Chronic Violent Video Game Exposure and Desensitization to Violence
Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence:
Behavioral and event-related brain potential data ?
Bruce D. Bartholow a,¤, Brad J. Bushman b,c , Marc A. Sestir d
a
Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, USA
b
Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, USA
c
Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
d
Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Received 21 April 2005; revised 26 July 2005
Available online 7 October 2005
Abstract
Numerous studies have shown that exposure to media violence increases aggression, though the mechanisms of this e V ect have remained elusive. One theory posits that repeated exposure to media violence desensitizes viewers to real world violence, increasing aggression by blunting aversive reactions to violence and removing normal inhibitions against aggression. Theoretically, violence desensi-tization should be re X ected in the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP), which has been associated with activation of the aversive motivational system. In the current study, violent images elicited reduced P300 amplitudes among violent,as compared to nonviolent video game players. Additionally, this reduced brain response predicted increased aggressive behavior in a later task. Moreover, these e V ects held after controlling for individual di V erences in trait aggressiveness. These data are the W rst to link media violence exposure and aggressive behavior to brain processes hypothetically associated with desensitization.? 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords:Aggression; Desensitization; Violent media; Event-related potential ERP; Habituation; P300; Brain; Video games
Introduction
Most people naturally have aversive reactions to the sight of blood and gore. Some people (e.g., soldiers, sur-geons) must overcome these reactions in order to e V ectively perform their duties. This example illustrates the process of desensitization, de W ned as diminished psychological or emotional responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated expo-sure to it (see Wolpe, 1982). Desensitization can be adaptive because it enables people to ignore irrelevant information and focus instead on relevant information. For most peo-
ple, however, becoming desensitized to blood and gore can have deleterious social consequences, such as reducing inhi-bitions against behaving aggressively.
Hundreds of studies have shown that exposure to media violence increases aggression (see Anderson & B ushman,2001; Anderson et al., 2003). Media violence is believed to increase aggression, at least in part, by desensitizing viewers to the e V ects of real violence (e.g., Gri Y ths & Shuckford,1989; Smith & Donnerstein, 1998). Media violence initially produces fear, disgust, and other avoidance-related motiva-tional states (Cantor, 1998). Repeated exposure to media violence, however, reduces its psychological impact and eventually produces aggressive approach-related motivational states (Cline, Croft, & Courrier, 1973; Linz,Donnerstein, & Adams, 1989), theoretically leading to sta-ble increases in aggression.
Extant research on media violence desensitization has been limited in a number of respects. For example, although
?
We thank Bill Gehring and Johan Hoorn for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article. Portions of this work were presented at the 2005 annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology.*
Corresponding author. Fax: +1 573 882 7710.
E-mail address: BartholowB@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/264405391.html, (B.D. Bartholow).
B.D. Bartholow et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 532–539533
desensitization is believed to have both cognitive and emo-tional components (see Funk, Bechtoldt-Baldacci, Pasold, & Baumgartner, 2004), most research has focused only on the emotional component (see Smith & Donnerstein, 1998). Additionally, very few studies to date have examined how repeated exposure to media violence a V ects brain processes (but see Kronenberger et al., 2005), and no studies have examined potential links between physiological indices of desensitization and aggressive behavior. Strong support for the desensitization account of media violence e V ects will be indicated only if processes associated with desensitization can be linked to increases in aggressive behavior.
Theoretically, desensitization should be re X ected in the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). ERPs are voltage de X ections in the electroencephalogram (EEG) that re X ect the engagement of various information processing activities in the brain (see Fabiani, Gratton, & Coles, 2000). The amplitude of the P300 component of the ERP, often associated with working memory updating (Donchin & Coles, 1988), also has been shown to re X ect the extent of evaluative categorization dur-ing processing of a V ective or emotionally relevant stimuli (e.g., Cacioppo, Crites, B erntson, & Coles, 1993; Ito, Larsen, Smith, & Cacioppo, 1998b). Large P300 amplitudes are elicited over midline parietal scalp regions by stimuli that are evaluatively inconsistent with a preceding context (artholow, Fabiani, Gratton, & B ettencourt, 2001; Cacioppo et al., 1993; Ito et al., 1998b). For example, infre-quent negative target images presented in a context of frequently presented neutral images elicit large P300s (Ito et al., 1998b). It follows, then, that violent images presented in a context of neutral images should also elicit large P300s. To the extent that an individual is desensitized to violence, however, the P300 elicited by violent images should be reduced. Moreover, to the extent that a P300 reduction re X ects motivational processes associated with desensitiza-tion to violence, the P300 reduction should be restricted to evaluative categorization of violent images and not to nega-tive images more generally.
Furthermore, if desensitization helps to explain the link between media violence and aggression, and if electrocorti-cal responses to violent stimuli re X ect desensitization, then decreases in P300 amplitude to violent images should be associated with increases in aggression. A number of stud-ies have shown that the P300 elicited by negative informa-tion re X ects activation of the aversive/withdrawal motivational system (e.g., Cacioppo, Crites, Gardner, & Berntson, 1994; Ito et al., 1998b). Given that aggression is incompatible with withdrawal motivation (see Harmon-Jones, 2003), and that desensitization theoretically weakens the aversive motivation system pertaining to violence (Cantor, 1998; Funk et al., 2004), there should be an inverse relationship between P300 amplitudes elicited by violent stimuli and indices of aggressive behavior.
Critics of the link between media violence and increased aggression often claim that media violence exposure e V ects are spurious, masking the e V ect of some unmeasured third variable such as aggressive personality (Freedman, 2002). In other words, aggressive individuals are simply drawn to violent media. If this hypothesis is correct, controlling for individual di V erences in aggressive disposition should elim-inate or signi W cantly reduce the e V ects of exposure to media violence on relevant outcomes. Critics also argue that labo-ratory experiments showing increased aggression following violent media exposure simply re X ect a priming e V ect, likely lasting only a few minutes, which does not carry over into the “real world” (e.g., Fowles, 1999; Freedman, 1984). The desensitization account is at odds with both of these alter-native interpretations, predicting that media violence expo-sure leads people to aggress (not that aggressive people seek out violent media) and that repeated exposure has lasting deleterious consequences. The current study tests these competing interpretations.
In this study, violent and nonviolent video game players completed a visual oddball task in which neutral, violent, and negative nonviolent target images were presented in a neutral image context while ERPs were recorded. Later, participants engaged in a competitive task during which they could blast another “participant” with loud noise; this task was used to measure aggression. We predicted that violent video game players would show de W cits in P300 amplitude to violent images, but not to negative nonviolent images, relative to nonviolent game players. We further pre-dicted that violent game players would behave more aggressively in the competitive task, and that P300 ampli-tudes to violent (but not nonviolent) images would be inversely related to aggressive behavior. Finally, we pre-dicted that these e V ects would remain when individual di V erences in aggressiveness were statistically controlled. Method
Participants
Thirty-nine healthy, male undergraduates (mean age D19.5), all right-handed with normal or corrected-to-normal vision, volunteered in exchange for course credit. Participants were recruited using an internet-based experi-ment sign-up procedure advertising a study on “the e V ects of picture viewing on reaction times.”
Measures
Video game violence exposure
As in previous research (Anderson & Dill, 2000;
B artholow, Sestir, & Davis, in press), participants com-pleted a questionnaire in which they listed their W ve favorite video games and then rated each game, on scales anchored at 1 and 7, in terms of how often they play the game and the violence of the game’s content and graphics. For each game, we multiplied the sum of the violent content and vio-lent graphics ratings by the “how-often” rating. These W ve scores were averaged to form an overall index of video game violence exposure ( D.82). For descriptive purposes,
534 B.D. Bartholow et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 532–539
we refer to individuals with relatively high scores on this
measure as violent video game players, and those who
received relatively low scores as nonviolent video game players. However, participants were not dichotomized into
these categories for analyses.
Trait aggressiveness
Individual di V erences in aggressiveness were assessed
using the Irritability Scale (30 items; D.87; Caprara et al., 1985) and the Aggression Questionnaire (29 items; D.88;
B uss & Perry, 1992). The Irritability Scale contains items
such as, “I easily X y o V the handle with those who don’t lis-
ten or understand.” Responses were made on scales anchored at 1 (This doesn’t characterize me at all) and 5
(This characterizes me very well). The Aggression Question-
naire (AQ) contains 4 subscales, labeled Physical Aggres-
sion (9 items; D.78; e.g., “If somebody hits me, I hit back”); Verbal Aggression (5 items; D.85; e.g., “I can’t
help getting into arguments when people disagree with
me”); Anger (7 items; D.84; e.g., “Some of my friends
think I’m a hot-head”); and Hostility (8 items; D.77; e.g.,“At times I feel I have gotten a raw deal out of life”).
Responses were made on scales anchored at 1 (Extremely
uncharacteristic of me) and 6 (Extremely characteristic of
me). High scores on these measures are considered reliable
and valid self-report indices of trait aggressiveness (e.g.,
Bushman & Wells, 1998; Caprara et al., 1985; Harris, 1996). Aggressive behavior
Participants were led to believe that they were competing
against another participant (the ostensible partner) in a reaction time task to see who could press a button faster
following an auditory tone. They were further told that the
slower person on a given trial would receive a blast of noise
through a pair of headphones, the intensity and duration of which were set by the other person prior to that trial. At the
end of each trial, the participant saw a message stating
either “YOU WON!” or “YOU LOST!” and received a
noise blast on losing trials. Noise intensities ranged from 60 decibels (level 1) to 105 decibels (level 10). A nonaggressive
no-noise setting (level 0) was also o V ered. In addition to set-
ting the intensity, the winner also determined the duration
of the loser’s su V ering using a noise duration setting rang-ing from 0.25s (level 1) to 2.5s (level 10). In e V ect, each par-
ticipant controlled a weapon that could be used to blast the
other person with loud noise on winning trials. Aggression
was de W ned as the average intensity and duration of noise (standardized and summed) that the participant set for the
ostensible partner over the 25 trials of the task.
Actually, there was no partner—the computer controlled
trial wins and losses as well as noise intensities and dura-tions ostensibly set by the partner. The participant lost the W rst trial, and half of the remaining 24 trials in a random pattern, with intensity levels varying randomly between lev-
els 2 and 9. Duration levels varied randomly between 0.5 and 2.0s. Previous research has established the validity and reliability of this widely used aggression measure (e.g.,B ernstein, Richardson, & Hammock, 1987; Giancola & Zeichner, 1995), and we have used it successfully in many of our previous studies (e.g., B artholow & Anderson, 2002; Bartholow et al., in press; Bushman, 1995).
Electrophysiological recording
The EEG was recorded from 28 electrodes W xed in an electrode cap (Electro-cap International, Eaton, OH) at standard scalp locations. All EEG electrodes were refer-enced online to the right mastoid (an average mastoid refer-ence was derived o Z ine). EEG was continuously recorded and stimulus-locked ERP epochs of 1400ms were derived o Z ine (referenced to 200ms pre-stimulus baseline). EEG was ampli W ed with a Neuroscan Synamps ampli W er and W ltered on-line at 0.05–30Hz at a sampling rate of 250Hz. Impedance was kept below 5k . Ocular artifacts (blinks) were removed from the EEG using a regression-based pro-
cedure (Semlitsch, Anderer, Schuster, & Presslich, 1986). Trials containing voltage de X ections of §75 microvolts ( V) after ocular artifact removal were rejected prior to averaging. O V-line averages were derived according to par-ticipant, electrode, and stimulus conditions, and low-pass W ltered at 12Hz (12dB roll-o V).1 Initial inspection of the waveforms con W rmed that the P300 was largest at the mid-line parietal (Pz) electrode site. Therefore, for each partici-pant, the P300 was identi W ed by selecting the largest positive peak between 300 and 800ms post-stimulus at Pz.2 P300 amplitude was computed by averaging over the 300ms around that peak (i.e., 150ms before and after) in each condition.
Picture viewing task
All images used in this study were taken from the Inter-national A V ective Picture System (IAPS; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2001). Lang et al. (2001) had participants rate the valence of each image using scales ranging from 1 (com-pletely unhappy) to 9 (completely happy) and their arousal to each image using scales ranging from 1 (completely calm) to 9 (completely aroused). Valence and arousal ratings for the images used in this study are presented in Table 1. Examples of the neutral images included pictures of a man on a bicycle; a man opening a backpack on a street corner;
a towel laying on a table; and a mushroom. Example vio-lent images included a man holding a gun to another man’s head on a subway; a man holding a gun in another man’s
1Applying a low-pass W lter to the relatively low frequency activity em-bodied by the P300 is important in order to reduce the in X uence of higher frequencies, particularly when peak amplitude measures are used (e.g., Fabiani, Gratton, Karis, & Donchin, 1987).
2EEG data were recorded from the additional scalp locations for ex-ploratory analyses not relevant to the psychological hypotheses being test-ed in this study. Therefore, we do not present those analyses here. It is worth noting, however, that the e V ects of video game violence exposure and image type were similar at all midline electrodes.
B.D. Bartholow et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 532–539
535
mouth on a bus; and a man holding a knife to a woman’s throat. Example negative nonviolent images included a baby with a large tumor on her face; a neo-Nazi skinhead in front of a swastika X ag; and a decaying dog corpse.
As can be seen in Table 1, valence ratings for violent and negative nonviolent images were very similar (d D 0.43).However, the Lang et al. sample rated the violent images as more arousing than the negative nonviolent images (d D 2.16). Although the statistical signi W cance of the mean di V erences presented in Table 1 cannot be calculated with-out Lang et al.’s data set, power analyses based on the e V ect sizes just noted showed that a sample size of approximately 200 would be required to detect a signi W cant di V erence between the valence ratings 80 percent of the time with D .05 (two-tailed). In contrast, a signi W cant di V erence between the arousal ratings would be detected 80% of the time using a sample size of only 10 (see Cohen, 1988).
Images were presented in 2 blocks of 48 trials each. In each block, target images were either neutral and negative or neutral and violent (half of the target images in each block were neutral). B lock order was varied randomly across participants. Each trial consisted of 4 context images (always neutral), and 1 target image presented randomly in
position 3, 4, or 5; thus, participants viewed a total of 480images. Images were displayed for 1s each, separated by a 1s inter-stimulus interval. Participants were instructed to think about their reactions to each image. Trials were sepa-rated by a 2.5s inter-trial interval, during which the word “ready” was displayed on the monitor. A short break (approximately 2min) was inserted between blocks.Procedure
After obtaining informed consent, the researcher applied all electrodes and explained the experimental tasks. Partici-pants were told that the purpose of the study was to exam-ine how viewing di V erent kinds of images would a V ect response speed in an unrelated, competitive task. The researcher then left the room for several minutes, allegedly to explain the tasks to the other participant. Upon his return, the participant started the picture viewing task.After completing the picture viewing task, the participant waited 3min while the experimenter allegedly set up the second task on the other participant’s computer. The exper-imenter then returned again and read the instructions for the competitive task, after which the participant completed the task. Finally, participants were interviewed for suspi-cion, debriefed, and dismissed.Results
Data from 5 participants were discarded (2 had a high proportion of EEG artifacts and 3 were suspicious that they were not competing against anyone during the com-petitive task). Thus, all analyses were based on data from 34participants.
Simple bivariate associations among the main study variables are given in Table 2. Consistent with previous research (Anderson & Dill, 2000; Bartholow et al., in press ),video game violence exposure was strongly associated with
Table 1
Average valence and arousal ratings for the IAPS images used in this study Note . IAPS, International A V ective Picture System. Numbers in parenthe-ses are standard deviations. The identi W cation numbers (from the IAPS manual; Lang et al., 2001) for the neutral images were 5875, 7493, 2749,5410, 2840, 2850, 2870, 2880, 8465, 9210, 5500, 7000, 7002, 7009, 7010,7025, 7030, 7035, 7040, 7080, 7090, 7140, 7217, 7224, and 7050. The violent images were numbered 3500, 3530, 6313, 6350, and 6540, and the nonvio-lent negative images were numbered 3170, 6415, 9570, 9800, and 9910.
Image type Valence ratings Arousal ratings Neutral 5.13 (0.66) 2.70 (0.66)Violent
2.39 (0.17) 6.75 (0.22)Negative nonviolent
2.26 (0.43)
6.09 (0.39)
Table 2
Bivariate associations among the main study variables
Note . VVE, video game violence exposure; Aggression, composite aggression score from competitive task; Irritability, Irritability Scale scores; AQ-H,Aggression Questionnaire hostility subscale; AQ-A, Aggression Questionnaire anger subscale; AQ-P, Aggression Questionnaire physical aggression sub-scale; AQ-V, Aggression Questionnaire verbal aggression subscale.¤
p <.05.¤¤
p <.01.¤¤¤
p <.001.9
p <.10.
1
23
4
5
6
7
8
9
1. VVE
—
2. Aggression .57¤¤¤—
3. Violent P300?.64¤¤¤?.48¤¤—
4. Negative P300.00?.20.34¤—
5. Neutral P300.17.04.05.43¤¤—
6. Irritability ?.14.269?.34¤?.17?.07—
7. AQ-H .05.24?.31¤?.15?.1
8.56¤¤¤—8. AQ-A ?.23?.17?.14?.24?.0
9.70¤¤¤.58¤¤¤—9. AQ-P .04.12?.38¤?.22.09.65¤¤¤.58¤¤¤.52¤¤¤—10. AQ-V
.21
.10
?.11
?.18
.03
.32¤
.23
.33¤
.309
536 B.D. Bartholow et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 532–539 increased aggression during the competitive reaction time
task. More pertinent to our current hypotheses, violent
video game exposure was inversely associated with the
amplitude of the P300 elicited by violent images during the
picture viewing task, which was inversely associated with
aggressive behavior. However, our hypotheses are more
appropriately tested by the analyses presented next in
which the e V ects of violent video game exposure on all
image types is compared and in which individual di V erences
in aggressiveness are controlled.
Our W rst major prediction was that P300 amplitudes to
violent images would be smaller for violent game players
than for nonviolent game players, and that this e V ect would
not generalize to other negative images. A general linear
model showed that the predicted interaction between the 3-
level image type variable (neutral, negative, violent) and
video game violence exposure scores (continuous variable)
was signi W cant, F(2,64)D12.03, p<.0001 (Greenhouse-
Geisser adjusted; D.99). Separate regression analyses
within each image type showed that, as expected, P300
amplitudes to violent images decreased as a function of
increased violent video game exposure, t(32)D?4.66,
p<.0001, b D?.20 (see Fig.1A). However, P300 amplitudes
to neutral images were not a V ected by violent video game
exposure, t(32)D1.00, p D.33, b D.03, nor were P300 ampli-
tudes to negative nonviolent images, t(32)D0.02, p D.98,
b D.00 (see Fig.1B). This latter W nding rules out the possi-
bility that evaluative categorization of all negative stimuli is
blunted in violent game players, relative to nonviolent
game players, supporting the idea that violent game players
are speci W cally desensitized to violence.
The analysis just presented examined brain responses to
violent, negative, and neutral images in an absolute sense.
Another, perhaps more focused way of conceptualizing
desensitization is in terms of the degree to which responses
to violent images are attenuated relative to responses to
equally negative nonviolent images. To test this possibility,
we computed a new variable for each participant represent-
ing the di V erence between their P300 responses to negative
images and violent images and examined the association
between this di V erence score and video game violence expo-sure. This association was positive, t(32)D3.73, p<.001, b D.20, D.55, indicating that increased exposure to video game violence was associated with a larger di V erence between the P300 response to negative images and violent images, which can be seen by comparing panels A and B of Fig.1.
It is possible that the e V ect of video game violence expo-sure on P300 amplitudes to violent stimuli is due to individ-ual di V erences in aggressiveness. To examine this alternative explanation of our e V ects, we tested the associa-tion between P300 amplitudes elicited by violent images and violent video game exposure while simultaneously covarying Irritability scores and scores on each AQ sub-scale. The e V ect of video game violence exposure on P300 amplitudes to violent images remained signi W cant in this analysis, t(27)D?5.55, p<.0001, b D?.22, D?.71, despite the fact that Irritability scores also accounted for signi W-
cant variance in P300 amplitudes to violent images,
t(27)D?2.03, p<.05, b D?2.00, D?.37. None of the AQ
subscales accounted for signi W cant variance in P300 ampli-tude to violent stimuli ( s ranged from ?.25 to .27; p s>.05).
Inspection of Fig.1A suggests that in addition to the
amplitude di V erence reported previously, the peak latency
of the P300 elicited by violent images also appears to be a V ected by video game violence exposure. A general linear
model con W rmed that the P300 to violent images peaked
later among violent video game players than among nonvi-
olent video game players, t(32)D2.19, p<.05, b D8.18, D.36. This e V ect was not weakened by the inclusion of Irritability Scale scores and AQ subscale scores,
t(27)D2.68, p<.05, b D9.75, D.45; the AQ-anger subscale
was the only other signi W cant predictor in this model, t(27)D2.66, p<.05, b D7.20, D.56. A separate general
B.D. Bartholow et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 532–539537
linear model indicated that, in contrast, P300 latency elic-ited by nonviolent negative images was not a V ected by vio-lent video game exposure, t(32)D?.03, p>.90, b D?.02, D?.01 (see Fig.1B).
Our second major prediction was that the P300 elicited by violent images would signi W cantly predict aggressive behavior in the competitive reaction time task. A regression analysis showed the predicted inverse relationship: smaller P300 amplitudes to violent images (seen primarily among violent video game players) during the picture viewing task were signi W cantly associated with higher levels of aggres-sion, t(32)D?3.11, p<.01, b D?.46, r D?.48 (see Fig.2A). In contrast, P300 amplitudes elicited by negative nonvio-lent images were not signi W cantly associated with aggres-sion, t(32)D?1.16, p D.25, b D?.19, r D?.20. Finally, a separate regression analysis showed that the more time par-ticipants spent playing violent video games, the more they aggressed against their ostensible partner, t(32)D3.88, p<.001, b D.17, r D.57 (see Fig.2B). This relationship also held after controlling for individual di V erences in aggres-siveness, t(32)D3.68, p<.001, b D.16, D.57.
We also examined the association between the P300 di V erence score variable (negative images-violent images)mentioned previously and aggressive behavior during the competitive task. This association was positive, t(32)D2.12, p<.05, b D.29, D.35, indicating that a larger di V erence in the P300 elicited by negative images relative to violent images was associated with increased aggression.
Our contention is that exposure to violent video games leads to desensitization, as evidenced by reduced cortical responses to violent images and increased aggressive behav-ior. However, because the video game violence exposure measure used here combines the frequency of game play with the violence of game content, it is possible that the e V ects just reported are due to a more general phenomenon associated with frequently playing any video games, not violent games per se. To examine this possibility, we broke the video game violence exposure score into constituent average game content and gaming frequency scores for each participant, and examined their respective in X uences on the main dependent variables. Game content and overall frequency of game play were only modestly correlated, r D.30, p D.06, suggesting considerable independence in these dimensions. A regression equation in which both the content and frequency scores were used to simultaneously predict P300 amplitudes elicited by violent images showed that violent content was a strong predictor of reduced P300 amplitude, t(31)D?3.90, p<.001, b D?1.73, D?.54, but gaming frequency was much less strongly associated, t(31)D?1.90, p D.06, b D?0.93, D?.27. A similar regres-sion equation showed that whereas violent content was a unique predictor of aggressive behavior during the compet-itive task, t(31)D2.66, p<.05, b D1.27, D.42, frequency of play was not, t(31)D1.67, p>.10, b D0.86, D.25. Thus, although there is some evidence that the frequency of video game play has an independent e V ect on the cognitive pro-cessing of violent images, these analyses largely support the conclusion that exposure to violent games speci W cally (and not just any games) is responsible for our reported e V ects. Discussion
Previous research has shown that playing violent video games increases aggressive behavior and decreases helping behavior (see Anderson, 2004; Anderson & B ushman, 2001). One possible explanation for these e V ects is that peo-ple become desensitized to violence after prolonged expo-sure to it, leading to reduction of normal inhibitions against aggression and making individuals less responsive to the pain and su V ering experienced by victims of violence (Carnagey, Bushman, & Anderson, 2005; Funk et al., 2004). The present research advances this desensitization account by showing that repeated exposure to violent video games is re X ected in the brain as blunted evaluative categorization of violent stimuli. Compared to nonviolent video game players, violent video game players showed reduced P300 amplitude and increased P300 latency to violent images but not to other, equally negative nonviolent images. The latency of the P300 component generally is associated with stimulus evaluation or categorization time (see
538 B.D. Bartholow et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 532–539
Fabiani et al., 2000). Thus, the increased latency among vio-lent video game players indicates that it took these individ-uals longer to categorize the violent images. The fact that the ERP W ndings held even after controlling for individual di V erences in aggressiveness is inconsistent with some alter-native accounts suggesting that media violence e V ects are spurious (e.g., Freedman, 2002).
Moreover, P300 amplitudes elicited by violent images during the picture-viewing task were inversely associated with aggression during the competitive reaction time task. This W nding is consistent with work showing that aggres-sive individuals tend to show de W cits in P300 amplitude during simple stimulus discrimination tasks (Harmon-Jones, Barratt, & Wigg, 1997; Mathias & Stanford, 1999). However, this W nding is inconsistent with the notion, advanced by some, that the e V ects of video game violence exposure on aggression are short-lived and have no long-term consequences for gamers (e.g., Freedman, 1984). More generally, these W ndings are the W rst to link violent video game exposure to a reduction in brain activity known to re X ect activation of the aversive motivational system (see Ito et al., 1998b), and to link this brain activity to aggressive behavior. Nevertheless, it will be important to replicate these W ndings using a longitudinal design in which partici-pants can be randomly assigned to violent and nonviolent media exposure conditions.
As discussed previously, although the violent and nega-tive images used here were rated as equally unpleasant by participants in the norming sample, the violent images were more arousing on average than the negative nonviolent images (see Table 1). Other researchers have argued that self-reported arousal ratings of IAPS images re X ect the degree of activation of the aversive motivational system (Ito, Cacioppo, & Lang, 1998a). The fact that violent video game players showed reduced cortical responses to violent images, but not to other negative images, is consistent with prior research and theory indicating that desensitization limits emotional arousal to violent stimuli (see Smith & Donnerstein, 1998), and suggests that this decreased arousal signi W es a relaxation of avoidant motivational pro-cesses speci W cally associated with violence.
These W ndings pertaining to arousal could have impor-tant implications for linking violence desensitization to aggressive behavioral disorders. Antisocial personality dis-order is typi W ed by low arousal in the aversive motivational system (e.g., Fowles, 1988) and is a signi W cant risk factor for aggressive and violent behavior (e.g., Langbehn, Cadoret, Yates, Troughton, & Stewart, 1998). Recently, Herpertz et al. (2005) reported that adolescent boys with conduct dis-order show abnormally low autonomic responses to valen-ced images like those used in the current study (although those researchers combined responses to violent and other negative images). Some evidence suggests that symptoms associated with antisocial personality disorder (e.g., delin-quency) are positively correlated with exposure to video game violence (Anderson & Dill, 2000). Thus, although the current W ndings were not dependent upon individual di V er-ences in self-reported aggressiveness, it would be of interest in future research to examine potential links between P300 responses to violent images, aggressive behavior, and anti-social personality disorder.
As noted previously, the P300 is known to be associated with working memory updating (Donchin & Coles, 1988), considered by some to be a key component of so-called executive cognitive function (Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, & Howerter, 2000). Recent brain imaging data indi-cate that adolescents high in media violence exposure show abnormal frontal lobe function during the performance of executive tasks (Mathews et al., 2005), a W nding consistent with other work showing executive dysfunction among vio-lent video game players (Kronenberger et al., 2005). As in the current study, these e V ects were not attributable to di V erences in trait aggression in either of these other reports, although Mathews et al. (2005) reported that the pattern of brain activation seen in their violent media exposed participants resembled that of a separate group of participants diagnosed with disruptive behavioral disorder. The current research extends this recent work by examining a di V erent neural index of executive dysfunction associated with processing violence, and by showing links between this brain activity and aggressive behavior measured in the lab.
One important limitation of the current W ndings deserves mention. Although our hypotheses (and indeed, our W ndings) suggest a potential mediational role for P300 amplitude in the link between video game violence expo-sure and aggressive behavior, speci W c tests for mediation did not support this idea. Thus, although these three vari-ables are clearly signi W cantly associated, the brain response to violent images did not account for the e V ect of violence exposure on aggression in this study. It will be important in future research to identify potential mediators of this e V ect.
In summary, this study is the W rst to link video game vio-lence exposure and aggressive behavior to brain processes hypothetically re X ecting desensitization in the aversive motivational system. These W ndings, along with other recent research (Kronenberger et al., 2005; Mathews et al., 2005), suggest that chronic exposure to violent video games speci W cally—and not just frequent playing of any video games—has lasting deleterious e V ects on brain function and behavior.
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沙盘游戏治疗技术
沙盘游戏治疗技术 沙盘游戏治疗技术(部分讲义) 专家:申荷永——华南师范大学教授，心理分析博士导师 国际分析心理学会唯一中国心理分析家 国际沙盘游戏治疗学会心理治疗师 是目前国际上影响广泛的心理分析方法和技术，同时被人本主义治疗、格式塔治疗、整合性动力治疗以及普通的心理治疗所采用，是一门创造艺术和表现艺术的治疗方法。沙盘游戏治疗在中国的发展，是在安其不安、安其所安以及安之若命的整合性意义上发挥积极的作用，从而获得治疗与治愈，创造与发展，以及自性化的体验。 1、什么是沙盘游戏 2、什么是沙盘游戏治疗 3、沙盘游戏治疗的形成历史与理论 4、沙盘游戏治疗的基本原则:五个 5、沙盘游戏治疗的设置: 6、沙盘游戏治疗的基本操作与要求 7、“初始沙盘”:意义与分析 8、5个个案:寻找内在的“秩序”与“道路” “漂泊的心”与“回家的路”等 什么是沙盘游戏——呈现为一种心理治疗的创造和象征形式，在所营造的“自由和保护的空间”气氛中，把沙子、水和沙具运用在富有创意的意象中，通过一个系列的各种沙盘意象，反应了沙盘游戏者内心深处意识和无意识之间的沟通与对
话，以及由此而激发的治愈过程、身心健康发展以及人格的发展与完善。所以又叫非言语治疗。是一个过程、是一个痕迹、是一个脚印、更是一个工具。 什么是沙盘游戏治疗——它是一种以荣格心理学原理为基础，由多拉(卡尔夫发展创立的心理治疗方法。 形成历史与理论:最初的创意(1910年)威尔斯的“地板游戏”:描述他与两个儿子的游戏过程，两个孩子将各种各样的玩具在地板上搭建着不同的内容，玩得开心投入。并出书和“小小战争”。 基本的框架(1930年)1928年洛温菲尔德建立了自己的儿童诊所，准备开始时候，发现了威尔斯的地板游戏，被洛温菲尔德赋予了更多新的内含和意义。 体系的形成(1962-1985年)卡尔夫与沙盘游戏治疗体系的建立 沙盘游戏治疗的基本原则: 无意识水平的工作:意识和无意识的分裂是造成心理问题的要因; 意识和无意识的整合是心理分析和治疗的过程 象征性分析原理:沙:流动的特征、坚硬的特征、沙漏——时间 水:文化的象征、与无意识有关 所有的沙具22类、1800多个，来访者以智者的眼睛赋予不同的寓意。游戏的意义和治疗:尽可能地去理解其中所包含的象征意义，但是， 当面对实际的沙盘游戏来访者的时候，又不能套 用任何的象征理论，而是要以心理分析的基本原 则，无意识的水平，象征性的意义和感应性的机 制为基础，把握某种沙盘游戏模型对于来访者个 人所具有的心理意义，沙盘、沙具是来访者与分 析师之间的纽带，借助于此来访者可以自然有效 地呈现自己的内在心理世界，尤其是包括中那些
最新-医学技术会议的邀请函
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沙盘游戏疗法考试参考资料
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腔镜会议邀请函
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沙盘游戏治疗分六个阶段
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将沙游体验同来访者的现实世界连结起来：询问来访者沙盘中的事件如何反映了他的生活；帮助来访者了解沙世界的意义；鼓励来访者留意沙盘中的问题是如何在他的日常生活中呈现的。 阶段六：拆除沙世界 理解沙世界：有来访者离开治疗室之后仔细地拆除沙世界；回想来访者的沙游过程。 清理沙世界：留意出现的改变；把物件放回到架子上的适当位置；完成你的笔记。
学术会议邀请函应该怎么写
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1.围绕研讨主题提交论文; 二 报告指出“实施乡村振兴战略”，教育部亦于2021年1月印发《高等学校乡村振兴 科技创新行动计划2021-2022年》，决定实施高校服务乡村振兴七大行动，推动高校深入 服务乡村振兴战略实施。在此形势下，计划今年在贵州民族大学举办“第七届西南地区建 筑类高校教育联盟论坛”，围绕“乡村振兴背景下的人居环境学科教育探索”这一主题， 深入探讨西南地区不同文化背景下建筑类专业人才的培养目标与模式，以实现凝聚共识、 交流共享、合作共赢的目标。 真诚地期待您的支持与到来! 第七届西南地区建筑类高校教育 学术研讨会会议 主题：乡村振兴背景下的人居环境 学科教育探索 会议日程 注意事项 1、参会代表会务费为800元/人，不含住宿费、往返贵阳交通费; 2、住宿地址：贵阳群升花园酒店，单间320元含早餐、标间320含早餐，需要单间、套房的可在备注中注明，费用自理; 3、会议地址：贵州省贵阳市花溪区思雅路贵州民族大学大学城校区。 三 随着社会发展与体制改革不断深化，文化法治建设日益成为提升国家核心竞争力的关 键议题。 为贯彻落实《“十三五”时期文化发展改革规划》，学习党的关于中国特色社会主义 文化理论，依托国家社科基金重大项目“文化法治体系建设研究”,中央民族大学法治政 府与地方制度研究中心、中央民族大学中国少数民族研究中心拟于2021年11月4日举办“文化法治体系建设理论与实践”学术研讨会。 诚挚邀请各位专家学者惠赐宏文并莅临指导! 具体安排如下：
沙盘游戏疗法的运用
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中国医师协会邀请函
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提供材料： 1、彩色免冠照片二张（2寸）。 2、“治未病”或亚健康领域的学术论文一篇。 3、个人简介和相关荣誉。 注：所提供材料经专家组评审通过由中国医师协会颁发聘书。 申请表 年月日 中国医师协会邀请函 [篇2] 疼痛医师协会（world society of pain clinicians，wspc）是目前世界范围内唯一的国际性疼痛医师的学术团体，成员由来自多个学科的医生组成，因而在临床医生中影响最大。世界疼痛医师协会已成立28 年，在全世界多数国家设立了分会。 世界疼痛医师协会每隔两年召开一次世界疼痛医师大会，举办地点轮换于世界各地，每次大会举行换届选举。第十二届世界疼痛医师大会于2015 年7 月4 － 7 日在意大利都灵市举行，有来自世界各地的从事疼痛诊疗工作的多学科的疼痛医生数千人参加。世界疼痛医师协会于2015 年5 月4 － 7 日在韩国首尔市举行了第十三届世界疼痛医师协
沙盘游戏治疗特点
沙盘游戏治疗作为一种有效的心理治疗手段越来越多地被运用，特别是应用在儿童心理障碍的治疗中。沙盘游戏作为一种治疗方法受荣格积极想象技术及其理论的启发,经由洛温菲尔德(MargaretLowenfeld) 和多拉·卡尔夫(Dora Kalff)等人的不断努力,再加上古代传统的启迪和儿童天性的自发表现,在二十世纪六十年代最终形成并得以问世。一开始,它的治疗对象主要是儿童,现在已逐渐扩展到对成年人的心理分析与治疗。 沙盘游戏有两大基本构成要素:沙子和人或物的缩微模型。沙(sand) 是儿童最爱玩的材料之一,几乎每一个人儿时都曾有过玩沙的经验,不同国家、不同时期的儿童都几乎不例外。沙的流动性和可塑性,使人们可以任意发挥想象力,可以用它来建造自己心中的城堡、村庄、山川和河流,以及其它任何东西。由于沙粒是由地球表面岩石的风化形成的,沙还被认为是浇注和塑造象征世界的映象物的理想材料;布莱克就在《天真之歌》中写到,我们可以“在一粒沙中看到整个世界”。 沙盘游戏疗法是以荣格的分析心理学为理论基础的,尤其是他的无意识理论和他发明的积极想象技术。由于沙盘游戏是一种非言语的、无意识层面的交流,因此,对不易用语言进行沟通的对象,比如儿童,有语言障碍者、自闭症患者、抑郁症患者以及比较内向的来访者,是一种很好、很有效的沟通和治疗的方法。 自沙盘游戏从产生到现在的几十年中,沙盘游戏疗法的实践已经有了飞速的发展,除了可得到的缩微模型的数量及种类越来越多外,沙盘游戏疗法的对象也开始逐渐从儿童转向成年人,从病人转向所有的正常人。另外,沙盘治疗师们在沙盘游戏中对出现的古代象征符号的价值的兴趣也在日益增加。这些象征有上帝和女神,荒野中的生物,以及关于英雄的传说。它们对沙盘治疗师的价值在于,通过认识到沙盘布景的物象和象征与古代世界中的原型之间有某种关联,可获得关于治疗过程的更深一层的知识。可见,沙盘游戏治疗的过程不仅触及了我们情感的核心,即心理情结,还触及到深不可测的集体无意识领域,即各种心理原型。因此,沙盘游戏疗法本身不但可以起到心理诊断与治疗的作用,同时还可以起到心理辅导与教育的作用。运用沙盘游戏及其治疗方法于正常的教育过程,尤其是关于想象力和创造力的教育过程,正被看做是沙盘游戏疗法的一种新的发展。
发布会邀请函三篇 发布会官方邀请函
发布会邀请函三篇发布会官方邀请函 精品文档，仅供参考
发布会邀请函三篇发布会官方邀请函 邀请函怎么写，下面是本站为大家整理的，供大家参考。 发布会邀请函(一) 尊敬的先生/女士： 由国家发改委、信息产业部、科技部和深圳市政府主办的________交易峰会定于20XX年12月13日-15日在深圳举行。 中国国际软件外包交易峰会继去年底在深圳首次成功举办之后，每年将固定在深举行。峰会全面引进在国际上有重大影响力的________________运作模式，搭建一个沟通海内外的国际软件及服务外包交易平台。预计出席本届峰会的海内外来宾约400人，其中有近百位来自海外的买家，参会软件和服务外包提供商约30家。 为加深各界朋友对本届峰会的认识，我们将召开________交易峰会新闻发布会。届时，国家发改委、信息产业部、科技部和深圳市政府的相关领导将出席并通报峰会有关情况。 时间：20XX年8月31日上午9：30-10:30 地点：________大酒店宴会厅(地址：________，电话________)。 如果出席，请将参加新闻发布会的记者姓名及单位反馈至：
____：电话：____________ 邮箱：________________ 钟桦：电话：____________ 发布会邀请函(二) 尊敬的先生/女士： 北京xx电子股份有限公司将于20xx年1月8-10日在北京xx大酒店举办20xxxx世纪公司年会。我们诚挚邀请您出席本届年会。 本次年会主题为分享融合共赢，旨在为光伏晶硅企业搭建平台，分享专家对产业、行业发展趋势以及国家产业政策趋势的分析与预测，推进政府与企业、企业与企业之间的对接，推动相关政策与商业智慧的融合，为增强中国光伏晶硅企业核心竞争力、开启产业辉煌贡献绵薄之力。 本次年会将特邀多位政府相关领导、行业专家，以及光伏装备制造、光伏晶硅企业的杰出企业家出席，届时有思考力和行动力的企业家们将和卓有成就、富有远见的专家一道，以分享融合共赢为主题，在政策、市场、技术、资本等领域倾力打造高端交流合作、宣传展示的平台，推动光伏产业健康、快速发展。届时将由众多有影响力的媒体、知名行业媒体进行全程跟踪和报道。 本次年会是一场第一次由光伏企业自己举办的盛会，不同于层出不穷的行业务虚会、更不同于各式各样的行业展销
沙盘游戏疗法
沙盘游戏疗法 沙盘游戏疗法，是潜意识意识化的桥梁，制作者构建的内在世界，将其成长经历，未完成的人生事件，自我心理的冲突和对未来的愿望等，通过此来自我表现和自我疗愈的一种心理疗法。作品完成后要与制作者一起讨论、体验、分享，对生活事件重新赋予意义，使潜意识意识化，情感释放，自我调理，自我疗愈，自我成长，获得问题的解决。当我们揉捏沙时，你想起了谁？什么感受？让注意力聚焦于此，让人体验到一种生活的自由和生命感，更好的舒解压力。通过来访者自已挑选和摆放沙具过程中，发挥其想象力、创造力、这些都是用以表现自己内心世界的象征物。 整个过程中指导师只去欣赏，不要评判，不要解释，一但错误的解释，产生不信任感，超过作者的心理承受能力，就会的生阻抗。指导师和作者要拍照共同保存作品，做延迟性解释，从而产生内省、顿悟，进而强化自我。指导师必须很投入的观察和倾听，对制作过程有清醒的认识，通过提问而不是解释，来帮助制作者探索自我，从而对自身有更清楚的了解。每个人都是独特的，他们都有自己处其创伤、问题和疾病的方式。 指导师仔细观察制作者的制作过程，很必要时做简单记录，制作完成后再进行言语交流。沟通过程不解释不评判起积极引导的作用，请制作者为作品命名？人物的脚是在马路上吗？如果给你一次调整的机会，你会怎么调整？你的期待是什么？能不能再具体点？这样会舒服一点了吗？等等，重复和总结制作者的话，倾听、陈述帮助制作者清晰，这些具体化的方法，达到共感理解，引发制作者深入分析和思考，形成体验式的感悟，促使自我治愈的能力得以发挥。 沙盘游戏疗法特点:1.与制作者建立良好的关系是首位，关怀、保护、接纳，良好的关系就有疗愈的作用。指导师不做肯定和否定的评判，中立的态度，通过提问引导制作者探索。.2，创造一个自由放松与受保护的安全空间，自我治愈的力得以充分发挥。3.通过象征，投射的作用，在自由和受保护的空间里，制作者回归到婴儿的整合状态，便会滋生新生力量，抑制消极力量，合个体得以整合。整个过程来访者心理能量的再生、转化、疏通的过程就是体验式的感受和领悟过程。 沙盘游戏是一种投射测验。即要求被试者创作画面和布局，然后咨询师根据内容即可对被试的性格，成长，心境等多方面心理内容作出比较客观的分析。现在一步一步教会你分析全部过程。 ?优点：不管是幼童还是老人，通过这体诱发个体有意识的和无意识的联想做协调和沟通。 ?功用：考察人格整合程度，当事人对家庭、亲情的态度和看法以及对自我成长的看法。 操作前的指导语：现在请您用各种沙具按我指定的区域自由摆放。您可以想怎么创作就怎么创作。（本技术会把人看不见摸不着的情绪以视像化的形式表达出来的一种方法，它是我们潜意思的直接工具，会把自己性格倾向、心理需要、心理问题投身在沙盘上，进而看到人生经历，认识自我以及与他人的关系，疗愈心灵的艺术治疗技术。） 关于投射测验所谓投射测验是指采用某种方法绕过受访者的心理防御，在他们不防备的情况下探测其真实想法和需求。分别要求受测者用叙述模式讲述作品的内容。从受测者的解释会带有自己潜意识的思想，这种方式能在一定程度上了解被试内心. 沙盘辅导流程：1.建立信任关系，介绍沙盘游戏，引发制作的期待。2.感受沙，介绍沙盘如何操作。想做成什么样子都可以，想怎么做就怎么做，请记住你坐的位置要固定，随着你的感觉，把相关沙具摆放在指定的区域内。3.整个过程指导师默默的见证，用理解共情的态度，去观察和体验制作者的感受，帮助他整合，找回童年的感觉，就象在妈妈身边那样安全和受保护。4不急于听他解释，给他时间先去感受一下作品所体验到的自己内心的世界，鼓励他走走转转，不同角度去观看作品。5.指导说：如果你有个机会可以移动和增减的话，你想怎么做？调整后重新体验。6.为作品命名，讲述与作品有关的故事，陪制作者探索，深入体验和经历，予以共情，以建议性隐喻性提问性的诠释。例如：你介绍一下作品？你给作品起个名字？你最满意的部分是？这里有你自己吗？哪个部分对你的意义最大？代表什么？你有什么需要问我的吗？如果能说些什么，你最想对哪个说些什么？表达完什么感受？等等。必要时做好记录。7.对作品多角度拍照记录，做下次的对比分析。8.对作品的处理，制作者可以保留作品，也可以拆除，在整个消除过程中，都暗示自己在消化和消除过去经历对自己的影响，通过补救和消化让这些经历成为自己的资源，融入到自己的现实生活里，进行找回一度失去的自信和力量。或者他认为最重要的部分在怎样处理，就完成征求制作者的意见。
沙盘游戏疗法
沙盘游戏治疗是目前国际上很流行的心理治疗方法。在学校和幼儿园，它被广泛应用于儿童的心理教育与心理治疗；在大学和成年人的心理诊所，它也深受欢迎。通过唤起童心，人们找到了回归心灵的途径，进而身心失调、社会适应不良、人格发展障碍等问题在沙盘中得以化解。 一盘细沙，一瓶清水，一架子各式各样的物件造型，加上治疗师的关注与投入，来访者的自由表现与创造，这就构成了沙盘游戏的最基本的要素！而就在这简易的设置中，内心的世界得以呈现，心灵的充实与发展，治愈与转化也获得了可能。 这就是在国际上受到普遍推崇的沙盘游戏治疗方法。除了荣格的心理分析之外，它也被人本主义治疗、格式塔治疗和整合性动力治疗等广泛接受，成为表现性和艺术治疗的主流，同时也被逐渐运用于学校心理教育与心理治疗。 简单的地板游戏在孩子们的手中反反复复摆弄了千百年，而第一个在这不起眼的游戏中发现光芒的幸运儿，却是著名的英国作家威尔斯。威尔斯以其对幼儿自发游戏和创造性想象的热情以及细致而敏锐的观察，记述并撰写了两个儿子在家中的游戏过程，并评论说这些游戏可以为孩子建立一种广阔、激励人心的思维模式。在他所著的《地板游戏》和《小小战争：男孩的游戏》两本书中，威尔斯首次发现与描述了这影响沙盘游戏疗法产生的自然游戏中所包含的心灵创造的 力量。 人类的苦难也会同时带来某种幸运，饱受疾病与战争折磨的心理治疗师莱温菲尔德便是这样的一位幸运儿。1928年，富有智慧和同情心的她把地板游戏引进了儿童心理诊所，没过多久，孩子们就自发地把诊所中的沙盘和地板游戏结合起来，并称其为“游戏王国”，这便是后来被心理治疗师所称的“世界技术”，同时，也是沙盘游戏心理治疗的雏形。 今天的沙盘游戏治疗最终来自于瑞士心理分析家多拉·卡尔夫，她跟随荣格学习心理分析，同时也深受莱温菲尔德世界技术的启发，最终结合荣格分析心理学的基本理论和中国文化中的哲学思想，在简易的沙-水-容器世界中寻找到了一条心灵治愈的有效途径。 引领多拉·卡尔夫发现此路径的是两个梦。在第一个梦中，她来到了西藏，高山上两个和尚送给她一个金色的矩形工具。当她舞动这工具时，顿时大地开裂，呈现两边的世界，并在西方出现了太阳。第二个梦发生在荣格去世的当天，梦中荣格请她吃饭，其间荣格指着餐桌上的一堆大米说，你应该追寻中国文化的智慧和启迪。卡尔夫确实遵照了梦的指引，在1966年，她出版了生平唯一的著作《沙盘游戏》，书中结合心理分析自性发展的理论和中国哲学家周敦颐的太极图思想，把沙盘游戏看作是表现自性发展的无意识过程，并认为太极图与沙盘游戏治疗的思想是相互应和的。 沙盘游戏治疗的基本设置有着国际统一的标准。其中包含沙盘尺寸、色彩规范及游戏模型的种类等等的具体规定。有了这些物质的准备，只要再添加上一颗天真无邪的“童心”，沙盘游戏治疗室就会马上生动起来！ 天蓝色的沙盘容器治疗室必备的是两个规定大小的装沙的矩形盘。一个用于做干沙盘，另一个可以放水，做湿沙盘。其底面是蓝色的，这蓝色可以象征海洋和天空。在游戏过程中，可以通过拨开沙子露出蓝色的底面来表示湖泊或河流
眼科会议邀请函
眼科会议邀请函各位读友大家好，此文档由网络收集而来，欢迎您下载，谢谢 会议邀请函怎么写，下面是小编整理提供的眼科会议邀请函范文，欢迎阅读与参考。眼科会议邀请函 尊敬的各位眼科同道： 我谨代表河北省眼科医院，诚挚的邀请您参加20XX年月31-11月3日在邢台市举行的世界中医药学会联合会眼科学专业委员会第五届学术年会、中国中西医结合学会眼科专业委员会第十三届学术年会、中华中医药学会眼科分会第十三届学术年会以及中国第二届国际眼科学术研讨会本次会议将与河北省眼科医院建院周年厌典、新院区落成典礼及更名为“河北省眼科医院”揭牌仪式同时举行。 本次大会邀请了近40余名国内外著名的眼科专家莅临讲学，介绍眼科学研究的最新进展，对该领域的热点问题进
行深入的讨论和交流.届时分中医会场及西医会场，其中中医会场将举办中医理论及名老中医经验、黄斑病、葡萄膜炎、视神经病、泪道病中西结合诊治、中医眼科基础研究等方面的主题报告及论文交流。西医会场将举办眼底病、青光眼、白内障、眼眶病眼整形、屈光及斜弱视等方面的主题报告及论文交流。同时还举办精彩的卫星会及先进的眼科医疗器械设备和技术展示会。本次大会将会为眼科同道们搭建一个艮好的学术交流、分享经验、沟通信息的平台真诚的邀请全国眼科同道们在10月金秋季节来到邢台，共同分享浓厚的学术气氛和厌典的欢乐氛围。 邢台是一座历史悠久，风景秀丽的燕赵古城，许多美丽传说的发源地，太行山脉下的名胜故里，淳朴的牛城人，真挚的眼院人期待着您的光临! 河北省眼科医院院长、党委书记 大会机构 大会主席：
执行主席： 大会学术委员会主席： 委员： 主席： 副主席： 委员： 日程安排眼科会议邀请函 青光眼科普讲座，3月10日爱尔眼科与您不见不散，世界青光眼日，我院专家亲面讲解青光眼的相关知识，当日预约，享受相关眼病减免政策!名额有限，机不可失，快快报名吧! 长沙爱尔眼科医院一直致力于青光眼的筛查与早期诊断，帮助广大患者提高对青光眼的认知，及时发现并治疗青光眼。在世界青光眼周期间，长沙爱尔眼科医院将开展系列公益活动，向广大市民普及更多的青光眼知识，并免费提供为期一周的专家看诊与相关检查。 一、系列活动 活动一：免费专家看诊 、活动时间：20XX年3月7日
沙盘疗法的介绍
沙盘游戏简介 沙盘游戏呈现为一种心理治疗的创造和象征形式，在所营造的“自由和保护的空间”气氛中，把沙子、水和沙具运用在富有创意的意象中，便是沙盘游戏之心理治疗的创造和象征模式。一个系列的各种沙盘意象，反映了沙盘游戏者内心深处意识和无意识之间的沟通与对话，以及由此而激发的治愈过程、身心健康发展以及人格的发展与完善。 箱庭疗法是分析心理学理论同游戏以及其他心理咨询理论结合起来的一种心理临床疗法，通过创造的意想和场景来表达自己，直观显示内心世界，从而可以绕开咨询中的阻抗。基本上各种心理问题与心理障碍均可作为此方法的治疗范畴。作为国外一种成熟的心理治疗技术,目前在我国也开始得到应用。 箱庭疗法可以作为正常人心理活动投射的体验。通过摆放沙盘内的沙具，塑造一个与他（她）内在状态相对应的心理世界，展现出一个人美妙的心灵花园。同时它也是针对青少年心理健康教育的一种有效方法，能够在培养自信与人格、发展想象力和创造力等方面发挥积极的作用。 作为一种综合性的心理治疗体系，尤其是作为心理分析技术与艺术和表现性心理治疗相结合的主流发展之一，沙盘游戏被广泛地运用在了心理咨询、心理治疗、心理教育、人力资愿开发和专业心理分析的各个领域；其主要的功能和作用包括：心理诊断与综合性心理评估；各种心理压力、紧张与焦虑的缓解；各种心身疾病的专业治疗；综合
性的心理教育技术，心理健康的维护与人格发展，艺术表现与创造力的培养和生活质量的提高；以及自性化为目标的心性发展与完善。 治疗方法 首先要有一间专门用来进行沙盘游戏的房间，里面放置着沙盘、人或物的缩微模型以及水罐或其他盛水器具等沙盘游戏的必需物品。水罐的作用是装一些水，放在沙盘旁边随手可得的地方，以备需要将沙弄湿时用。人或物的缩微模型则是一些能代表人、动物、植物或其他类似的小玩具模型。它们的种类应该比较丰富，能尽量满足沙盘游戏者的各种需求，比如能代表各种文化，无论是东方文明、西方文明，还是历史人物、当今潮流，都应该有相应的模型能给予表现，甚至是一些史前文化的物品、想象中的动物等等。另外，海陆空的各种交通工具也应包括在内。 沙盘是一种特殊的装着沙子的供人在上面进行建造活动的盒子，一般被放在低矮的桌子上。常用的沙盘的大小为7米长、5．5米宽、1．1米高。它的底和边框被漆成天蓝色，并且能防水，里面装的沙子大约是盒子高度的一半。（材料：沙箱内侧的尺寸为57*72*7（cm），外侧涂深颜色或木本色，内侧涂蓝色，是为了使人挖沙子会挖出水，这种感觉是很重要的。箱庭疗法初期往往使用茶色粗沙、细沙或白沙三种，也有时候使用茶钯和白色两种的。）一般沙盘游戏室中至少要配两个沙盘，一个装干沙，一个装湿沙，供来者自由选择。（一般情况下我们是不允许来访者随便使用水创作。因为有的来访者，特别是
沙盘游戏治疗特点
沙盘游戏治疗特点 Revised final draft November 26, 2020
沙盘游戏治疗作为一种有效的心理治疗手段越来越多地被运用，特别是应用在儿童心理障碍的治疗中。沙盘游戏作为一种治疗方法受荣格积极想象技术及其理论的启发,经由洛温菲尔德(MargaretLowenfeld) 和多拉·卡尔夫(DoraKalff)等人的不断努力,再加上古代传统的启迪和儿童天性的自发表现,在二十世纪六十 年代最终形成并得以问世。一开始,它的治疗对象主要是儿童,现在已逐渐扩展到对成年人的心理分析与治疗。 沙盘游戏有两大基本构成要素:沙子和人或物的缩微模型。沙(sand) 是儿童最爱玩的材料之一,几乎每一个人儿时都曾有过玩沙的经验,不同国家、不同时期的儿童都几乎不例外。沙的流动性和可塑性,使人们可以任意发挥想象力,可以用它来建造自己心中的城堡、村庄、山川和河流,以及其它任何东西。由于沙粒是由地球表面岩石的风化形成的,沙还被认为是浇注和塑造象征世界的映象物的理想材料;布莱克就在《天真之歌》中写到,我们可以“在一粒沙中看到整个世界”。 沙盘游戏疗法是以荣格的分析心理学为理论基础的,尤其是他的无意识理论和他发明的积极想象技术。由于沙盘游戏是一种非言语的、无意识层面的交流,因此,对不易用语言进行沟通的对象,比如儿童,有语言障碍者、自闭症患者、抑郁症患者以及比较内向的来访者,是一种很好、很有效的沟通和治疗的方法。 自沙盘游戏从产生到现在的几十年中,沙盘游戏疗法的实践已经有了飞速的发展,除了可得到的缩微模型的数量及种类越来越多外,沙盘游戏疗法的对象也开始逐渐从儿童转向成年人,从病人转向所有的正常人。另外,沙盘治疗师们在沙盘游戏中对出现的古代象征符号的价值的兴趣也在日益增加。这些象征有上帝和女神,荒野中的生物,以及关于英雄的传说。它们对沙盘治疗师的价值在于,通过认识到沙盘布景的物象和象征与古代世界中的原型之间有某种关联,可获得关于治疗过程的更深一层的知识。可见,沙盘游戏治疗的过程不仅触及了我们情感的核心,即心理情结,还触及到深不可测的集体无意识领域,即各种心理原型。因此,沙盘游戏疗法本身不但可以起到心理诊断与治疗的作用,同时还可以起到心理辅导与教育的作用。运用沙盘游戏及其治疗方法于正常的教育过程,尤其是关于想象力和创造力的教育过程,正被看做是沙盘游戏疗法的一种新的发展。 沙盘游戏的应用 一、沙盘游戏可用于儿童、成人 （一）沙盘游戏对有自闭症、恐怖症、社交困惑、躯体化等心理障碍的儿童提供心理辅导，可以广泛应用于幼儿园及中小学。 （二）成人做沙盘游戏，可以提高自信心、完善自我性格、提高人际交往技巧、有效的宣泄消极情绪、释放压力等。 二、沙盘游戏可以个体单独进行，也可以由家庭或其他形式的团体一起完成 （一）个体沙盘游戏可以深入展示个人的内心世界，让自己与潜意识对话，了解自己的深层次需要；
医药学术会议邀请函
医药学术会议邀请函 届时全国各高等院校、科研院所、企事业单位等xx-xx 等领域工作的知名专家、学者将出席会议。特邀专家有xx-x 教授及xx-xxx有关领导等。 现诚挚邀请您参加本次会议，共同交流xx-xx技术相关领域研究的新成果。 组织单位：xx-x委员会 承办单位：xx-xxx-xx 协办单位：xx-xxx-xxx 现将有关事宜通知如下： 一、会议时间 报到时间： xx-xxx-xx 会议时间： xx-xxx-xxx 二、会议注册 注册表发送邮箱：xx-xxx-xxx-xxx-x 预注册表：见附件（截止日期：xx-xxx-xxx-xxx-x） 三、报到事宜 1、报到地点：待定，详见第二轮通知 2、会务费：xx-xxx元每人（会务费包括研讨会纸质讲义、电子光盘资料、工作餐等） 3、住宿费自理 四、会议议程
大会将邀请xx-x业内专家对目前xx-xx领域最新、最前沿性的研究成果进行义务宣讲，并对xx-xx领域的企业需求、及未来最具挑战性的发展方向进行深入探讨。为各位参会人员提供沟通、学习、交流的平台。 医药学术会议邀请函 [篇2] 亲爱的xx-x教授： 您好!我们定于xx-xx年xx月xx日在xx大学举行xx-xx 学术会议，想邀请您届时参加。会议免费安排食宿，往返机票自理。如果您有要宣读的论文或要发言的论题，请尽早来函告知，以便会议安排。希望您届时光临。请尽快来函确认。祝一切顺利! 会议召集人：xx-x秘书长 医药学术会议邀请函 [篇3] **同志： 为纪念**诞辰**周年，定于**年*月*日至**日在市里举行“**同志诞辰一百周年学术研讨会”，希望您届时光临。现将有关事项通知如下： 一、会议主要内容： （一）宣读学术论文 （二）交流教学、科学研究经验 二、出席会议的代表原则上应向大会提交学术论文。 三、会议的住宿费、伙食补助费由大会负责，往返交通
沙盘游戏治疗案例报告
案例：一个焦虑的个体沙盘游戏 一个对出行感到焦虑的沙盘游戏 一、一般资料 1.人口学资料： 小李，女，汉族，22岁，刚考上研究生。父母是老师。父母家人均无人格障碍和其他神经症性障碍，无重大躯体疾病史，家庭无精神疾病史。 2.个人成长史： 小李是家里老二，有一个兄长，在成长过程中，父母从小陪伴长大。家庭经济条件一般，父母在其成长过程中，替她做了很多事情，尤其是母亲，所以其有些依赖不够独立。且从小到大未出过远门，凡事都有人陪在身边为其解决。 3.精神状态： 焦虑，记忆力、感知能力和思维能力正常。知情意统一，人格完整。 4.躯体状态： 来访者有心慌，失眠多梦，焦虑不安等躯体症状。经医学检查无器质性性病变。 5.社会功能: 能正常工作完成任务，焦虑情绪个人无法摆脱，需咨询师帮助。 6.心理测验结果: （1）症状自评量表（SCL—90） 焦虑因子2.9分，抑郁因子2.5分，这两个因子分均超过常模2分。 （2）焦虑自评量表（SAS） 测量分为64分，提示来访者有中度焦虑。 （3）抑郁自评量表 测量分为50分，小于标准分分界值53分，提示来访者没有出现抑郁。 二、主诉和个人陈述 1.主诉： 近一周以来，经常失眠多梦，总是感觉焦虑，整天想着如何安排出行计划。心慌，晚上入睡困难，经常做梦，感觉休息不好，总是想着如何安排出行计划，总担心遇到坏人。 2.个人陈述： 2016年考入某大学的研究生，在外打工的她对是利用上学前的这段时间出外旅行呢还是回家呢，这个问题上纠结，竟然达到了失眠的程度，也会经常做梦，但是内容记不清。非常想出门旅行，但是又总想着如何安排出行计划，担心出行路上遇到坏人。 3.咨询师观察到的情况和他人的反映: （1）咨询师观察到的情况：来访者身材中等偏低，有点胖，皮肤有点黑。说话看着别人的时候，眼神中总有一种小心翼翼的感觉。说话时候声音不大，慢吞吞的，一边说话一边看着对方，好像在留意对方的反应；说话调理清晰。能够较为主动的谈自己的事情。 （2）来访者同事反映的情况： 4.评估与诊断: （1）主要症状：焦虑不安，入睡困难，睡眠障碍失眠。 （2）诊断及依据： 诊断：对该来访者的诊断为一般心理问题。 诊断依据：①严重程度标准：来访者心理问题是由明显的现实原因引起的（刚考上研究生，要进入一个新环境了，对未来的事情不确定引起的不安），表现出焦虑烦躁、睡眠障碍等症