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专八语言学知识复习总结

专八语言学知识复习总结
专八语言学知识复习总结

TEM-8 语言学知识复习总结

第一节语言的本质

一、语言的普遍特征(Design Features)

任意性Arbitratriness

双层结构Duality

多产性productive

移位性 Displacemennt

文化传播性Cultural Transmission

二、语言的功能(Functions of Language)

传达信息功能Informative:最主要功能The main functio n

人际功能Interpersonal:establish and maintain their identity

行事功能 performative:现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge,naming,and curses

表情功能 Emotive:表达强烈情感的语言,如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions

寒暄功能 Phatic:应酬话phatic language,比如“吃了没?”“天儿真好啊!” 等等

元语言功能Metalingual:用语言来谈论、改变语言本身,如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”

三、语言学的分支

1. 核心语言学Core linguistic

语音学Phonetics

音位学Phonology

形态学Morphology

句法学Syntax.

语义学Semantics

语用学Pragmatics

2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:

·心理语言学psycho-linguistics

·社会语言学socio-linguistics

·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics

·计算机语言学computer-linguistics

四、语言学中几对基本概念

1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究Descriptive

Prescriptive:着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态,如标准语法/语音等,为规定人们如何说话、写作

Descriptive:着重于语言中“事实Facts”,目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的

2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic

3.语言Langue和言语Parole(由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出)

Langue:指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system,所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和,这个整体相对比较稳定。

Parole:指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语actual use of language,是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体。

4.语言能力competence与语言运用performance(Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基提出)

Competence:指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储。

Performance:指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用

注:与索绪尔的区别——索绪尔着重于从社会的角度social perspective来研究语言,乔姆斯基则从语言使用者的知识构成the knowledge base of the language users来看待语言,如乔从心理学的角度来分析语言

第二节语音学Phonetics

一、语音学的分支

1. 发音语言学Articulatory phonetics:研究语音产生的方式,这是普通语言学主要研究的分支

2. 声学语言学Acoustic phonetics

3. 听觉语言学Auditory phonetics

二、语音学中两个重要概念

1.言语语音Speech sounds:

●是语音学研究的对象,亦可叫做音段Segment或者音素Phone;

●分为两种:辅音consonants 和元音vowels

2.发音器官Speech organs:

●声带the Vocal Cords:位于咽喉the Larynx中,咽喉突出的部分较喉结The Adam’s Apple

●三个回声腔:咽腔the Pharynx、口腔the oral cavity和鼻腔the nasal cavity

三、关于辅音Consonants

1.概念:发音过程中产生了气流阻塞的那些音There is an obstruction of the air at some point of the vocal tract. 2.分类:三类划分——发音部位Places of articulation 、发音方式Manners of articulation和清浊特征

* 按照发音部位places:

● 唇间音bilabial:/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/

● 唇齿音labio-dental:/f/ /v/

● 齿间音dental:/ 6/ /咬舌Z/

● 牙龈音alveolar:/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/

● 龈腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar:

● 硬腭音Palatal:/师/ /3/ /ts/ /d3/ /j/

● 喉音glottal:/h/

* 按照发音方式manners

● 完全阻塞辅音complete obstruction/爆破音plosives/stops: /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/

● 鼻音nasals:/m/ /n/ /n长/

● 擦音fricatives:/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /师/ /3/ /6/ /咬舌z/ /h/

● 破擦音affricates:/ts/ /d3/

● 流音liquids : /r/ /l/

● 滑音/半元音glides/simivowels:/w/ /j/

● 接近辅音approximants

● 中央流音central

● 边流音lateral:

3.特征:

* 清浊特征Voicing

●分类:浊辅音voiced consonants 清辅音voiceless consonants

●体现形式:声带是否震动in the vibration of the vocal cords E.g:/p/ 和/d/

* 送气特征Aspiration

●articulated with a strong air stream pushing out

●只有爆破音和破擦音有送气与否的区别

●不造成词义改变,是非区别性特征 E.g:/p/ 在please中送气,在speak中不送气

* 区别性特征Distinctive Features

●可以用来区分不同音位(phonetic voicing)如清浊特征,但送气特征就不是

●区别性特征一般都是双元Binary的(+voicing/ -voicing)

四、关于元音Vowels

1.概念:发音中没有出现任何气流阻塞的音A sound pronounced with no obstruction of the air stream

2.分类:舌翘the part of the tongue that is raised、舌高the extent to which the tongue rises、唇the shape of the lips

舌翘:front——/i/ /e/ /a/;back——/o/ /u/

舌高:high——/i/ /u/;mid——/e/ /o/;low——/a/

唇形:unrounded——/i/ /e/ /a/;rounded——/o/ /u/

1. 3.标准元音Cardinal vowels:由一组任意确定的元音组成,这些元音都是作为抽象的单位存在,为描述现实语音中的元音提供一个参考框架,由琼斯提出。

2. 4.双元音Diphthongs:由两个音组成——纯元音pure vowel+短促的滑音brief gliding sound,由前音滑向后音,又称元音过渡Vowel Glides

五、其他相关概念

1. 1.语音同化Co-articulation或Assimilation:在一个语音群中,一个语音总会带上其附近语音的某种性质,这个现象就成为语音同化。最明显的就是鼻化,如can一词中,a的音会带上后面的鼻音n

2. 2.国际音标图IPA chart:全称是International Phonetic Alphabet,由国际语音协会IPA=International Phonetic Association在1888年首次确定

第三节音位学Phonology

一、基本概念及区分

1.广义音位学指对自然语言声音系统的一般性特征研究,可以包括语音学;狭义的音位学主要研究言语语音组合方式模式及变化,普通语言学取其狭义

2.音位学与语音学的区别:

●Phonetics 着重语言的自然属性physical properties,关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音,是音位学研究的基础;

●Phonology着重强调语音的社会功能social functions,对象是某种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音

二、重要概念

1.音位Phoneme:

●在语言中具有区别表义单位作用的最小语音单位the smallest unit that is capable of distinguishing or contrasting words, E.g: pig 和big中的/p/和/b/就是独立的音位。

2.音位变体Allophones:

●没有区分表义单位作用的音段(segment) E.g:同样/s/音,在shoe和she中读音却有差别,若把两个有差别的/s/音调换位置,并不会改变单词意义,只是有点别扭。所以,这两音就叫做/s/的音位变体。

注:Phoneme和Allophone的区别:音位具有区别性,是抽象、理想化的单位,具有系统性;音位变体都属于同一个音位,他们共同代表或者源于音位,是音位在实际环境中的体现。

3.最小语音对Minimal Pairs:

●两个词互相之间的差别只是一个音段, E.g:pen 和pin就是M-p,可以确定/e/和/i/

4.两种分布关系

* ?对比性分布Contrastive Distribution

●若两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中而产生了两个不同的单词,则处于对比性分布关系。

●最小语音对中的不同音段就是这种关系。3.中的例子

* 互补性分布Complementary distribution

●若两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中,则它们之间就是互补性分布的关系。

●E.g:送气的p(peak)绝不会出现在s之后,而不送气的p(speak)也不会出现在词首

5.自由变体Free variation

●如果两个音段出现在相同的环境中,但并未产生两个不同的单词,那么它们就是同一个音位的自由变体。

E.g:将act中失去爆破的/ko/换成爆破的/k/是很常见的,但并不会造成单词意义的变化。

6.区别性特征Distinctive Features:清浊特征、发音位置以及发音方式

三、超音段音位学Suprasegmental Phonology

1.概念:对大于音段的语音单位如音节、单词和句子的语音特征进行的研究。主要包括:重音Stress,音长Lenth,音高Pitch和此三者共同作用的结果—语调intonation ●重音:分为单词重音和句子重音

* 单词重音:位置固定,可分为三级——零zero重音,次secondary重音,和主要primary重音

* 句子重音:

——结构重音structural:句语句之间的对比产生的某一个单词重音的变化或某一个一般不重读的单词的重读,如ThirtTEEN girls and thirty boys中的TEEN重读

——强调重音contrastive:指纯粹出于交际需要对句中的任意部分进行强调,句中的任意音节都可能成为重读音节

——语法重音grammatical:约定俗成的语法成分功能决定的重音,如重读实词,轻读虚词等

●音高:指某个语音单位(音段或者超音段)因为发音时声带震颤的快慢而导致的声音高低之分。某些语言中,音高变化起区别性作用,如汉语的四声tone

2.音节Syllable:大于音段但小于单词的单位;单词可以分为单音节词monosyllabic word和多音节词polysyllabic word

3.音节结构:

●音节头onset——一般为辅音

●节峰/节核Peak/nucleus:核心部分,由元音担任,不可或缺

●节尾coda:一般为辅音

4.辅音群Consonant cluster:

●几个辅音组合在一起成为单词的一部分,称为辅音群。

●一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过3个辅音,作为节尾的不能超过4个辅音

第四节形态学Morphology

一、基本概念:研究单词内部结构及其构成的规则

二、相关概念

1.语素Morpheme:研究的basic unit,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或者彻底改变词汇/语法意义的单位,desire是a morpheme,desir+able就是two morphemes

* 自由语素free morpheme:可以独立出现、独立成词的语素。如girl,rely等

* 黏着语素bound morpheme:必须与其它语素一起出现的语素,词缀居多。如pre-,-al,dis-等

2.语速变体Allomorph:相对抽象,是语素的实际体现,不改变词义,但会在形式上有所变化similar to allophone

3.词的曲折变化Inflection:其实就是在原词上加上词缀(主要是suffix)的过程-ed,-ing,-s etc.不会改变词义,也不会引起词的语法类别的改变

4.几个易混的概念

* 词素Lexemes:就是“同底数幂”的概念,是一组词的共有因子,如writer、writing、wrote等拥有的write就是词素,必须有一群词

* 词根Root:单词的基础,无法再分割成更小的单位。两类:若词根是自由语素,则为自由词根(大部分都是free),否则是黏着词根(如-pal,-ceive,-tain,-vert)

* 词干Stem:是可以附加词缀的语素或者语素群:friend in friends;friendship in friendships,词干>词根,如education是词干,词根是educate

5.词语Word:a physically definable unit, a common facter underlying a set of forms, a grammatical unit

* 实词Lexical words:包括nouns, verbs, adj., 大部分adv.

* 虚词Functional words:承担语法意义、执行句法或结构功能的词,包括prep. Articles.pronoun. Conj.

* 开放词open classes:可无限容纳新成员的词,如名形、部分动词/副词等;

* 封闭词类closed classes无法或很难容纳新成员的词,如介代连指情态等

6.三种语言:

* 黏着语言Agglutinating or Agglutinative Language:在英语中一般用介词、所有格来表达的概念,在黏着语言中一般作为语素出现在一个单词中

* 曲折语言Inflecting Language:指那些大量使用曲折形式的语言

* 孤立语言Isolated Language/分析语言Analytical Language:一般使用独立的词语来表示单独的概念和功能。中文为此类的典型代表。

三、造词Invention

1.混成法Blending:如smoke+fog=smog

2.缩写语Abbreviation/截断法Clipping:如ad—advertisement等

3.首字母缩写Acronym:如UN=United Nations

4.逆构词法Back-formation:如edit来源于editor,televise来源于television

5.类推造词Analogical Creation:如work的过去分词想成wrought 和worked两种形式

6.借词Borrowing:直接从外语中借用词语的造词过程,如sofa,tofu等

第五节句法学Syntax

一、基本概念: the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.

二、几个重要概念

1.横组合关系Syntagmatic relations/线形关系Linear relations:即词序word order,指句子中单词的链状顺序关系

纵聚合关系Paradigmatic relations:把句子各个位置当成插槽Slot,则同义或相近词都可填入此槽,这就是词间纵聚合关系

注:词的横组合及纵聚合关系是其句法理论的重要组成部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of 索绪尔Saussure’s syntactic theory.

2.直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis简作IC Analysis:通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段

3.语法范畴Grammatical Categories:指代名词、动词等此类的标志性特征definding properties

● 名词:性Gender,数Number,格Case

【数:Singular和Dual;性:Feminine和Masculine以及Neuter;格:代词—主格Nominative,宾格Accusative,名词——一般格General和所有格Genitive】

●动词:时态Tense,体Aspect,语态Voice

三、关于句子:the maximum free form最大的语法分析单位

1.句子关系:

* 一致关系Agreement:两个或更多单词在某个特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致,主要表现在主谓、修饰语和被修饰语之间。如this man/these men

* 支配关系Government:一个或几个单词因受到其他相邻词语的支配而必须与或者保持某个范畴的一致,如代词在动词后必须成宾格状态beat him等

1. 2.句子的扩展Extension of sentence三种方法:结合Conjoining,嵌入Embedding和递归Recursiveness

2. 3.句子结构

●向心结构Endocentric construction:具有核心的结构体。分为从属Subordinate(e.g. poor John)和平行Coordinate (e.g. boys and girls)

●离心结构Exocentric construction:没有核心的结构体,任何一个成分都无法代替他本身。e.g. on the shelf

4.句子以上的句法Syntax beyond the sentence:主要研究段落和篇章中句与句的句法关系,主要是语篇语言学Text linguistic。

四、关于语法——全由Chomsky提出

1.转换生成语法:Transformational-Generative grammar简作TG Grammar:认为所有语言形式都是由人脑中的一些深层结构通过一系列转换规则衍生而来

2.普遍语法:Uni v ersal Grammar:一切人类语言必须具备的原则、条件和规则系统,叫做普遍语法或者语言普遍现象,他认为研究的目的就是去寻找普遍语法。

3.语言习得机制Language Acquisition Device简作LAD儿童天生具备学习一切语言的能力,从而表达无限的思想五、句法结构

1.深层结构Deep Structure:抽象的句法结构,位于于语法生成模式的最深层,句子各部分之间的结构关系在这个层次都被清晰清楚表现出来

2.表层结构Surface Structure:通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后结果,是说话人实际说出的句子。

3.系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar:由英国语言学家韩礼德M.A.K. Halliday●Halliday系统功能语法:关注语言和社会之间的关系;认为语言是A form of doing, 研究语言与环境的关系;重视个别语言及个别变体的描写

●Chomsky转换生成语法:从心理学角度研究语言;认为语言是A form of knowing,着重于语言使用者头脑里的知识结构;重视发现语言的普通现象

第六节语义学Semantics

一、语义学的七种意义——Geoffrey Leech:

七种意义可以被分成三大类:概念意义Conceptual,联想意义Associative,主题意义Thematic Meanings

1. 概念意义Conceptual Meaning:是Leech理论的中心Core概念,表示单词和其所指代的事物之间的关系,类似于“Reference”

2. 联想意义Associative Meaning:五小类——内涵意义,社会Social意义,情感Affective意义,反映Reflected意义和搭配Collocative意义

●内涵Connotative意义:指在交际中语言所传达出来的意思

●社会Social意义:使用语言时传达出的有关社会场合的信息

●情感Affective意义:指说话人或作者表达出来的情感或态度

●反映Reflected意义:通过联想某个表达法的别种意义而产生出来的意义

●搭配Collocative意义:通过联想经常同现于一个语境中的单词而产生的意义

3. 主题意义Thematic Meanings:通过信息的组织方式而传达的意义what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis

二、语义关系Sense Relations——三种:同义关系Synonymy,反义关系Antonymy,上下义关系Hyponymy

1.同义关系Synonymy:来源有二——Anglo-Saxon Language and Latin;完全同义的单词不存在,主要差别在于地域Dialect,场合Register,风格Style,正式度Formality,态度Attitude等

2.反义关系Antonymy:

●可分等级的Gradable:最常见的,两词间并非绝对而是相对对立的。E.g. good-bad,long-short等

●互补的Complementary:两词间的对立是绝对的,非此即彼的。E.g. alive-dead,absent-present等

●相反的Converse:并非肯定否定的关系,两个实体之间关系的颠倒。E.g. buy-sell, employer-employee等

3.上下义关系Hyponymy:意义包含的关系,包容者为上义词Superordinate,被包容者成为下义词Hyponym,如animals包含dog、cat等许多

三、几个知识点

1.语义和所指Sense Vs Reference

Sense指代的是语言内部各种因素构成的复杂体系,Reference关心语言项目如单词句子等和外部世界之间的关系,语义学重点关注的是语义关系。

2. 搭配Collocation:指单词之间惯常出现的组合情况,如:“满月”在英语中表示为A full moon,而非a complete moon

3. 成语Idiom:要以整体理解,不是其组成部分的简单相加

第七节语用学Pragmatics

一、几个重要概念

1.语用学Pragmatic:研究如何通过Context来理解和使用语言

2.符号学Semiotics:美国哲学家C. Morris he R. Carnap将符号学划分为三个分支——

●符号关系学Syntactic:主要研究符号之间的形式关系the study of the formal relations between signs

●语义学Semantics:研究符号与所代表事物间的关系the relationship between signs and the things they refer to,主要关注语言系统中抽象单位的句子;停留于句子层面;研究是静止的、孤立的static and isolated

●语用学Pragmatic: the study of the relationship between signs and their interpreters

3. 语境context:划分为即时语境immediate context 和社会语境social context

4. 指示语Deixis:用来将人、物、事和特定语境联系起来的词语,直接牵涉语言结构和语境间的关系。分为三类:person deixis,place deixis和time deixis

二、言语行为理论Speech Act Theory

1.由英国哲学家J. Austin he J. Searle 在20世纪50年代末发展出来的理论,认为语言不仅可以用来表述,更可以用来“做事doing things”,即“to do things with words”

2.言语行为的三种次行为The three sub-acts in the speech act:

●言内行为Locutionary Act: the utterance of a sentence itself即“说话”行为本身,话语表示字面意思literal Meaning

●言外行为Illocutionary Act:指说话时,因为言语本身的一些习惯力量而随之产生了其他的一些行为,如警告、允诺等;通常表述的是说话者的交流目的或意图

●言后行为:通过实施另一种言语行为来间接第十是某一种言语行为。

三、合作原则The Cooperati v e Principles——美国哲学家格莱斯P.Grice

1.合作原则the Cooperative Principles:

●数量准则Quantity Maxim

●质量准则Quality Maxim

●关联准则Relation Maxim

●方式准则Manner Maxim

2.会话含义Conversational Implicature:当说话人公然不执行某一条原则,且让听话者也知道了他在违反,这时就很有可能产生会话含义,是为让对方体会到言外之意

重要人物汇总

1. Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔the founding father of modern structural linguistics现代结构主义语言学创始人

●提出语言和言语的区别

●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory.

2. Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基:the founder of generative grammar生成语法创始人

.●提出关于语言能力与语言运用的区分概念

●1957年提出转换生成语法:Transformational-Generative grammar简作TG Grammar的研究模式

●普遍语法的概念

3.Daniel Johns琼斯:the most famous system of Cardinal vowels最有名的标准元音系统

4.M.A.K. Halliday英国语言学家韩礼德:系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar,与Chomsky提出的转换生成语法:Transformational-Generative grammar相区分

5. Geoffrey Leech利奇:提出语义学Semantics的七种意义

6. C. Morris he R. Carnap美国哲学家:将符号学Semiotics划分为三个分支

7. J. Austin 和J. Searle英国哲学家:Speech Act Theory:20世纪50年代认为语言不仅可以用来表述,更可以用来“做事doing things”,即“to do things with words”

8. P.Grice格莱斯——美国哲学家:合作原则The Cooperative Principles

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