十二、Chapter Twelve Models of InstructionalDesign

Chapter Twelve Models of Instructional Design

Section A ID Models and Their Basic Features

ID models can be used in many settings and to varying degrees. Individual instructors creating their own traditional classroom material can benefit from consciously using an ID model. It speeds up the course planning process, helps internal communication (just transferring goals and objectives from thoughts to paper clarifies them and focuses design efforts), and insures that no phase of instructional design will be forgotten or shortchanged.

教学设计模型可以在不同的场合下，以不同的方式使用。那些为传统的教室授课制作教学材料的教师，若有意识地使用教学设计模型，将从中获益不少。它能使课程计划的进程加快，帮助内部交流（将对教学目标的设想从思想转移到纸上——阐明目标，使教师关注设计过程），确保不遗忘或缩减教学设计的每个阶段。

An ID model can also be used to evaluate existing instruction. Use the model to assess a short lesson, workshop, or textbook chapter. Try to match the objectives of the instruction to the content and/or the evaluation.

一个教学设计模型可以用来评价当前的教学。如使用模型评价一小节课，一段讨论或教材的一章。尝试将教学目标与教学内容/或教学评价相匹配。

An ID model can also be a good tool for general planning. Try adapting it for planning your next vacation. Before you look at your budget or get into the content plans (i.e. location, reservations, etc.), ask your travel partner to write on paper the one overarching goal they have for this vacation: what does he or she want to get out of it? You do the same, exchange goals with your partner, and discuss. Then start planning the content of the vacation while keeping the goals in mind. You might be surprised at the results!

教学设计模型也是做普通计划的一个好工具。尝试用它来计划你的下一个假期。在进行资金预算或开始考虑计划的具体内容（如目的地、预定旅馆房间等）之前，问一下你的旅伴对这次度假是否有特别的目标，并要求他们写在纸上：他或她想从中获得什么？你也一样做，并与他们交换目标，相互讨论。然后，记住这些目标，再开始做详细的度假计划。你可能会对计划的结果感到惊奇！

Instructional design models can help both individuals and design teams work through the process of planning instruction. Consciously working back and forth through the steps of an ID model will add speed and clarity and insure that key instructional principles are addressed. Instructional design models can also be used to assess existing educational material and help in everyday planning.

教学设计模型不仅对教学者个人有帮助，而且在做教学计划的过程中，也对设计小组协作活动有帮助。有意识地按照教学设计模型的步骤反复工作，将加快教学计划的速度和清晰度，保证关键的教学原则都被用到。教学设计模型也能用来评价现有的教学材料，对每天的计划都有益处。

Today there are many ID models. All of them shall some basic features:

当前有许多教学设计模型。它们都具有以下几个基本特征：

(1)Needs assessment;

(2)Goal and objective identification;

(3)Audience and setting analysis;

(4)Content and delivery development;

(5)Evaluation and redesign.

（1）需求评估；

（2）目标识别；

（3）受众和环境分析；

（4）内容设计和传送系统开发；

（5）评价和修正。

Section B A Taxonomy of ID Models

A taxonomy of ID models can help clarify the underlying assumptions of each model, and help identify the conditions under which each might be most appropriately applied. The taxonomy has three categories indicating whether the model is best applied for developing: individual classroom instructional；products for implementation by users each other than the developers; or large and complex instructional systems directed at an organization’s problems or goals.

教学设计模型的分类有助于我们澄清每个模型的基本假设，并能帮助识别每个模型最适合的应用条件。该分类把教学设计模型分为了三类，说明模型是否被最好地用来开发教学：个别课堂教学；用户而不是开发者互相实施的产品；针对一个组织的问题或目标的大型复杂的教学系统。

1.Classroom Orientation ID Models: Classroom ID models are of interest primarily to professional teachers who accept as a given rule that their role is to teach, and that their students require some form of instruction. Teaching personnel usually views an ID model as a general road map to follow. Typically, a classroom ID model outlines only a few functions, and simply provides a guide for the teacher. The developer who works with teachers would do well to employ any ID model with caution because teachers are not likely to be familiar with the concepts or processes of systematic instructional development.

1．以课堂为中心的教学设计模型：课堂教学设计模型的兴趣主要是专业教师，教师把模型作为一个给定的规则，他们的角色是教，学生需要一些形式的教学活动。教学人员通常把教学设计模型作为一个通用的路线图来遵循。通常，一个课堂教学设计模型只列出了有少数功能，只简单地位老师提供了一个指导。因为教师不可能熟悉系统教学开发的概念或过程，和教师一起工作的雇佣的开发人员使用任何教学设计模型都将做的很好。

2.Product Orientation ID Models: Product development models typically assume that the amount of product to be developed will be several hours, or perhaps several days, in length. The amount of front-end analysis for product oriented models may vary widely, but it is uaually assumed that a technically sophisticated product will be produced. Users may have no contact with the developers. Product development models are characterized by four key features: 2．以产品为中心的教学设计模型：产品开发模型通常假定有待开发的产品数量的长度是几个小时或几天。为基于产品的模型进行的前端分析的数量可能变化很大，但同厂假定一个技术先进的产品将被生产。用户可能没有与开放商联系。产品开发模型的特点有四个：

(1)Assumption that an instructional product is needed.

（1）假定教学产品是被需要的。

(2)Assumption that something needs to be produced, rather than selected or modified from existing materials.

（2）假定某些东西需要生产，而不是从现有的材料中选择或修改。

(3)Considerable emphasis is placed on tryout and revision.

（3）考虑的重点放在试验和修订。

(4)Assumption that the product must be usable by a variety of managers of instruction.

（4）假定产品对多种教学管理人员是有用的。

3.System Orientation ID Models: System oriented ID models typically assume that a large amount of instruction, such as an entire course or entire curriculum ,will be developed, and that substantial resources will be made available to a team of highly trained developers. System oriented ID models usually begin with a data collection phase to determine the feasibility and desirability of developing an instructional solution to a “problem”. Systems models, as a class, differ from product development models in the amount of emphasis placed on analysis of the larger environment before committing to development. Systems models also typically assume a larger scope of effort than product development models.

3．以系统为中心的教学设计模型：基于系统的教学设计模型通常假定大量的教学（比如整个课程）将被开发，大量的资源将提供给一个训练有素的开发团队。基于系统的教学设计模型通常开始于数据收集阶段，这个阶段决定开发一个问题的教学解决方案的可行性和可取性。作为一个等级，系统模型不同于产品开发模型，产品开发模型的重点放在开发之前的拉的环境分析上。系统模型通常还承担了比产品开发模式更大范围的成果。

Section C An Introduction to Instructional Design Models

Gerlach and Ely Design Model

格拉奇——伊利模型

The Gerlach and Ely Model emphasizes the simultaneous identification of content and objectives prior to assessing any student behaviors.”[Gerlach and Ely] recognize that many teachers first think about instruction from the standpoint of content.”(Gustafson,1991) Teac hers are often expected to design instruction to meet a specific assigned curriculum and use existing materials.

The design and development of the instruction are completed together as an ongoing process; the steps are not necessarily progressive. Evaluation of performance enables the instructor to assess whether the instruction was successful and if the learning objectives were met. Finally the analysis of feedback alllows the designer (often the teacher) to make any necessary changes to the design.

There is some discussion as to whether the model is more appropriate for novice or more experienced designers. Novice model can allow teachers (K-12) to use materials already in existence and not truly allowing for “change” within the system. However as an expert model, it is used within a specific context and allows for selecting and including media within instruction, when the content and/or other materials are provided. This approach suggests that the selection process is intense and requires expert knowledge of the needs of the students.

Kemp Model

肯普模型

The Kemp Model is circular and the elements are not connected to one another.”Connections would indicate a sequential, linear order. The intent is to convey flexibility yet some order in the way the nine elements may be used.（其目的是传达九个要素使用顺序的灵活性）Also, some instances may not require treating all nine elements. For example, in some programs evaluation instruments may not be necessary.”(K emp, Morrison, and Ross, 1999) The Kemp Model permits the designer to examine all aspects of the instruction at the same time, thus allowing him/her to see the effects of changes in a particular area. “Decisions relating to one [area] may affect others.As instructional objectives are stated, items of subject content may be added or reordered.” (Kemp,Morrison, and Ross,1999)

Although the model indicates that one may start anywhere, convention suggests that one start in the “Instructional Problems” circle and move clockwise allowing for constant revision.However, a designer may choose to start at the point that is most practical to meet the goals of the project.

Dick and Carey Model

The Dick and Carey Model is one of the most popular instructional design models .It is systematic method of designing instruction noting that every component is crucial to successful student learning (Dick and Carey,1996) The process begins with what Dick and Carey (1996) refer to as the most critical event in the instructional design process which is identifying the instructional goal. “If done improperly, even elegant instruction analysis where the main purpose (p. 15).” The process moves through to conducting instructional analysis where the main purpose is to identify all the skills and knowledge that should be included in the instruction (p.33),then the designer may determine the entry characteristics of the learners and the context in which the instruction will be delivered(p.89),the designer is now ready to write performance objectives.

Performance objectives or the more popularized term behavioral objectives are probably one of the best-known components of instructional design. ” A performance objective is a detailed description of what students will be able to do when they complete a unit of instruction (p.199).” The next step in the Dick and Carey process is to develop the criterion-referenced test items.” A criterion-referenced assessment is composed of items that directly measure the behaviors described in a given set of behavioral objectives (p.142).” The designer can make decisions [about the use of activities], it is necessary to develop a macro-strategy, i.e., a total strategy for introducing learners to a topic through mastery of the objectives (p.177).

Finally it is time for the designer to actually design the materials to be used during the instruction; it may be prudent to include the instructor in this phase of development. The design of materials is followed by a number of formative assessments to help the designer “fine tune” the instruction and then the instruction is ready to use. The model indices that it is important to follow up the instruction implementation whit a summative evaluation as well. Notice the revision line that follows the whole process, Dick and Carey believe it’s important to constantly update and improve instructions based on feedback from the learners.

ADDIE Model

The ADDIE Model is a generic and simplified instructional system design (ISD) model. ADDIE is short for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate.

In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the goals and objectives are established, and the instructional strategies are designed and media choices are made. In the development phase includes the testing of prototypes (with targeted audience), putting the product in full production, and training learners and instructors on how to use the product. The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative ane summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage. Summative evaluation consists of tests for criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from users.

The Assure Model

You can think of the teaching-learning process as progressing through several stages. Gagné (1985)refers to these stages as “events of instruction”. Gagné’s research revealed that well-designed lessons begin with the arousal of students’interest and then move on to present new material, involve students in practice with feedback, assess their understanding ,and go on to follow-up activities. The Assure Model incorporates these events of instruction.

The Assure Model-a procedural guide for planning and conducting instruction that incorporates media-assumes that training or instruction is required. A full-blown process of instructional development would begin with a needs assessment to determine whether instruction is the appropriate solution to a performance problem.

The Assure Model focuses on planning surrounding the actual classroom use of media. It is less ambitious than modals of instructional development, which are intended to guide the entire process of designing instructional systems. Such models include the procedures of the ASSURE Model and the processes of needs analysis, subject matter analysis, product design, prototype tryout, system implementation, and the like. These large-scale instructional development procedures typically involve teams of specialists and require major commitments of time and money. The ASSURE Model, on the other hand, is meant for use by the individual instructor in planning classroom use of media and technology.

Analyze Learners

The first step in planning is to identify the learners. You must know your students to select the best media to meet the objectives. The audience can be analyzed in terms of (1) General Characteristics, (2) Specific Entry Competencies (knowledge, skills, and attitudes about the topic), and (3) Learning Style.

State Objectives

The next step is to state the objectives as specifically as possible. The objectives may be derived from a course syllabus, stated in a text book, taken from a curriculum guide, or developed by the instructor. They should be stated in terms of what the learner will be able to do as a result of instruction. The conditions under which the students or trainee is going to perform and the degree of acceptable performance should be included.

Select Methods, Media, and Materials

Once you have identified you audience and stated you objectives, you have established the beginning points (audience’s present knowledge, skills, and attitudes) and ending points (objectives) of instruction. Your ta sk now is to build a bridge between these two points by choosing appropriate methods, technologies, and media formats, then deciding on materials to implement these choices.

Utilize Media and Materials

Having either selected, modified, or designed your materials, then you must plan how the media, materials, and technologies will be used to implement your methods. First, preview the materials and practice the implementation. Next, prepare the class and make the necessary equipment and facilities ready. Then conduct the instruction using the utilization techniques.

Require Learner Participation

To be effective, instruction should require active mental engagement by learners. There should be activities that allow learners to practice the knowledge or skills and to receive feedback on the appropriateness of the efforts before being formally assessed.

Evaluate and Revise

After instruction, it is necessary to evaluate its impact and effectiveness and to assess students learning. To get the total picture, you must evaluate the entire instructional process.

Whenever there are discrepancy between what you intended and what you attained, you will want to revise the plan for the next time.

Section D The First and Second Generation Instructional Design

Limitations of the First Generation Instructional Design (ID1)

第一代教学设计的局限（ID1）

While there is a remarkable similarity in their prescriptions, the First Generation Instructional Design shares a number of limitations:

虽然第一代教学设计在规定上极为相似，但它们有共同的局限：

Limitation 1:ID1 content analysis does not use integrated wholes which are essential for understanding complex and dynamic phenomena.

Limitation 2:ID1 has limited prescriptions for knowledge acquisition.

Limitation 3:ID1 has limited prescriptions for course organization.

Limitation 4:ID1 theories are essentially closed systems.

Limitation 5:ID1 fails to integrate the phases of instructional development.

Limitation 6:ID1 teaches pieces but not integrated wholes.

Limitation 7:ID1 instruction is often passive rather than interactive.

Limitation 8: Every ID1 presentation must be constructed from small components.

Limitation 9:ID1 is labor intensive.

局限1：ID1的内容分析未利用集成化的整体，而这对于理解复杂、动态的现象是基本的。

局限2：ID1在知识获取上缺乏举措。

局限3：ID1对于课程组织策略即为有限。

局限4：ID1的理论基本是封闭的系统。

局限5：ID1无法将教学开发的各个阶段整合起来。

局限6：ID1所教受的是零散的碎片，而不是集成化的整体。

局限7：ID1教学通常是被动的，而非交互性的。

局限8：ID1中的每个呈示都必须从微小的成分中建构起来。

局限9：ID1是劳动密集型的。

The Second Generation Instructional Design

第二代教学设计

If interactive instructional technologies are to provide a significant part of the increasing amount of education and training demanded by society, then there is a critical need for significantly improved methodology and tools to guide the

design and development of high quality interactive technology based instructional materials. There is a need for the second generation instructional design (ID2).

如果说交互式教学技术是为了对社会所需要的日益增长的教育和培训活动提供很重要的组成要素，那么，它就对有重大改进的方法论和工具有迫切需求，以指导高质量的基于交互技术的教学材料的设计和开发。因此产生了第二代教学设计（ID2）。

ID2 will build on the foundation of ID1, but will address the shortcomings noted above. Specifically, ID2 will ID2建立在ID1的基础之上，并针对其上述局限性发展而来。特别地，ID2将

(1)Be capable of analyzing, representing, and guiding instruction to teach integrated sets of knowledge and skills.

（1）有助于分析、描述和引导教学区教授一些集成化的知识和技能集合。

(2)Be capable of producing pedagogic prescriptions for the selection of interactive instructional strategies and the selection and sequencing of instructional transition sets.

（2）有助于产生一些教育处方，利用这些处方可以选择交互式教学策略，对教学事务集进行选择和排序。

(3)Be an open system; be able to incorporate new knowledge about teaching and learning and to apply these in the design process.

（3）是一个开放的系统，能够整合一些新的教与学的知识，并把它们运用于设计过程中。

(4) Integrate the phases of instructional development.

（4）能够整合教学开发的各个阶段。

ID2 will comprise the following components:

ID2的研究框架大致包含如下几部分内容：

(1)A theoretical base that organizes knowledge about instructional design and defines a methodology for performing instructional design.

（1）理论库能够组织关于教学设计的知识并确定执行教学设计的方法。

(2)A knowledge base for representing domain knowledge for the purposes of making instructional design.

（2）知识库：提供有关领域的知识，旨在做出教学决策。

(3)A series of intelligent computer-based design tools for knowledge acquisitions/analysis, strategy analysis and transaction generation/configuration.

（3）一些列智能化计算机辅助设计工具：用于知识获取/分析、策略分析、事务形成/构造。

(4)A collection of mini-experts, each contribution a small knowledge base relevant to a particular instructional design decision or a set of such decisions.

（4）一些小型专家系统的集合体：其中每个小型专家系统都能为特定的教学设计决策（集）提供一个小的知识库。

(5)A library of instructional truncations for the delivery of instruction, and the capacity to add new or existing transactions to the library.

（5）教学事务库：用来传递教学，它具有把新的或已存在的事务添加到事务库中的能力。

(6)An on-line intelligent advisor program that dynamically customizes the instruction during delivery based on a mixed-initiative dialog whit the student.

（6）在线智能指导方案：可以根据与学生进行的混合型初始对话，在传播过程中能动地制定教学策略。

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商务英语单词

Nostalgic 怀旧的 desirable 称心的 updated 更新 cross-referenced 相互参考 package 把整体推出 Light 口味清淡 strips 切成条 pullet 老母鸡 lightly steamed 清蒸 bake 烘烤 Garnish v.加调料leeks 韭菜 snow pears 雪梨 fluffy 蓬松的 a tad of 微量 sour cream 酸奶油 yoghurt酸乳酪 carbonated 碳酸 Dessert 甜点 specialty 特产 soak 浸泡 sticky sauce 黏糊糊的调味汁 fattening 使人发胖的 Mousse 奶油冻 egg yolk蛋黄 Reserve /book/order 预定to make a reservation 预定 suite 套间 home address 家庭住址 The registration number of your car 车的注册号码 bell hop 客房服务员 see to 负责 (Refusing claims 搭配动词 reject/decline /turn down) Survey Report 质检报告 Survey Report on Quality 品质鉴定证明 Survey Report on Weight重量鉴定证明 (China Commodity Inspection Buteau) CCIB中国商检局

In stock 库存 branch 分部 refund 退款 slip one’s mind 忘记 by telex 电传 unload卸货Slip-up 疏忽 shipping 海运 department储运部 stock position 库存 packaging 包装Color negatives彩色底片 outtray 发文架 Consignment 货物 warehouse 仓库 sort out 解决 batch 一批defective 次品 switch on 接通 Track down 查明circuit boards电路板 isolate 隔离、分离 localized problem 局部问题 quality control 质检 Quality Assurance programme 质保程序 rectify 纠正、改正 terminate停止、结束 Hire 租用 jam 使...卡住 install 安装 fix 修理 re-negotiate重新谈判 rental agreement 租赁协议 service agreement 服务契约 Order 定单 price list 价目表 quotation 报价 irrevocable L/C不可撤销信用证sight draft 即期汇票 Terms of shipment 运输条款terms of payment 支付条款 shipping marks运输标志Commercial invoice：it is a document describing the commercial transaction between the exporter and importer商业发票是出口商向进口商开立的货物价目清单，记载有货物名称、数量、价格等内容。