机械外文资料翻译--浅谈基于现代工业设计理念的机床设计

外文资料翻译译文

浅谈基于现代工业设计理念的机床设计

摘要

由于国内、外机械行业的激烈竞争,对机床设计提出了更高的要求。现代工业设计理念的引入,对提高机床设计和加强企业的竞争性起着重要的作用。本文以数控机床为例,分析了该产品设计的现状,用现代工业设计理念来诠释机床设计。在产品绿色设计、人性化设计、语意设计和品牌建设方面做了重点分析和论证。

关键词:现代工业设计理念; 产品设计; 数控机床

1.机床设计的现状,以数控机床为例

随着电子信息技术的发展,世界机床业已进入了以数字化制造技术为核心的机电一体化时代,其中数控机床就是代表产品之一。数控机床是制造业的加工母机和国民经济的重要基础。它为国民经济各个部门提供装备和手段,具有无限放大的经济与社会效应。目前,欧、美、日等工业化国家已先后完成了数控机床产业化进程,而中国从20世纪80年代开始起步,仍处于发展阶段。

1.1 对工业设计的重要性认识不足

工业设计是工业革命的产物,是科学技术和文化艺术多学科交叉的新兴学科,其核心任务是产品造型设计。对工业设计的重要性认识的不足,最直接的反映就是产品造型粗放,缺少设计感;色彩单调,缺乏时代性;使用界面混乱,缺乏人文关怀。中国的机床设计在生产和制造上完全不输给国外的企业,缺少的就是工业设计的意识。就市场而言,在功能、性能、质量、技术水平差不多的情况下,产品的造型,色彩,使用的界面的人性化设计就显得越来越重要,甚至直接决定产品的销售量。英国工业设计委员会1998-1999年度对英国企业的工业设计投入与市场收益作比较,该年度采用工业设计的企业,销售额平均增长43%;而未采用工业设计的企业,销售额平均仅增长15%,企业对设计的前期投资,平均在15个月内即口收回,有90%的(工业设计)项目都获得了商业上的成功。这表明:设计对于企业的意义不只是产品表面上的好看,好用,而是实实在在的商业利益。

1.2 数控机床的工业设计缺少品牌意识

缺少品牌的意识,基本上是所有行业的通病,尤其是中小企业,由于大环境的原因,中小企业在品牌化的过程中存在着很多客观的原因,但不管情况怎么样,品牌化是一个必经之路。1992 年,邓小平在南巡讲话中鼓励中国企业:“我们应该有自己的拳头产品,拥有中国自己的品牌;否则就要受人欺负”。数控机床生产企业也是一样,多数的企业还是缺乏这方面的意识。具体表现在:

1.2.1 产品的工业设计缺乏企业策略性的考量

重视工业设计的多数企业把产品的工业设计只局限在单纯的造型设计上,而不是把设计纳入“设计-开发-生产制造、宣传销售-售后服务”这样一个系统当中。

1.2.2系列产品造型设计缺乏品牌连贯性

系列产品造型的品牌连贯性体现在两个方面:一个是指系列内产品。另一个指的是系列间的产品。他们构成系列间产品。品牌的连贯性要求在对产品进行造型设计时既要有共同的识别特征,同时,每个产品之间造型上又要有所差别。即要做到“和而不同”。

2现代工业设计理念的引入与应用

2.1 现代设计理念的引入

现代设计理念主要指绿色设计、人性化设计、产品语意的设计和产品的系统设计等。在设计上,这些主要设计理念与之相对应分别体现在:在环境方面,要体现对环境的关注;在人使用方面,要体现对人的关怀;在产品语意方面,要体现当地的文化特色;在品牌经营层面,要关注产品内在的品质,使得设计成为品牌营销的有效手段。

2.2 现代设计理念的应用

现代设计理念在机床产品设计中的运用主要有以下几个方面.

2.2.1 绿色设计

绿色设计源于人们对现代技术文化所引起的环境及生态的破坏的反思。对于工业设计来

说,3R原则是绿色设计的核心。所谓的3R是指:Reduce、Recycle和Reuse。绿色设计要求考虑

产品在生命周期内的每一个环节:从产品的创意构思到制造、运输,从产品被消费者使用到最后

产品的回收。确保每一个环节对环境的影响最小。

对于机床产品来说,绿色设计最主要最常见的体现在一下两个方面:

1)可拆卸性设计

可拆卸性设计是一种使产品容易拆卸并能从材料回收和零件重新使用中获得最高利润的设

计方法,是绿色产品设计的主要内容之一。例如,在机床设计中可以用螺纹联接来代替焊接和铆

接等。螺纹联接不仅易于拆装而且联结可靠,即具有重复使用的特点。为了减少零件数量,还可

使用螺钉集成结构来代替普通螺钉和垫片、防松垫圈等。可拆卸性设计原则:一是减少拆卸的工

作量;二是易于拆卸、分离;三是多用标准件。

2)可回收性设计

可回收性设计也是绿色设计的主要内容之一,就是在产品设计初期时考虑其零件回收及再利用的可能性,即在其它新产品中可以利用使用过的或废弃产品中的零部件及材料。

2.2.2 以人为本,注重人性化设计

人性化设计,就是要设计以人为本。他是针对功能主义设计思想的缺陷,提出设计不应该以机器的功能为出发点,而应该把人作为设计的出发点。以人对产品的使用为基础,使机器能够很好的为人服务。随着技术的发展,社会的进步,人们对产品的人性化要求也越来越高,尤其是一些关乎人们使用安全的设计—诸如机床产品的设计—在这个方面的要求更高。

以人为本,注重人性化有两个概念:一是符合人的尺度;二是要有很好的操作界面。符合人的尺度,要求在农机产品设计过程当中,可以运用人机工程学的所提供的数据,对操作的空间大小,操作台面的高低等等进行综合考量。比如设计数控机床的操作空间时,就要根据人在操作时动态关系来确定空间的大小合理与否。第二,良好的操作界面,可以使操作起来更加的方便、快捷、安全可靠。

2.2.3 要兼顾文化特色

产品语意学告诉我们,产品不仅仅有他的物质功能之外,还体现了一定的文化特征。机床的造型设计犹如给新娘做嫁衣,新娘的嫁衣不仅可以使新娘子漂亮起来,而且最能体现民族特征和深厚的文化内涵。在追求机床的科学价值的同时追求艺术和文化价值,甚至将民族的个性特征融入其中。机床造型体现一个国家、一个行业的形象和设计水平。机床造型风格的形成受两方面因素的影响。一是与当时的科技水平有关,二是离不开当时的时尚风格。要想实现其科学价值与艺术文化价值的融合,文化元素的如何应用显得尤为重要。

2.2.4 产品造型的品牌特性的维持

产品系统设计理论告诉我们,设计不再是一个单纯的造型活动,而应该把设计纳入到生产制造、宣传、使用到最后产品废弃回收这一大的循环过程当中,是品牌经营的一个手段。很多企业忽视了这一点。比如,很多市场上的农机产品,如果撕去上面的标签,你无法确定它是哪个厂商生产的,造型上缺少品牌的独特性,因此,在产品造型设计时要注意的问题是:产品的造型能否体现品牌的特性。要体现品牌的特性要注意两点:一点是要注重产品整体要素的统一。即是要求农机产品在形态、色彩、材料、细节方面的选择要有利于企业形象的识别;第二点是系列产品品牌形象要保持统一。此外,这还是个长期的工程,需要我们持之以恒的努力.

3 结束语

过去的30年机床设计的发展取了一定的成绩,值得肯定。自从加入WTO以后,中国的农机企

业将面临多方的压力,其中最主要的压力是来自国外的企业。新的环境,需要新的设计理念。著名科学家杨振宁指出:“21世纪将是工业设计的世纪,一个不重视工业设计的国家将是落伍者”。对于国家而言是这样,对于机床设计工业而言也是同样的道理。

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外文原文

Based on the concept of modern industrial design of the

machine tool design

ABSTRACT

As domestic and foreign machinery industry, intense competition, a higher machine tool design requirements. The introduction of modern industrial design, to improve machine design and enhance the competitiveness of enterprises play an important role. In this paper, numerical control machine tools cases, analysis of the status of the product design, Industrial Design with a modern design to interpretation of machine design. in green design, human design, design and brand building semantic done a focus on analysis and argument.

Keywords:modern industrial design; product design; CNC machine tools

1. The status of machine tool design, CNC machine tools as an

example to

With the Development of electronic information technology, the world has entered the machine to digital manufacturing Technology as the core of the mechanical and electrical integration time, which is representative of one of the products of CNC machine tools. CNC machine tool manufacturing process is an important basis for the master and the national economy. It all sectors of the national economy to provide equipment and tools, with unlimited Economic and social effects of Zoom. At present, Europe, America, Japan and other industrialized countries have completed the process of CNC machine tool industry, and China 80 years from the 20th century started, is still stage of development.

1.1 understand the importance of Industrial Design

Industrial design is a product of the industrial revolution, science and technology, Culture and arts of the emerging interdisciplinary discipline, the core task of product design. Understand the importance of industrial design deficiencies, the most direct form is the product of extensive reflection, the lack of design sense; Color monotone, the lack of the times; use interface confusion and lack of humane care. China's machine tool design and manufacturing in the production is completely lost to foreign enterprises do not lack is the awareness of industrial design. on the market, in features, performance, quality and technical level is almost the case, the

product shape, color, use the human interface design becomes more and more important, or even directly to the product sales. British Industrial Design Council of British companies 1998-1999 investment in industrial design market returns compared with the year of the industrial design business, with sales up 43% on average; without use of industrial design business, sales increased an average of only 15%, business investment in the early stage of the design, average the Population within 15 months to recover, 90% of the (industrial design) project was a commercial success. This shows that: the significance of design for business are not just a superficial good-looking, easy to use, but a real commercial interests.

1.2 The lack of industrial design, CNC machine brand awareness

Lack of brand awareness, a common problem is basically all industries, especially SMEs, due to large environmental reasons, SMEs in the process of branding there are many objective reasons, but no matter how kind of situation, the brand is a must In 1992 after the road, Deng Xiaoping's southern tour in his speech to encourage Chinese enterprises: "We should have our own high-quality products, with China's own brand; Otherwise, they will be bullied." CNC machine tool manufacturers, too, the majority of enterprises or lack of awareness. in particular in:

1.2.1 lack of corporate strategic industrial design considerations

Attention to the majority of enterprises to industrial design products, industrial design is only limited to the simple design, rather than the design into the "design - Development - manufacturing, sales promotion - after-sales service" which such a system.

1.2.2 lack of product design brand consistency

Products shape the brand consistency is reflected in two aspects: one is the series products. Another refers to the series between the products. They constitute a series of intermediate products. Brand consistency required when the product design should not only Identification of common characteristics, while each product but also some differences between the modeling. that is, to do "and different."

2.the introduction of modern industrial design and Application of

2.1 The introduction of modern design

Mainly refers to the modern design concept of green design, human design, product semantics of system design and product design. In the design, these corresponding to the main design concepts are embodied in: the environment, should reflect concern for the environment; in human use, should reflect on the person's care; in product semantics, we must reflect the cultural heritage; in brand management level, to pay attention to the inherent quality products, making the design as an effective means of brand marketing. Links to free papers Download Center 3.2 Application of modern design

Modern design concept in the Design of machine tools are the following aspects.

2.2.1 green design

Modern green design, Technology and Culture from the people caused by environmental and ecological damage reflection. For industrial designs, 3R principle is the core of green design. The so-called 3R is: Reduce, Recycle and Reuse. Green design into account product life cycle in every aspect: from creative concept to product manufacturing, transportation, from the products used by consumers to the final product recall. to ensure that every aspect of minimal impact on the environment.

For the machine tool products, green design is reflected in most of the most common about two aspects:

1) design for disassembly

Design for disassembly is the product easy to disassemble and recycle materials and components from the re-use design for maximum profit, is the green one of the main elements of product design. For example, the design of the machine can be used instead of screw connection such as welding and riveting. thread connection is not only easy installation and reliable connection, that with repeated use features. In order to reduce the number of parts, but also an integrated structure with screws instead of regular screws and washers, lock washers and so on. disassembly design principles: one is to reduce the workload of demolition; the second is easy to remove, separate; third is multi-standard parts.

2) Design for recycling

Design for recycling is also one of the main elements of green design is to be considered early in product design, recycling and reuse of its components the possibility that other new products can take advantage of used or waste product components and materials .

2.2.2 People-oriented, pay attention to human design

Human design, is to design the people. He is against the functionalist design defects, proposed design should not be the machine's capabilities as a starting point, but rather to people as a design starting point. To the people on the use of the product based on the machine services can be a good man. With technological

development, social progress, the product of human nature that people are increasingly high requirements, especially those relating to the safety of people using the design - such as the design of machine tools - in this area more demanding.

People-oriented, focusing on human nature there are two concepts: First, consistent with human scale; the second is to have a good interface. Meet the human scale, requiring agricultural product design process, can be used provided ergonomics data, the operator of the space, the operating table and so the level of comprehensive consideration. such as the operation of CNC machine tool design space, it is necessary under the dynamic relationship between people in the operation to determine the size of the space is reasonable or not. Second, good interface, can be more convenient to operate, fast, safe and reliable.

2.2.3 To take into account the cultural characteristics

Product Semantics tells us, the product not only has his physical features, but also reflects a certain cultural characteristics. Machine design is like to do the wedding dress the bride, the bride's wedding dress up not only the beautiful bride, and the most to reflect the national characteristics and rich cultural connotations. in the pursuit of scientific value of the machine, while the pursuit of artistic and cultural value, and even personality traits into one of the nation. Machine Tools A nation, an industry's image and design level. Machine Tools formed by the two style factors. First, the level of Technology and then the second is inseparable from the then fashionable style. in order to achieve their scientific value, the integration of Art and cultural values, cultural elements of how to use it is particularly important .

2.2.4 Product Modeling maintain brand identity

Product design theory tells us that design is no longer a simple modeling activities, but should be incorporated into the design to manufacturing, promotion, use the final product of this great cycle of waste recovery process is a means of brand management. Many companies ignore this. For example, many agricultural products on the market, if torn off the label, you can not determine which manufacturers it is, modeling the lack of uniqueness of the brand, so when the product design should be noted The question is: Can the product reflects the brand's characteristic shape. To embody the characteristics of the brand to note two points: that is to focus on elements of the unity of the whole product. that is required in the form of agricultural products, colors, materials, details of the select favorable corporate image recognition; second in a series of unified brand image to maintain. In addition, this is a long-term project, we need sustained efforts.

3.Conclusion

Over the past 30 years, the Development of machine tool design to take a certain amount of achievements worthy of recognition. Since joining the WTO, China's agricultural enterprises will face multiple pressures, the pressure is the most important companies from abroad. A new environment, new design. famous scientist Yang said: "21st century will be the century of industrial design, industrial design, an emphasis on the countries will be the laggards." this is for countries, for the machine design Industry and is also the same reason.

References

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冲压模具技术外文翻译(含外文文献)

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外文翻译

Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the

机械专业毕业论文外文翻译

附录一英文科技文献翻译 英文原文： Experimental investigation of laser surface textured parallel thrust bearings Performance enhancements by laser surface texturing (LST) of parallel-thrust bearings is experimentally investigated. Test results are compared with a theoretical model and good correlation is found over the relevant operating conditions. A compari- son of the performance of unidirectional and bi-directional partial-LST bearings with that of a baseline, untextured bearing is presented showing the bene?ts of LST in terms of increased clearance and reduced friction. KEY WORDS: ?uid ?lm bearings, slider bearings, surface texturing 1. Introduction The classical theory of hydrodynamic lubrication yields linear (Couette) velocity distribution with zero pressure gradients between smooth parallel surfaces under steady-state sliding. This results in an unstable hydrodynamic ?lm that would collapse under any external force acting normal to the surfaces. However, experience shows that stable lubricating ?lms can develop between parallel sliding surfaces, generally because of some mechanism that relaxes one or more of the assumptions of the classical theory. A stable ?uid ?lm with su?cient load-carrying capacity in parallel sliding surfaces can be obtained, for example, with macro or micro surface structure of di?erent types. These include waviness [1] and protruding microasperities [2–4]. A good literature review on the subject can be found in Ref. [5]. More recently, laser surface texturing (LST) [6–8], as well as inlet roughening by longitudinal or transverse grooves [9] were suggested to provide load capacity in parallel sliding. The inlet roughness concept of Tonder [9] is based on ??e?ective clearance‘‘ reduction in the sliding direction and in this respect it is identical to the par- tial-LST concept described in ref. [10] for generating hydrostatic e?ect in high-pressure mechanical seals. Very recently Wang et al. [11] demonstrated experimentally a doubling of the load-carrying capacity for the surface- texture design by reactive ion etching of SiC

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机械设计外文翻译(中英文)

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机械类毕业设计外文翻译

本科毕业论文(设计) 外文翻译 学院：机电工程学院 专业：机械工程及自动化 姓名：高峰 指导教师：李延胜 2011年05 月10日 教育部办公厅 Failure Analysis，Dimensional Determination And

Analysis，Applications Of Cams INTRODUCTION It is absolutely essential that a design engineer know how and why parts fail so that reliable machines that require minimum maintenance can be designed．Sometimes a failure can be serious，such as when a tire blows out on an automobile traveling at high speed．On the other hand，a failure may be no more than a nuisance．An example is the loosening of the radiator hose in an automobile cooling system．The consequence of this latter failure is usually the loss of some radiator coolant，a condition that is readily detected and corrected．The type of load a part absorbs is just as significant as the magnitude．Generally speaking，dynamic loads with direction reversals cause greater difficulty than static loads，and therefore，fatigue strength must be considered．Another concern is whether the material is ductile or brittle．For example，brittle materials are considered to be unacceptable where fatigue is involved． Many people mistakingly interpret the word failure to mean the actual breakage of a part．However，a design engineer must consider a broader understanding of what appreciable deformation occurs．A ductile material，however will deform a large amount prior to rupture．Excessive deformation，without fracture，may cause a machine to fail because the deformed part interferes with a moving second part．Therefore，a part fails(even if it has not physically broken)whenever it no longer fulfills its required function．Sometimes failure may be due to abnormal friction or vibration between two mating parts．Failure also may be due to a phenomenon called creep，which is the plastic flow of a material under load at elevated temperatures．In addition，the actual shape of a part may be responsible for failure．For example，stress concentrations due to sudden changes in contour must be taken into account．Evaluation of stress considerations is especially important when there are dynamic loads with direction reversals and the material is not very ductile． In general，the design engineer must consider all possible modes of failure，which include the following． ——Stress ——Deformation ——Wear ——Corrosion ——Vibration ——Environmental damage ——Loosening of fastening devices

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外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华

外文资料名称： Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处：Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文

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Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with imperfect competition Abstract:This paper examines the resource allocational and welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in a general-equilibrium model with oligopolistic competition and unemployment. Although the welfare impact for the short run is ambiguous and dependent upon the strength of excess profits and scale economies relative to unemployment in manufacturing, in the long run additional inflows of foreign capital always improve national welfare with capital mobility. Hence, attracting foreign capital remains a sound policy for economies characterized by imperfect competition, scale economies,and regional unemployment. Keywords: International capital mobility; Imperfect competition; Welfare 1.Introduction The welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in the presence of trade restrictions have been extensively studied. Brecher and Diaz Alejandro (1977) show that when imports are subject to tariffs, an introduction of fo reign capital inflows accentuates the tariff distortion and hence reduces national welfare if the import-competing sector is relatively capital-intensive. In contrast, Dei (1985) shows that when imports are restricted by quotas,foreign capital inflows in the presence of foreign-owned capital always improve welfare by depressing the rental and so lowering the payments to existing foreign-owned capital. Recently, Neary (1981), using a common framework for both tariffs and quotas, obtains more general results of foreign capital inflows; the welfare effect of such inflows depends crucially on whether foreign-owned capital exists initially in the home country. In addition, Khan (1982) and Grinols (1991) have examined the effects of foreign capital inflows for a generalized Harris-Todaro economy under tariff protection. Khan finds that the result by Brecher and Diaz Alejandro is still valid even in the presence of unemployment, whereas Grinols argues that increased foreign capital need not be detrimental to welfare if the opportunity costs of labor are sufficiently low. Noteworthy is that the models used by these authors are all based upon the premise of perfect competition along with constant returns-to-scale technology. Although perfect competition serves as a useful assumption in crystallizing theoretical insights, it nevertheless fails to depict many of the real-world phenomena. The real-world economy is characterized, to a large extent, by imperfect competition and economies of scale. The policy implications of imperfect competition and economies

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外文文献原文： Friction , Lubrication of Bearing In many of the problem thus far , the student has been asked to disregard or neglect friction . Actually , friction is present to some degree whenever two parts are in contact and move on each other. The term friction refers to the resistance of two or more parts to movement. Friction is harmful or valuable depending upon where it occurs. friction is necessary for fastening devices such as screws and rivets which depend upon friction to hold the fastener and the parts together. Belt drivers, brakes, and tires are additional applications where friction is necessary. The friction of moving parts in a machine is harmful because it reduces the mechanical advantage of the device. The heat produced by friction is lost energy because no work takes place. Also , greater power is required to overcome the increased friction. Heat is destructive in that it causes expansion. Expansion may cause a bearing or sliding surface to fit tighter. If a great enough pressure builds up because made from low temperature materials may melt. There are three types of friction which must be overcome in moving parts: (1)starting, (2)sliding, and(3)rolling. Starting friction is the friction between two solids that tend to resist movement. When two parts are at a state of rest, the surface irregularities of both parts tend to interlock and form a wedging action. To produce motion in these parts, the wedge-shaped peaks and valleys of the stationary surfaces must be made to slide out and over each other. The rougher the two surfaces, the greater is starting friction resulting from their movement . Since there is usually no fixed pattern between the peaks and valleys of two mating parts, the irregularities do not interlock once the parts are in motion but slide over each other. The friction of the two surfaces is known as sliding friction. As shown in figure ,starting friction is always greater than sliding friction . Rolling friction occurs when roller devces are subjected to tremendous stress which cause the parts to change shape or deform. Under these conditions, the material in front of a roller tends to pile up and forces the object to roll slightly uphill. This changing of shape , known as deformation, causes a movement of molecules. As a result ,heat is produced from the added energy required to keep the parts turning and overcome friction. The friction caused by the wedging action of surface irregularities can be overcome