

do something that one has been ordered to do 执行

e.g. I ) He explained that he was simply carrying out instructions.

II) An investigation into the cause of the crash will be carried out by the Department of Transport.

fall into

be divided into 分成

e.g. This topic falls naturally into three sections.

go along with

agree with, support 赞同，支持

e.g. They were quite happy to go along with our suggestion.

persuade somebody of something

cause somebody to believe or feel certain, convince 使相信，使信服

e.g. I ) The jury was persuaded of her innocence.

II) We worked hard to persuade him of your seriousness about this.