胡壮麟 语言学教程修订版 课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (6)

Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind

6.1 Introduction

1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense.

2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by

operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.

3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension,

production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written).

4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of

linguistic structures.

5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language.

Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.

On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.

6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with

making inferences about the content of the human mind.

7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned

with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.

6.1.1 Evidence

1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main

source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies.

2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children

on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other.

The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in

some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components

might be independent of others.

6.1.2 Current issues

1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into

separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and

operating independently of others.

2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition

begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial

sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as

more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written

materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word

recognition. One obvious prediction of this model is that if the beginning

sound or letter is missing, recognition will be much more difficult, perhaps

even impossible. For example: Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim;

an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream; See Mable----seem able;

well fare----welfare; lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight;

Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn

3. Psychological reality: The reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account of

structures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussion

of the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, and

internal consistency.

4. The three major strands of psycholinguistic research:

(1) Comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language, and

how do they understand what they hear or read?

(2) Production: How do they produce messages that others can understand in

turn?

(3) Acquisition: How language is represented in the mind and how language

is acquired?

6.2 Language comprehension

6.2.1 Word recognition

1. An initial step in understanding any message is the recognition of words.

2. One of the most important factors that effects word recognition is how

frequently the word is used in a given context.

3. Frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed

due to its more frequent usage in the language.

4. Recency effect: describe the additional ease with which a word is accessed

due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.

5. Another factor that is involved in word recognition is Context.

6. Semantic association network represents the relationships between various

semantically related words. Word recognition is thought to be faster when

other members of the association network are provided in the discourse.

6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity

1. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g.

that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others,

stable tennis bat.

2. There are two main theories:

(1) All the meanings associated with the word are accessed, and

(2) only one meaning is accessed initially. e.g.

a. After taking the right turn at the intersection….

“right” is ambiguous: correct vs. rightward

b. After taking the left turn at the intersection…

“left” is unambiguous

6.2.3 Syntactic processing

1. Once a word has been dentified , it is used to construct a syntactic structure.

2. As always, there are cinokucatuibs due to the ambiguity of individual words

and to the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases.

Sometimes there is no way to determine which structure and meaning a

sentence has.

e.g. The cop saw the spy with the binoculars. “with the binoculars” is

ambiguity

(1) the cop employed binoculars in order to see the spy.

(2) it specifies “the spy has binoculars.”

3. Some ambiguities are due to the ambiguous category of some of the words in

the sentence.

e.g. the desert trains, trains (培训；列车)

the desert trains man to be hardly. 沙漠使人坚韧。

The desert trains seldom run on time.沙漠列车从不准时。

4. One interesting phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences is

called the “garden path.” Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially

interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes

quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice

turns out to be incorrect. Sometimes people never figure it out. They have

been “led up the garden path”, fooled into thinking the sentence has a

different structure than it has. Reduced relative clauses quite frequently cause

this feeling of having been garden-pathed.

e.g. “The horse raced past the barn fell.” means “the horse that was raced past

the barn fell.”

5. the minimal attachment theory: It would be inefficient for people to assume

all these infinite structures until they get some positive evidence for one of

them. And if they arbitrarily choice one of the possibilities, they are most

likely to choose the simplest. The idea is that people initially construct the

simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure

of sentences. This is called the minimal attachment theory.

6.2.4 Semantics and sentence memory

1. Assimilation theory: Assimilation theory refers to language (sound, word,

syntax, etc.) change or process by which features of one element change to

match those of another that precedes or follows.

2. Context effect: Context effect helps people recognize a word more readily

when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.

3. Inference in context: Inference in context refers to any conclusion drawn from

a set of propositions, from something someone has said, and so on. It includes

things that, while not following logically, are implied in an ordinary sense.

6.2.5 Basic processes in reading

1. Perceptual span: The perceptual span is the range of letters from which useful

information is extracted. The perceptual span varies depending on factors

such as the size of the print, the complexity of the text, and so on. It is

typically the case, however, that the perceptual span encompasses about three

or four letters to the left of fixation and some fifteen letters to the right of

fixation.

2. The immediacy assumption: The reader is supposed to carry out the processes

required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the

sentence as soon as that word is encountered.

6.3 Discourse / text interpretations

1. General context effects: General context effects occur when our general knowledge

about the world influences language comprehension.

2. Specific context effects: Specific context effects involve information obtained from

earlier parts of a discourse.

6.3.1 Schemata and inference drawing

1. Schemata refers to packets of stored knowledge. Its features are as follows:

(1) Schemata can vary considerably in the information they contain, from

the very simple to the very complex.

(2) Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically; e.g. in addition to a

rather general restaurant schema or script, we probably also have more

specific restaurant schemata for different kinds of restaurant (e.g.

fast-food places, up-market French restaurant, and so on.)

(3) Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptually driven way to facilitate

interpretation of environmental stimuli.

2. The inferences which people draw are stored in long-term memory along with

information about the sentences actually presented. As a result, they will

sometimes mistakenly believe on a subsequent memory test that they

previously heard or saw an inference.

6.3.2 Story structure

1. Story structure refers to the way in which various parts of story are arranged

or organized.

2. A macroproposition refers to the general proposition used to form an overall

macrostructure of the story.

6.4 Language production

6.4.1 Speech production

1. Five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence:

(1) The massage-level representation: this is an abstract, pre-linguistic

representation of the idea or ideas that the speaker wants to

communicate.

(2) The functional-level representation: this is an outline of the proposed

utterance having grammatical structure; in other words, the slots for

nouns, adjectives, and so on are allocated, but there are no actual words

to fill the slots.

(3) The positional-level representation: this differs from the functional level

representation in that it incorporates the words of the sentence that is to

be produced.

(4) The phonetic-level representation: this indicates some of the necessary

information about the ways in which words in the intended sentences are

pronounced.

(5) The articulatory-level representation: this is the final representation, and

contains a set of instructions for articulating the words in the sentence in

the correct order.

2. Spoonerism / slip of the tongue: Spoonerism refers to the fact that the initial

letter or letters of two words are transposed.

3. Anticipation error: An anticipation error occurs when a word is spoken earlier

in the sentence than it should be. E.g. the sentence “The school is at school.”

is wrong. The correct form should be “The boy is at school.”

4. Exchange error: An exchange error refers to the fact that two items within a

sentence are swapped. E.g. the sentence “This is the happiest life of my day.”

is wrong. The correct form should be “This is the happiest day of my life.”

5. Morpheme-exchange error: A morpheme-exchange error refers to the fact that

the roots or basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammatical

structure unchanged. E.g. the sentence “He has already trunked two packs.” is

wrong. The correct form should be “He has already packed two trunks.”

6.4.2 Written language

1. Writing process: According to Hayes and Flower (1986), writing consists of

three interrelated processes:

(1) The planning process, which involves producing ideas and arranging

them into a writing plan appropriate to the writer’s goals.

(2) The sentence generation process, which translates the writing plan into

actual sentences that can be written down.

(3) The revision process, which involves an evaluation of what has been

written so far; this evaluation can encompass individual words at one

extreme or the overall structure of the writing at the other extreme.

2. The strategic knowledge and the knowledge-telling theory

The strategic knowledge is knowledge of the methods used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherent and well-organized. The knowledge-telling strategy means that children simply write down everything they can think of that is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way, because they often lack the strategic knowledge.

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)

Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5. Main branches of linguistics ?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. ?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. ?Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. ?Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. ?Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of words as lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it. ?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured. 6.Important distinctions in linguistics 1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons 2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure 4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence 7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(第二语言和外语教学)【圣才出品】

第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the

胡壮麟 语言学教程修订版 课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (6)

Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 6.1 Introduction 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions. 6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind. 7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word. 6.1.1 Evidence 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 6.1.2 Current issues 1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word

胡壮麟语言学教程第二章专业术语解释

2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出 排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音 10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are

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