会计学内部审计毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
会计学内部审计
中英文资料外文翻译文献
内部审计在沙特阿拉伯的发展：协会理论透视
内部审计职能的价值1
早先的研究已经运用各种各样的方法来制定适当的标准以评估内部审计职能的有效率。比如说，视遵照标准的程度为影响内部审计表现的其中因素之一。一份1988年国际会计师协会英国协会的研究报告就致力与研究内部审计作用价值中高级管理层和外部审计员的认知力。这项研究证明了衡量所提供服务的价值的艰难性就是做评估的主要障碍。收益性，费用标准以及资源利用率都被确认为服务价值的衡量标准。在这项研究里，它强调了确保内部审计工作应遵从SPPIA的必要性。
在美国，1988的Albrechta研究过内部审计的地位和作用，还为了能有效的评估内部审计的效率特别制定出一套框架。他们发现有四个能让内部审计部门发展从而提高内部审计效率的要件：一个合适的企业环境，高级管理层的支持，具备高素质的内部审计人员以及高质量的内部审计工作。在这项研究里学者们强调管理层和审计人员都应该承认内部审计职能对于企业来说是一种具有增值性的职能。在英国，1997年，Ridley和D’Silva证明遵循专业标准的重要性是促进内部审计职能增值功能的最重要的因素。
遵循SPPIA
大量的研究都特别专注于内部审计部门对于SPPIA遵从性的研究。1992年，Powell et al对11个国家的国际会计师协会的成员进行了一项全球性的调查以证明是否有全球性的内部审计文化。他们发现对这11个国家的国际会计师协会成员的调查中，有82%的是遵循SPPIA的。这个蛮高的百分比率促使学者们建议SPPIA提供内部审计这个职业全球化的证据。许多的研究已经关注涉及到独立性的SPPIA标准。1981年，Clark et al发现内部审计部门的独立性和内部审计人员所做报告的权威性是影响他们工作
Abdulrahman A. M. Al-Twaijry, John A. Brierley and David R. Gwilliam
* Internal Audit Research
客观性的最至关重要的两个因素。1985年，Plumlee致力于研究影响内部审计人员客观性的潜在威胁，特别是参与内部控制制度的设计是否会影响到关于该制度质量与有效率的决断力。Plumlee发现这样参与设计会产生偏见最终会影响到工作的客观性。内部审计职能与公司管理层两者之间的关系通常会成为决定内部审计客观性的一个重要因素。1989年，Harrell et al表明管理层对一些观点的认知能力以及欲望都可能会影响到内部审计人员的工作和判断力。同时，他们也发现作为国际会计师协会成员的内部审计人员是不大可能屈服于这种压迫下的。1991年，Ponemon调查研究了这样一个问题，内部审计人员是否会在他们工作过程中报告那些未被揭露的敏感问题。他得出的结论是，影响内部审计人员客观性的三个因素分别是他们在企业中所处的地位，他们跟管理层的关系以及举报不道德行为的渠道的存在。
在沙特阿拉伯的内部审计研究
已经证明相对地很少有关于沙特阿拉伯企业内部审计的研究，然而，例外的是1993年的Asairy和1996年的Woodworth和Said。Asairy试着评估沙特阿拉伯合股公司的内部审计部门的效率。他通过对38家公司的内部审计部门的负责人，高级管理层和外部审计人员的问卷调查来研究。这项研究的结果显示了内部审计成功的一个重要因素就是它独立于其他的企业的经济活动。内部审计部门所提供的服务是会受到管理层，其他雇员和外部审计人员的影响。内部审计人员的教育背景，训练，经验和专业素质都会影响到内部审计的效率。根据他的这项研究，Asairy建议所有合股公司都应该设置内部审计职能，而且应在沙特大学把内部审计作为一门独立的课程来设立。1996年，Woodworth和Said试着调查沙特阿拉伯的内部审计人员关于根据被审单位的国籍是否会对被审单位具体的内部审计情况有不同的反应的看法。基于34份来自国际会计师协会达兰协会成员的问卷调查，他们发现不同国籍没有很大的区别。内部审计人员不会根据被审单位的国籍来改变他们的审计方式，文化程度对于审计的结果是没有很大的影响的。
关于遵循SPPIA的重要性，专家和学术界都强调了内部审计部门和企业其他部门之间关系在决定内部审计部门成功或其他方面是具有一定的重要性的。（1972年的Mints, 1996年的Flesher, 1998年的Ridley & Chambers,和1999年的Moeller & Witt）。学术界致力于研究如果内部审计要有效率，事前的准备工作以及审计人员和被审单位之间的团队合作精神的必要性。1992年的Bethea认为好的人际关系处理技巧是很重要的因为内部审计会产生消极看法和消极的态度。这些问题尤其对于多文化的商业环境是非常重要的例如像沙特阿拉伯这样审计人员和被审单位在文化和教育背景上有很大差异的地方( 1996年Woodworth & Said)。
结论
缺少内部审计部门的原因
通过对92家公司的采访调查公司没有设置内部审计职能的原因，来自于52家公司的
最多的回答就是信赖外部审计人员能够使公司获得可能会从内部审计中得到的赢利。典型地，被采访者认为外部审计者更好，要比内部审计更有效率，更省钱。在对外部审计人员的采访中透露出他们的客户公司不会特别的区分清楚内部审计和外部审计的工作性质和角色的不同之处。比如，一个外部审计人员说到，对于外部审计人员是做什么的通常都有个误区，他们认为外部审计人员会为公司做所有的事情，而且一定会找出所有的问题。说到这里，一个外部审计人员质疑内部审计是否在任何一个企业环境中都具有增值的功能。当提到内部控制制度时他说到，只要他们满意这最终的报告结果，我认为内部审计职能也可以不需要设置。外部审计最终会显示出所有内部审计的大缺点。
第二个采访者（23家企业，25%）提到最多的不设置内部审计部门的原因是对成本和利润的一种权衡和协调。特别地是，17家公司认为公司规模小以及其活跃性有限的本质意味着设置内部审计部门对他们来说反而是没有效率的。受采访的外部审计人员都支持这个观点，测量成本是毫不费事很容易的，相比较而言衡量利润则是比较困难这一事实就是促成这个决定的一个因素。
还有一些采访者给出的不设置内部审计部门的原因。由于执行内部审计职能需要高成本的事实，14家企业聘请了不处于独立的内部审计部门的雇员来执行内部审计的职责。有8家公司认为没有设置内部审计部门的必要，这是因为他们相信他们有内部控制制度已经足够了而没必要再去设置内部审计。5家公司认为内部审计不是什么重要的工作，还有三家公司觉得他们的企业类型是不需要内部审计的。有三个受访者提到他们不设置内部审计部门是因为找不到专业人员来管理运行这个部门，还有6家公司没有提供不设置内部审计部门的原因。有10家公司曾经设立过内部审计部门但由于在招聘合格的高素质的人员和改变企业的组织结构方面具有一定难度就不再运行这个部门。说到这里，有8家没有内部审计部门的公司计划在不久的未来成立一个内部审计部门。
内部审计部门的独立性
评论员和权威人士认为独立性是内部审计部门最主要最关键的一个特性。在对内部审计部门的问卷调查回复中有60份说有一份书面文件阐明了内部审计部门的目的，权威性和责任。在所进行的所有问卷调查中，有93%的人说一份在内部审计部门的职权范围内的文件被高级管理层所认可，有97%的人说这份文件阐明了内部审计部门在企业中的地位，有接近个人，纪录，资产的权利，还有90%的认为这份文件阐明了内部审计的范围。受访者被要求估计相关文件与SPPIA特定要求想一致的程度。在这些有这种文件的内部审计部门中有27家声称是完全遵循SPPIA，有23家认为他们的公文部分遵循SPPIA。有超过三分之一被调查的部门要么就没有这样的公文要么就不清楚文件是否遵循SPPIA。SPPIA建议当企业的董事会同意任命或撤除内部审计部门负责人的时候要提高其独立性，还有内部审计部门的负责人要对企业里资格老的个人负
责。令人关注的是，有47家公司他们对于任命，撤除以及收入报告的责任是由非高级的管理者负责，通常就是一般的经理。SPPIA建议内部审计部门的负责人应该直接坦率的跟董事会沟通以保证审计部门的独立，同时为内部审计的负责人和董事会提供了一种方法以能使彼此告知对方的利益。在跟内部审计部门负责人的交谈中显示出内部审计部门通常是对一般经理报告负责而不是董事会。由问卷回复者提供的缺乏跟董事会交流的进一步证据显示出在将近一半的公司中，内部审计部门的成员从来都没参加过董事会会议而只有两家公司的内部审计人员是定期出席董事会会议的。获取证据不受限制和不受束缚的询问权力是内部审计独立性和有效性的最重要的方面。问卷的回复显示有34个内部审计主管认为他们不能完全获取所有有用的信息。而且，在所有调查中，少数一些人不相信他们可以不受限制的报告缺陷，隐瞒，不道德的行为或者错误。还有相当一部分人认为做内部审计不能总是从高级管理层那里获得支持。SPPIA证明参与制度的设计，设置，运行很有可能会削弱内部审计人员的客观性。受访者被问到在非审计职责的范围内管理层多久一次会要求内部审计部门的协助。有37个被调查的内部审计部门说管理层有时，经常有这样的需求，还有27个部门从来没参与过这些非审计的工作。这些调查证明了一些企业的内部审计人员经常会为其他部门的人弥补不足之处。
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL AUDIT IN SAUDI ARABIA: AN INSTITUTIONAL THEORY PERSPECTIVE
The value of the internal audit function
Previous studies have utilized a variety of approaches to determine appropriate criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of the internal audit function. For example, considered the degree of compliance with standards as one of the factors which affects internal audit performance. A 1988 research report from the IIA-United Kingdom（IIA-UK，1988）focused on the perceptions of both senior management and external auditors of the value of the internal audit function. The study identified the difficulty of measuring the value of services provided as a major obstacle to such an evaluation. Profitability, cost standards and the effectiveness of resource utilization were identified as measures of the value of services. In its recommendations it highlighted the need to ensure that internal audit work complies with SPPIA.
In the US, Albrecht et al.(1988)studied the roles and benefits of the internal audit function and developed a framework for the purpose of evaluating internal audit effectiveness. They found that there were four areas that the directors of internal audit departments could develop to enhance effectiveness: an appropriate corporate environment, top management support, high quality internal audit staff and high quality internal audit work. The authors stressed that management and auditors should recognize the internal audit function as a value-adding function to the organization. In the UK, Ridley and D’Silva (1997) identified the importance of complying with
professional standards as the most important contributor to the internal audit function adding value.
Compliance with SPPIA
A number of studies have focused specifically on the compliance of internal audit departments with SPPIA. Powell et al.(1992) carried out a global survey of IIA members in 11 countries to investigate whether there was evidence of a world-wide internal audit culture. They found an overall compliance rate of 82% with SPPIA. This high percentage prompted the authors to suggest that SPPIA provided evidence of the internationalization of the internal audit profession.
A number of studies have focused on the SPPIA standard concerned with independence.Clark et al.(1981) found that the independence of the internal audit department and the level of authority to which internal audit staff report were the two most important criteria influencing the objectivity of their work. Plumlee (1985) focused on potential threats to internal auditor objectivity, particularly whether participation in the design of an internal control system influenced judgements as to the quality and effectiveness of that system. Plumlee found that such design involvement produced bias that could ultimately threaten objectivity.
The relationship between the internal audit function and company management more generally is clearly an important factor in determining internal auditor objectivity. Harrell et al. (1989) suggested that perceptions of the views and desires of management could influence the activities and judgement of internal auditors. Also, they found that internal auditors who were members of the IIA were less likely to succumb to such pressure.Ponemon (1991) examined the question of whether or not internal auditors will report sensitive issues uncovered during the course of their work. He concluded that the three factors affecting internal auditor objectivity were their social position in the organization, their relationship with management and the existence of a communication channel to report wrongdoing.
Internal audit research in Saudi Arabia
To date there has been relatively little research about internal audit in the Saudi Arabian corporate sector, exceptions, however, are Asairy (1993)and Woodworth and Said (1996). Asairy (1993)sought to evaluate the effectiveness of internal audit departments in Saudi joint-stock companies. He studied departments in 38 companies using questionnaire responses from the directors of internal audit departments, senior company management, and external auditors. The result of this study revealed that one significant factor in the perceived success of internal audit was its independence from other corporate activities. The service provided by the internal audit department was affected by the support it received from the management, other employees and external auditors. The education, training, experience and professional qualifications of the internal auditors influenced the effectiveness of internal audit. On the basis of his study, Asairy (1993) recommended that all joint-stock companies, should have an internal audit function, and that internal auditing should be taught as a separate course in Saudi Universities.
Woodworth and Said (1996)sought to ascertain the views of internal auditors in Saudi Arabia as to whether there were differences in the reaction of auditees to specific internal audit situations according to the nationality of the auditee. Based on 34 questionnaire responses from members of the IIA Dhahran chapter, they found there were no significant differences between the different nationalities. The internal auditors did not modify their audit conduct according to the nationality of the auditee and cultural dimensions did not have a significant impact on the results of the audit.
Given the importance of complying with SPPIA, the professional and academic literature emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the internal audit department and the rest of the organization in determining the success or otherwise of internal audit departments (Mints,1972;Flesher,1996;Ridley & Chambers,1998 and Moeller & Witt,1999). This literature focuses on the need for co-operation and teamwork between the auditor and auditee if internal auditing is to be effective.Bethea (1992) suggests that the need for good human relations’ skills is important because internal auditing creates negative perceptions and negative attitudes. These issues are particularly important in a multicultural business environment such as Saudi Arabia where there are
significant differences in the cultural and educational background of the auditors and auditees Woodworth and Said (1996).
Results
Reasons for not having an internal audit department
Of the 92 company interviews examining the reasons why companies do not have an internal audit function, the most frequent response from 52 companies (57%) was that reliance on the external auditor enabled the company to obtain the benefits that might be obtained from internal audit. Typically, interviewees argued that the external auditor is better, more efficient and saves money. Interviews with the external auditors revealed that client companies could not distinguish clearly between the work and roles of internal and external audit. For example, one external auditor said,
there is a misperception of what the external auditor does, they think the external auditor does everything for the company and must discover any problem.
Having said this, one external auditor doubted that an internal audit function would add value in all circumstances. When referring to the internal control system he stated,
as long as they are happy with the final output, I think the internal audit function will not add value. External auditing eventually will highlight any significant internal control weakness.
The second most frequent reason mentioned by interviewees (23 firms, 25%) for not operating an internal audit department was the cost/benefit trade-off. Specifically, 17 firms considered that the small size of the company and the limited nature of its activities meant that it would not be efficient for them to have an internal audit department. The external auditors interviewed were of the opinion that the readily identifiable costs as compared with the more difficult to measure benefits was a factor contributing to this decision.
A number of other reasons were given by interviewees for not having an internal audit department. As a consequence of the high costs of conducting internal audit activities, 14 firms used employees who were not within a separate internal audit department to carry out internal audit duties. Eight companies did not think there was a need for internal audit because they believed their internal control systems were sufficient to obviate the need for internal audit. Five companies did not think that internal audit was an important activity and three felt that their type of the business did not require internal audit. Three respondents mentioned that they did not operate an internal audit department because professional people could not be found to run the department, and six companies did not provide a reason for not having an internal audit department. In 10 companies an internal audit department had been established but was no longer operating because of difficulties in recruiting qualified personnel and changes in the organization structure. Having said this, eight companies without an internal audit department were planning to establish one in the future.
The independence of internal audit departments
Commentators and standard setters identify independence as being a key attribute of the internal audit department. From the questionnaire responses 60 (77%) of the internal audit departments stated that there was a written document defining the purpose, authority and responsibility of the department. In nearly all instances where there was such a document the terms of reference of the internal audit department had been agreed by senior management (93%), the document identified the role of the internal audit department in the organization, and its rights of access to individuals, records and assets (97%), and the document set out the scope of internal auditing (90%). Respondents were asked to assess the extent to which the relevant document was consistent with the specific requirements of SPPIA. In those departments where such a document existed 27 (45%) claimed full compliance with SPPIA, 23 (38%) considered their document to be partially consistent with SPPIA. In more than one-third of the departments surveyed either no such document existed (n=18, 23%) or the respondent was not aware whether or not the document complied with SPPIA (n=10, 13%).
SPPIA suggests that independence is enhanced when the organization’s board of directors concurs with the appointment or removal of the director of the internal audit department, and that the director of the internal audit department is responsible to an individual of suitable seniority within the organization. It is noticeable that in 47 companies (60%) their responsibilities with regard to appointment, removal and the receipt of reports lay with non-senior management, normally a general manager. SPPIA recommends that the director of the internal audit department should have direct communication with the board of directors to ensure that the department is independent, and provides a means for the director of internal auditing and the board of directors to keep each other informed on issues of mutual interest. The interviews with directors of internal audit departments showed that departments tended to report to general managers rather than the board of directors. Further evidence of the lack of access to the board of directors was provided by the questionnaire responses showing that in almost half the companies, members of the internal audit department have never attended board meetings and in only two companies did attendance take place regularly.
Unrestricted access to documentation and unfettered powers of enquiry are important aspects of the independence and effectiveness of internal audit. The questionnaire responses revealed that 34 (44%) internal audit directors considered that they did not have full access to all necessary information. Furthermore, a significant minority (n=11, 14%) did not believe they were free, in all instances, to report faults, frauds, wrongdoing or mistakes. A slightly higher number (n=17, 22%) considered that the internal audit function did not always receive consistent support from senior management.
SPPIA identifies that involvement in the design, installation and operating of systems is likely to impair internal auditor objectivity. Respondents were asked how often management requested the assistance of the internal audit department in the performance of non-audit duties. In 37 internal audit departments (47%) surveyed such requests were made sometimes, often or always, and only 27 (35%) departments never participated in these non-audit activities. The interviews revealed that in some organizations internal audit staff was used regularly to cover for staff shortages in other departments.
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内部审计在公司治理中的价值【外文翻译】
外文翻译 原文： T h e V a l u e O f In t e r n a l A u d i t In C or p or a t e G ov e r n a n c e Today, corporate boards must provide close oversight of such vital issues as finance, accounting, risk management, and compliance in often-complex o r g anizati ons. Yet there i s an organization wi t hin the c ompa ny t hat ha s bee n shaping just the controls needed to effectively monitor these governance matters—internal audit. By making internal audit a stronger player in the governance team, smart boards can tap into a highly valuable source of expertise. Internal auditors are like a lighthouse. Their work provides a point of reference that enabl e s compani e s t o know w he re t hey are—and t heir gui dance c a n h elp provide the insights they need to navigate with confidence into the future. That is why expectations are high that internal auditors will “raise the bar”by continuing to improve operating efficiency as well as effectiveness—not just in controls, risk management, and governance, but across the enterprise as a whole. There a re th re e mess a ges I would like to shar e on how i nternal audi t ors ca n ke e p th e momentum going by building new value for today, and by becoming a source of leadership talent for business organizations tomorrow. First,internal auditors can help enable the“risk intelligent enterprise.” While management and the board may “o w n”risk, internal auditors can play a key role in ena b ling the “risk int e llige n t e nt erpri s e.”At D e loitt e, this is an outcome t hat we strongly advocate for our clients, for ourselves, and for any corporation that wants to grow and prosper. Think about it. In all companies, risk abounds—in governance, in strategy and execution, in operations, and in infrastructure. If the magnitude of this challenge were not already enough, other factors can leverage the impact of risk, from the speed at which events can unfold to the uncertainty that often accompanies them. It would be great if those were the only challenges but, of course, there are countless others to consider.
毕业论文英文参考文献与译文
Inventory management Inventory Control On the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion. The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility. Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored: First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments . Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field of
概率论毕业论文外文翻译
Statistical hypothesis testing Adriana Albu，Loredana Ungureanu Politehnica University Timisoara,adrianaa@aut.utt.ro Politehnica University Timisoara,loredanau@aut.utt.ro Abstract In this article,we present a Bayesian statistical hypothesis testing inspection, testing theory and the process Mentioned hypothesis testing in the real world and the importance of, and successful test of the Notes. Key words Bayesian hypothesis testing; Bayesian inference;Test of significance Introduction A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making decisions using data, whether from a controlled experiment or an observational study (not controlled). In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, according to a pre-determined threshold probability, the significance level. The phrase "test of significance" was coined by Ronald Fisher: "Critical tests of this kind may be called tests of significance, and when such tests are available we may discover whether a second sample is or is not significantly different from the first."[1] Hypothesis testing is sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, in contrast to exploratory data analysis. In frequency probability,these decisions are almost always made using null-hypothesis tests. These are tests that answer the question Assuming that the null hypothesis is true, what is the probability of observing a value for the test statistic that is at [] least as extreme as the value that was actually observed?) 2 More formally, they represent answers to the question, posed before undertaking an experiment,of what outcomes of the experiment would lead to rejection of the null hypothesis for a pre-specified probability of an incorrect rejection. One use of hypothesis testing is deciding whether experimental results contain enough information to cast doubt on conventional wisdom. Statistical hypothesis testing is a key technique of frequentist statistical inference. The Bayesian approach to hypothesis testing is to base rejection of the hypothesis on the posterior probability.[3][4]Other approaches to reaching a decision based on data are available via decision theory and optimal decisions. The critical region of a hypothesis test is the set of all outcomes which cause the null hypothesis to be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The critical region is usually denoted by the letter C. One-sample tests are appropriate when a sample is being compared to the population from a hypothesis. The population characteristics are known from theory or are calculated from the population.
独特的品牌战略【外文翻译】
外文翻译 原文 Strategies for distinctive brands Material Source: Journal of Brand Management Author:Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky ABSTRACT Brand identity complements brand equity and it forms an important part of the strategic management of brands. Identity elements include a well-known brand name, logo, font type, symbols, colour, shape, as well as unique product and benefit descriptions. These different elements can contribute to distinct consumer perceptions of various brands in the marketplace and help to differentiate brands from competitors. Brand managers need to start with a vision of what they want their brand to represent and then use the appropriate identity elements to build the brand. Some brand identity components may be influential to choice at the subconscious level of consumers, and therefore the understanding of individual psychological processes of perception and social meaning is required by brand managers. Keywords: brand equity ; brand identity ; logos ; brand names ; packaging INTRODUCTION Much literature in the area of branding has focused on brand equity and its importance to strong brands. Although everyone agrees that understanding and creating brand equity is essential for marketing, very little academic attention is paid to understanding the importance of brand identity and its relation to brand equity and brand management. Brand identity is the visual picture and meaning derived from the visual impact of the brand. For the consumer to identify brands with their respective manufacturers, the brands must be sold with distinctive features supplied by that particular manufacturer. Strong and unique links to one source is what complements and protects brands from being interchangeable in the marketplace. Brand differentiation, or identity, may be achieved through a well-known brand name, logo, typeface, symbol, colour, shape, distinctive design of the package or product, as well as product benefit descriptions known as unique selling points
会计外文翻译
Master's thesis, University of London Information technology and accounting management with the use is the relevant value of information analysis and use, and various factors of production based on the value creation of corporate accounting and management contributions to the study of accounting will be the main content. No use of information technology, there is any enterprise information and accounting information to promote the implementation of value chain management will lose technical support, there is no theory of innovation value chain management, accounting, and information technology development, there is no power. In this paper, the meaning of information to start, leads to the meaning of accounting information, accounting information describes the development process, the second part of the analysis of the status quo of accounting information, analysis of its use in the problems, the third part of the proposed accounting information on the implementation of the strategic analysis. Keywords: accounting, information technology strategy I. Introduction (A) Background The development of accounting information in China has gone through more than 20 years, accounting information theory and practical application of talent, the accounting information system software has gradually matured, and, and the production, supply and marketing, human resources management, cost control and other aspects of the formation of an integrated management information system software. But the company found accounting information in the status of the development of enterprises is extremely uneven, a lot of strength and standardized management of large enterprises have been using the integrated accounting information system "ERP" is the management software, and the introduction of new ideas with the value of the supply chain management chain management system, and also the majority of the total business is still in the initial stage of the use of computerized accounting, or even manually. Enterprise management is still in the coexistence of traditional and modern, our corporate accounting information so early, the senior co-existence of the phenomenon will not surprise. Accounting information must be improved to facilitate the management of change. The essence of the value chain to value chain to implement the core business processes node changes, if companies choose the value chain as the core business process change, business management will enable a major step forward, it promotes corporate accounting development of information technology. (B) Significance
毕业论文外文翻译模版
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
财务内部审计风险中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 译文： 浅析内部审计风险的成因及解决途径 摘要 内部审计风险成因包括内部审计机构的独立性不够，内部审计人员的业务不精，内部审计方法的科学性不强，内部审计管理的制度不健全。为了降低内部审计风险，应加强内部审计的法制建设，保证内部审计的独立性，提高内部审计人员的素质，执行科学合理的审计工作程序，正确处理降低风险与经济效益的关系，开
展以风险为导向的风险基础审计。 一、内部审计风险形成的原因 1.内部审计机构的独立性不够内部审计机构是单位内设机构，在单位负责人的领导下开展工作，为单位服务。因此，内部审计的独立性不如社会审计，在审计过程中，不可避免地受本单位的利益制约。内审人员面临的是与单位领导层之间的领导与被领导的关系以及与各科室、部门之间的同事关系，所涉及的人不是领导就是同事，非直接有关也是间接相关， 审计过程及结论然涉及到具体的个人利益，因而审计过程难免受到各类人员干扰。 2.内部审计人员的业务不精审计人员素质的高低是决定审计风险大小的主要因素。审计人员的素质包括从事审计需要的政策法规水平、专业知识、经验、技能、审计职业道德和工作责任。 审计经验是审计人员应有的一种重要技能，审计经验需要实践的积累。我国的内部审计人员中不少人仅熟悉财务会计业务，一些审计人员不了解本单位的经营活动和内部控制，审计经验有限。另外，内部审计人员工作责任和职业道德也是影响审计风险的因素。由于我国内审准则工作规范和职业道德标准方面还有一些空白，许多内审机构和人员缺乏应有的职业规范的约束和指导。总之，目前我国内审人员总体素质偏低，直接影响到内审工作开展的深度和广度。面对当今内审对象的复杂和内容的拓展，内审人员势单力簿，这将直接导致审计风险的产生。 3.内部审计方法的科学性不强 我国内审方法是制度基础审计，随着企业内部经营管理环境复杂化，这种审计模式不适应开展内部管理审计的需要，因为它过分依赖于对企业内部管理控制的测试，本身就蕴藏巨大的风险内部审计一般采用统计抽样方法，由于抽样审计本身是以样本的审查结果来推断总体的特征，因此，样本和总体之间必然会形成一定的误差，形成审计的抽样风险。随着信息化程度提高，被审计单位的会计信息资料会越来越多，差错和虚假的会计资料掺杂其中，失察的可能性也随之加大。虽然统计抽样是建立在坚实的数学理论基础之上，但其本身是允许存在一定的审计风险的。同样，大量的分析性审核也会产生相关风险，使审计风险的构成内容更4.内部审计管理的制度不健全
毕业论文外文翻译模板
农村社会养老保险的现状、问题与对策研究社会保障对国家安定和经济发展具有重要作用，“城乡二元经济”现象日益凸现，农村社会保障问题客观上成为社会保障体系中极为重要的部分。建立和完善农村社会保障制度关系到农村乃至整个社会的经济发展，并且对我国和谐社会的构建至关重要。我国农村社会保障制度尚不完善，因此有必要加强对农村独立社会保障制度的构建，尤其对农村养老制度的改革，建立健全我国社会保障体系。从户籍制度上看，我国居民养老问题可分为城市居民养老和农村居民养老两部分。对于城市居民我国政府已有比较充足的政策与资金投人，使他们在物质和精神方面都能得到较好地照顾，基本实现了社会化养老。而农村居民的养老问题却日益突出，成为摆在我国政府面前的一个紧迫而又棘手的问题。 一、我国农村社会养老保险的现状 关于农村养老，许多地区还没有建立农村社会养老体系，已建立的地区也存在很多缺陷，运行中出现了很多问题，所以完善农村社会养老保险体系的必要性与紧迫性日益体现出来。 （一）人口老龄化加快 随着城市化步伐的加快和农村劳动力的输出，越来越多的农村青壮年人口进入城市，年龄结构出现“两头大，中间小”的局面。中国农村进入老龄社会的步伐日渐加快。第五次人口普查显示：中国65岁以上的人中农村为5938万，占老龄总人口的67.4%.在这种严峻的现实面前，农村社会养老保险的徘徊显得极其不协调。 （二）农村社会养老保险覆盖面太小 中国拥有世界上数量最多的老年人口，且大多在农村。据统计，未纳入社会保障的农村人口还很多，截止2000年底，全国7400多万农村居民参加了保险，占全部农村居民的11.18%，占成年农村居民的11.59%.另外，据国家统计局统计，我国进城务工者已从改革开放之初的不到200万人增加到2003年的1.14亿人。而基本方案中没有体现出对留在农村的农民和进城务工的农民给予区别对待。进城务工的农民既没被纳入到农村养老保险体系中，也没被纳入到城市养老保险体系中，处于法律保护的空白地带。所以很有必要考虑这个特殊群体的养老保险问题。
会计职业道德的外文翻译学习资料
Under the financial crisis to rebuilding accounting occupation ethics question research literature review 徐珊珊 The financial crisis has become an indisputable fact, accounting occupation morals got be pounded badly, be placed in jeopardy of accounting integrity. The accounting personnel in the country, social interests and the interests of individual units, conflicts of interest, not the interests of the temptation of forgery, alteration in accounting information or collusion, lost the basic concept of legal system, in order to meet their own selfish desires and make the non moral behavior, these are serious impact on accounting occupation and the accounting information reliability. Therefore we must strengthen the accounting occupation morals construction, establish and perfect the accounting, auditing and relevant law laws and regulations, strengthen the audit organization and the supervision of public opinion, to strengthen the accountant occupation morals education and continuing education. The financial crisis, it is to point to a country or several countries and regions all or most of the financial indicators, sharp, and ultra-short-cycle deterioration. The accounting occupation morals is the accounting occupation activities that should be followed, reflect accountant occupation characteristics of occupation code of conduct and norms. The financial crisis as catalyst, which have been faced with the serious challenge of accounting occupation morals bottom line faced collapse, especially small and medium-sized enterprises in China faces sharp decline in the volume of trade and capital shortage of the double pressure, serious influence to the environment for the survival and development of small and medium-sized enterprises. The outbreak of the financial crisis that causes, causes the enterprise market risks increase, contradiction of supply and demand increasingly outstanding, market atrophy caused by poor liquidity, appeared the phenomenon of serious run
大学毕业论文---软件专业外文文献中英文翻译
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the