当前位置：搜档网 › 英语语言学 lecture six

英语语言学 lecture six

Review the chapter of syntax

these are a few questions on some of points in the chapter of lexicon.

Do you think whether the relationship between morpheme and phoneme is one-to-one?

How about the relation between morpheme and sememe?

What are included in bound morpheme?

Syntactic structure

句法syntax 研究句子结构，揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则。这些规则告诉我们词与词如何组合成句，句子由什么构成。

线性顺序与层次结构linear order and hierarchical structure

英语句子是按一定顺序排列的。句子的这种顺序是线性顺序。改变顺序意思会发生变化。这种关系也就是syntagmatic relation or positional relation\ chain relation

In the way of classification according to the word order, there are totally six possible types of language. They are SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS.

各种语言的句子顺序是不同的。英语是S-V-O语言，日语、土耳其语等是S-O-V语言，威尔士语和希伯莱等语言是V-S-O语言，也有些语言的主语、动词、宾语的顺序是自由的。

Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?

As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.

The structural linguists regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.

What is the relation of substitutability? And relation of co-ocurrence?

语言是交际的工具，人们在交际中说出的最短的话语至少是一个句子，这样才能表达比较完整的思想。

句子按说话的不同目的可以分为陈述句declarative、疑问句interrogative、祈使句imperative 和感叹句exclamatory等不同类型。

句子里还可以包含句子。包含在一个句子里的句子称为小句。只包含一个小句的句子称为简单句simple；包含两个或两个以上小句的句子称为复合句。复合句按句中小句之间的不同关系分为并列复合句compound和主从复合句complex。

几种基本的组合关系（离心结构exocentric construction，向心结构endocentric construction）在句子和短语中词与词之间的基本组合关系有以下几种：

主谓关系，修饰关系，动宾关系，动补关系，并列关系

在传统语法中区分了由词的语法形式表现出来的两种主从关系：一致关系concord\ agreement 和支配关系。

一致关系中，从属词的语法形式要随主导词的语法形式发生变化。一致关系主要表现在主语

和谓语之间、修饰语和被修饰语之间。

句子分析的方法

句法分析是对句子和短语的结构进行的分析。语法学中句法分析的方法主要有两种，一种是句子成分分析发，另一种是直接成分分析法。

句子成分分析法

句子成分分析法是传统语法中通用的分析句子的方法。这种方法以词为分析的基本单位，根据句子和短语中词与词之间的关系，逐个确定句中的各种成分，然后在根据句中包含的成分确定句子的结构类型（即句型）。句子成分分析法从词开始“自下而上，从小到大”地对句子进行分析，因此英语里又称为“bottom-up‖分析法。

英语的句子成分通常分为主语、谓语、宾语、定语、补语和状语。其中宾语又可分为直接宾语和间接宾语；补语又可以分为主语补语和宾语补语。

传统语法从句子成分中分出主要成分和次要成分。主要成分是任何一个句子都不可缺少的。分析句子首先要找出主要成分，然后再找出从属于它们的次要成分，这样一个句子的结构就一目了然了。

英语的简单肯定助动陈述句分为七种主要句型

SV Prices rose。

SVO Mary enjoyed classical music.

SVC Y our face seems familiar.

SV Adv My sister lives next door.

SVOO We wish you happy birthday.

SVOC The president declared the meeting open.

SVOAd The doorman showed the guests into the drawing room.

除基准句型外，还有与之对应的各种变换句型，包括：疑问句、祈使句、感叹句、否定句、被动句、省略句、并列复合句、主从复合句、分裂句、外位句、there存在句、have存在句等。

直接成分分析法IC analysis

另一种分析句子的方法是结构主义语言学（实际是其中的美国描写语言学派Bloomfield）制定的直接成分分析法。这种分析方法从句子出发，自上而下，从大到小，分析到语素为止，故英语里称为“top-down‖分析法。

成分和直接成分

语言中的任何表示一定意义的单位，如果它不只包含一个语素，就是可以分解的，这样的单位叫做结构体。一个结构体内包含的较小的结构体和语素都是这个结构体的成分，而一个结构体一次可以直接分出的成分则是这个结构体的直接成分。

The old man has come to his son‘s house.

直接成分分析法的一个优点是它可以区别某些歧义现象。例如Chinese fur coat 的层次结构可能是Chinese fur/ coat , or Chinese / fur coat. 不同的层次结构与意义直接有关。汉语的“咬

死了猎人的狗”也可以有两种不同的分析，咬死了/猎人的狗，或咬死猎人的/狗。

What is the criterion used in IC analysis?

The criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. For example, in Poor John ran away, poor John can be replaced by John and ran away by ran without changing the structure, but poor John ran cannot be replaced by John or any other single word without changing the structure.

In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?

In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reasons of some ambiguities may be revealed.

Conjoining & embedding

Hypotactic & paratactic relations

Lecture five Meaning (Semantics & pragmatics)

Outlines:

What is semantics?

What is meaning?

Kinds of meaning

The traditional approach

The functional approach

The pragmatic approach

Sense relationships

Synonymy

Antonymy

Hyponymy

Polysemy and homonymy

Sense relations between sentences

Semantic analysis

Componential analysis

Predication analysis

Relational components

Logical elements

1. What is semantics?

The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. P105

语义可以分为词的意义word meaning 和句子意义sentence meaning. 本世纪60年代以前，

语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子意义。

Philosophy, psychology and linguistics all claim a deep interest in semantics. The philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world to which they refer and evaluating the condition of truth and falsehood of such expressions. The psychologists claim a deep interest in understanding the human mind through language.

---philosophers: relations bet. linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world

---psychologists: human mind through language

---Linguists: the change of word meaning, esp. the causes and rules of these changes in social and historical perspectives

2. What is meaning?

II. Interpretations on Meaning

1.Realist: All things called by the same name have some common property.

唯实论：有同样名称的事物有共性

2.Nominalist: words are the symbols we use by convention to refer to things

唯名论（指称论）：约定俗成的名称而已

3.Conceptualism / mentalism 概念论/ 心理论

This is presented by Saussure's "Sign Theory"（1966）and Ogden and Richard's "Semantic triangle" 符号理论和语义三角理论（1923）

1)According Saussure, the linguistic sign consists of a Signifier and Signified

能指（施指）--- 所指（受指）

a sound image--- a concept

linked by a psychological bond

2)According to Ogden and Richard, the "symbol" of a word signified "things" by virtue of (by means of, because of) the "concept" associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language. And the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.

That something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.

Thought / Reference 相关(mediated)

Concept/sense/Notion 概念

symbolizes refers to

symbol/form indirect relationship referent

word 词-------------------------------------------- object 事物

signifier stands for signified

code reality

Sense may be used in the same way as ―connotation‖ is used in philosophy. It may refer to the

properties an entity has. In this usage, ―sense‖ is equivalent to ―concept‖.

e.g. Woman

conceptual: human, female, adult

desk---a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes

To explain the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to. (direct theory)

The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. P107

conceptual meaning/ sense (both by Leech)-----it refers to the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. P106

Every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content, but not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Therefore people suggest that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.

4．Mechanism机械论

Bloomfield:

Define the meaning of word by means of science and chemistry

Since one can define the names of minerals in terms of chemistry and mineralogy, one can define the English word ―salt‖ by way of the expression ―sodium chloride‖ or the symbol ―NaCl‖. So the nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena. It is restricted to the scientific definition of everything to which language may contribute.

5.Contextualism 语境论

The view is that one can derive (推测) meaning from the observable context or can reduce （还原bring）it to the original context.

The situational context情景语境---speaker, hearer, action etc.

The linguistic context言语语境---co-occurrence, collocation etc.

6.Behaviourism行为论

Behaviourists define the meaning of a language form as"the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer" (Bloomfield, 1933)

Bloomfield's stimulus-reaction model 刺激反应模式

Jill Jack

S ———— r s ———R

Stimulus---verbal reaction---verbal stimulus----non-verbal reaction

Apple→verbal reaction→sound waves→non-verbal reaction of getting the apple

7.Functionalism功能论

They argue that meaning could only be interpreted from its use or function in social life.

So meaning is variable and is realized at different levels of language.

3. kinds of meaning

1) the traditional approach

Fries(1952) presents a traditional distinction between ―lexical‖ and ―structural meaning‖.

The former is expressed by those ―meaningful‖ parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary associated with the grammar.

The latter expresses the distinction between the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense and number, and the difference between statements, questions and requests.

In a word, the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meanings of the separate plus such structural meanings.

德国语言学家和数学家Gottlob Frege 区分了词的指称意义reference 和词的系统意义sense. 指称意义是指词和句子等语言成分跟语言外部世界的关系；系统意义是指附加意义，指语言成分本身（主要是指词）之间关系的意义，它涉及的是语言内部关系，一个词的系统意义通过与别的词的对照关系表现出来。

例如，ram的指称意义在于它指世界上为雄性的羊，ewe 的指称意义在于它指世界上为雄性的羊。如果把ram 和ewe 放在一起对照比较就会看出它们的系统意义，它们分别指特定性别的羊。

Father\son, uncle/nephew这两对词的系统意义是表示家庭关系；wide/narrow, dead/live, buy/sell这几对词的系统意义在于它们表示了反义关系。

2) the functional approach

Leech's Classification of Meaning 利奇的语义分类

1.Conceptual meaning 概念意义（理性意义/ 外延意义）

When the world changes, the conceptual meaning will also change.

Old English: marshal---the person caring for horses

Modern English: top officer or commander

Mouse, hardware, monitor, etc. are typical of the change

2.Connotative meaning 内涵意义

It refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in people's mind. Woman

conceptual: human, female, adult

connotative: gentle, compassionate, hard-working, 'fragile, sentimental

conceptual: a bull working on the farm

connotative: hard-working, no complaints

Connotative meaning differs as a result of age, social position, personal experience, etc. For example, Home can be both "warm, sweet, comfortable" and " cold, perplexing". Linguistics as a course is both "interesting" and "boring".

3.Social meaning / stylistic meaning 社会意义/ 文体意义

A piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.

eg. horse---steed(诗体)– nag（俚语）

4.Affective meaning 情感意义

Affective meaning is concerned with expression of feelings and attitudes of speakers or writers. Using conceptual meaning to express affective meaning

Repetition of the words with the same meaning

Using connotative meaning to express affective meaning.

eg. He is a fox.(as cunning as a fox)

Using intonation and tone to express the speaker's feeling.

eg. Thank you for your kindness.(It might be ironic.)

Using exclamation words to express affective meaning.

eg. Alas! Aha! My God etc.

5. Reflected Meaning 反映/反射意义

What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.

eg. be pregnant --- in a family way 象一家人一样，不拘礼节地

6.Collocative meaning 搭配意义

What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.

The words may have the same conceptual meanings , but need different locations.

eg. pretty, handsome漂亮的，英俊的（男人）健美的，温雅的（女人

7.Thematic meaning 主位/主题意义

What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

eg. Mr Smith donated the prize.

The prize was donated by Mr Smith.

3) the pragmatic approach

Both Palmer(1976) and Lyons (1977) have suggested that we should draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, the sentence meaning being directly predictable from the grammatical and lexical features of the sentence, while utterance meaning inc ludes all the various types of meaning that are not directly related to them.

In a sense pragmatics studies how contextual features determine or influence the interpretation of utterances. For example, there will be several possible interpretations to the utterance ―John is like a fish‖ in isolation. But if it is said when John is swimming, it probably means ―John swims well‖. If it is said at a party, it will be taken to mean ?John can drink a lot of wine‖. On other occasion it can mean ―John is as cold as fish‖. In any case it is justified to say that contextual factors intervene in semantic interpretation.

IV. Sense relationships

Words are in different sense relations with each other. Some words have more similar sense than others. For example, the sense of desk is more closely related to that of table than to chair. And the sense of desk is included in the sense of furniture.

Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.

There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation.

1. Synonymy 同义关系

Synonymy is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers rely to a

great extent on the existence of synonymy for their definitions.

But total synonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are all context dependent. They all differ one way or another.

语言学家Palmer 认为真正的或绝对的同义词是没有的，两个词的意思不可能绝对相同。同义词在某些方面，比如方言、文体风格、感情色彩、搭配限制等方面有所不同。

1)They may differ in styles or registers.

e.g. formal purchase \ gentleman \ pass away, be with God, depart, breath one‘s last

informal buy \ man \ die

casual/colloquial chap \ pop off, kick the bucket, be done for

2)They may differ in connotations (in their emotive or evaluative meanings).

Politician & statesman (derogatory & commendatory)

Politician 带有轻蔑之意，含有只为个人利益或其所属政党利益不惜一切的意思

Statesman 只含有赞扬之意，指其人精明能干，善于处理国政。

Thrifty & stingy

Thrifty: Practicing or marked by the practice of thrift; wisely economical.节俭的：勤俭操持的或以勤俭为特点的；精明而经济的

Stingy : the most general, implies absence of generosity and often an inclination toward meanness of spirit: 意义最广，指不慷慨并常表示性格吝啬的倾向：

e.g. She practices economy without being stingy.

她奉行一种的不吝啬的节俭方式。

3)They may differ in dialects of the language.

British English: autumn \ elevator \ tin \sweets \ sofa \ biscuit \ railway \ baggage

American English: fall \ lift \ can \ candy \ couch \ cracker \ railroad \ luggage

4)They may differ also in collocation.

a) Rancid & addled 腐败的、质变的

Rancid bacon/ butter/ fat

Addled egg/ brains

b) Deep water ( no profound water)

Deep/ profound sympathy

c)汽车:car, automobile, vehic les, motor

collocation: motor hotel(motel)

automobile insurance 汽车保险

As a result of this, there is only a loose sense of synonymy, based on the fact that many words are close in meaning.

English is said to be rich in synonyms. Its vocabulary has two sources: Anglo-Saxon and Latin.

2. Antonymy

The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning: words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

We must be careful not allow the term ―antonymy‖ to distract us into thinking that words contrast only on a single dimension: in face they may contrast with other words on a number of dimensions at once.

1)complementary antonymy 互补反义关系

it may be regarded as a special case of incompatibility holding over two-term sets. It is characteristic of such pairs of lexical items that the denial of the one implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one implies the denial of the other. For example: dead: alive;

female: male; absent: present; boy: girl, etc..

There is no intermediate ground between the two.

The adjectives in this type cannot be modified by very. They do not have comparative or superlative degrees either.

2) gradable antonymy ( this is the commonest type of antonymy)

It refers to the feature of those antonyms which are gradable, because there are often intermediate forms between the pairs. It shows that the denial of the one does not imply assertion of the other. For example, in the hot/cold pair, one can find intermediate terms such as hot/ warm/cool/cold.

The adjectives in this type can be modified by very. They may have comparative and superlative degrees.

许多分级反义词的两个词中，有一个是有标记的marked, 另一个是无标记的unmarked( the term for the higher degree)，在提问句中常用无标记的词。如How high is it?,我们一般不用How low is it?来提问。回答时也常用无标记的词，如Fifty-five feet high, 而不用fifty-five feet low.

3)converse antonymy 逆向反义关系(relational opposites关系对立) (this is special type of antonymy)

A quite different kind of ―oppositeness‖ is found with pairs of words which exhibit reversal of

a relationship between items, and is called relational opposites. The members of a pair do not

constitute a positive-negative opposition. One presupposes the other. For example, buy: sell;

lend: borrow; parent: child;

关系对立反义词在意义上时相对称的。两个关系反义词在语义上既对立又互相依存，一方的存在以另一方的存在为前提。

3. hyponymy

Hyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. This is a matter of class membership.

Hyponymy refers to the meaning of one lexical item(specific) that may be said to be included within the meaning of another(general). This relation shows the notion of meaning inclusion.(包括意义的概念)

When X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the hyponym, and the upper term Y is the superordinate. Two hyponyms having the same superordinate are called co-hyponyms.

e.g.1. Flower upper term （Superordinate上义词）

Tulip violet Rose

郁金香紫罗兰玫瑰lower terms (co-hyponyms同下义词)

all hyponymy is transitive in the sense that there is a hierarchical relation between different terms.

Livestock

Ox sheep pig

Ram ewe, lamb

上下义关系也称包含关系（inclusion），即意义包含在另一个词义中的系统意义关系。

这里指表示一般概念的词包含于表示个别概念的词中，实际上是属概念（genus）和种概念（species）之间的关系。例如flower 是属概念，tulip是种概念，flower 的概念包含在tulip 的概念中。

4. Polysemy & homonymy 多义现象及同音/形异义现象

Polysemy: The same word may have a set of different meanings, which is called polysemic word (多义词)

e.g. He hurt his foot./ He stood at the foot of the stairs. / footnotes (脚注)

The boy's hand is dirty./ The minute hand stops. 中心意义是―脚，手‖，其他意义与中心意义有关。

Homonymy:

words which are written in the same way and sound alike but which have different meanings(同音同形异义)

e.g. Y ou have to lie down for a few days.

Don't lie, tell the truth.

Benjamin Franklin, a hero of the American republic, to signers of Declaration of Independence: ―We must all hang together, or surely, we shall be hanged separately.‖

remain united ; killed by hanging

Polysemy: a single word with more than one meaning

多义词（polyseme）的各个意义之间具有一定的联系。其中有一个意义是原始意义，其余意义是派生意义；或者其中一个意义是中心意义，其余意义是次要意义；或者其中一个意义是字面意义，其余意义是比喻意义。

例如；cool的字面意义是凉的（neither warm nor cold）,其比喻意义是不热情的、不友好的（lack warm feelings, not as friendly as usual）

Homonymy: several words with the same form but different meanings

同形异义与多义现象的区别在于词的意义之间是否有联系。若没有，则为同形异义，若有，则为一词多义。

Homophones(同音异义):

sounding alike, written differently, different meanings

eg. no / know; write / right;

way / weigh; flour/ flower

Homographs(同形异义):

pronounced differently, same spelling, different meanings

eg. Lead to Rome

Lead [led] is a heavy metal.

Tear / tear the paper;

bow / bow [bau]

Perfect Homonyms(同音同形异义):

eg. bank of the river---bank of China

bank: land along each side of a river 河岸

bank: establishment for the deposit of money 银行

file: a. document b. a metal tool c. a folder (文件夹)

band: jazz/rock band(a group)

gang(一帮)

level, grade (band 4)

一词多义和同形异义词可以产生词义歧义现象。这是由于单个的词具有两个或两个以上的意思。

He went to the bank.

She cannot bear children. (tolerate or give birth to children)

由于话语utterance 总是在一定的语境context中产生的，听话者一般可以根据语境来判断说话者的意思。

V. sense relations between sentences （semantic relations involving sentences）

A.语义变异semantic anomaly

语义变异是指语义上违背了搭配限制的奇特现象。

1）Christopher is killing phonemes.

2）Jack‘s courage chewed the bone.

这两个句子都合乎语法，但是在语义上是不规则的、是变异的。Kill的语义和phonemes 的语义不能搭配使用，courage的语义和chew的语义也不能结合在一起。

B.分析句及分析性analytic sentence and analyticity

根据组成句子的各个词推论出这个句子肯定是真true,那么这个句子就是分析性句子analytic sentence. 分析句所具有的句义特性就是分析性analyticity.

1)John‘s nine-year-old brother is a boy.

2)Sain‘s wife is married.

3)My watch is device for telling the time

C.矛盾句及矛盾性contradiction

矛盾句是指根据句子中各个词的词义，在任何语境中，句子肯定是假的false. 它与分析句相反。矛盾句所具有的句义特性就是矛盾性。

1）This animal is a vegetable

2）My wife is unmarried.

D.综合句synthetic sentence

综合句只是在某个范围中或偶然情况下句子才成真，即其是真是假取决于语境。综合句是非分析句的句子。

1）John is from Ireland.

2）All bachelors are happy.

3）Bachelors cannot form lasting relationships.

E.释义关系paraphrase

当一个句子所表达的命题proposition与另一个句子所表达的命题相同时，那么这两个句子中一个句子时另一个句子的释义paraphrase, 也就是说在同一语言中变换措词，而意义不变。

John is the parent of James

James is the child of John.

2．The police chased the burglar.

The burglar was chased by the police.

F.蕴涵关系entailment

如果一个句子所表达的命题的真蕴涵entails 了另一个句子的真，如果一个句子所表达的命题X的真能推导出另一个句子所表达的命题Y的真，那么表达命题X的句子就蕴涵了表达

命题Y的句子，那么这两个句子存在着蕴涵关系entailment..也就是说一个句子的意义包含着另一个句子的意义。

John picked a tulip

John picked a flower.

2. Tom stole a horse

Tom took a horse.

3. John boiled an egg.

John cooked an egg..

每组的第一句都蕴涵着第二句，但第二句不能蕴涵第一句。下义词蕴涵着上义词，上义词和下义词之间存在着蕴涵关系。这样的蕴涵关系是不对称的asymmetrical.

The police wounded the burglar.

The burglar is injured

2. The house is red.

The house is not white.

这两组中第一句蕴涵第二句，但第二句不能蕴涵第一句。

John is the parent of James.

James is the child of John.

2. The police chased the burglar.

The burglar was chased by the police.

这两组中两句互相存在蕴涵关系。这种蕴涵关系是对称的symmetrical.

句子之间的蕴涵关系和释义关系就如同词与词之间的上下义关系和同义关系。可以用下面的表格来表示。

G 含矛盾命题句contradictory ( inconsistent)

两命题不能在同一时间、同一情况下同真，它们则互为矛盾命题。

2. Charles is a bachelor. When A is true, B is false.

Charles is married. When B is true, A is false.

1. Entailment & Presupposition 蕴涵与前提(预设)

Entailment is basically semantic relation or logical implication.

Ex.1

A. He married a blonde heiress.

B. He married a blonde.

When A is true, b is true. When A is false, B may be true or false.

When B is false, A is false. When B is true, A may be true or false.

In this way, we say A entails B. (A蕴涵B或者说B是A的蕴涵)

Ex 2

a. His brother is a surgeon. A. The girl he married was an heiress.

b. He has a brother. B. He married a girl.

When A is true, B is true. When A is false, B is still true.

When B is false, A is false.. When B is true, A may be true or false. In this way, we say B is A's presupposition.

2016-英语语言学期末试题练习-+答案

英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3918279702.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3918279702.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3918279702.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3918279702.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18

英语语言学概论精选试题学生版

《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断

英语语言学2 Morphology形态学word讲义

Chapter 3 Morphology形态学 Nothing is more important to language than words. Words can carry meaning. Words are the fundamental building blocks of a language. So, is word the most basic or the minimal unit of meaning? If not, then what is? How words are formed?---morphology 3.1 what is morphology? Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 3.2 Open class and closed class (开放词类和封闭词类) Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. New words can be added to open class words regularly with the development of human civilization. However, the number of closed class words is small and stable since few new words are added. 3.3Morphemes--the minimal units of meaning（词素，最小的意义单位） Word is the smallest free from found in language. Word can be further divided into smaller meaningful units---morphemes. So, morpheme is--- the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. 1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boyish, desirable 3-morpheme boyishness, desirability 4-morpheme gentlemanliness, undesir(e)abl(e)ity 5-morpheme ungentlemanliness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism Free morpheme & bound morpheme Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as ―-s‖ in ―dogs‖, ―al‖ in ―national‖, ―dis-‖ in ―disclose‖, ―ed‖ in ―recorded‖, Allomorph

英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.docx

英语语言学一、名词解释第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2Deep structure 深层结构：Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D? structure? 4.Surface structure 表层结构：Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 LReference 指称：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienee. 2.Homonymy 同音异义：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both? 3?Hyponymy 上下义关系：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word? 第六课 l.Pragmatics 语用学：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

英语语言学概论复习

《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization

英语语言学期末考试试卷及答案

英语语言学期末考试试卷第一部分选择题 I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%) 1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view 2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary 3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________. A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue C. but the details of language have to be learnt. D. and the details are acquired by instinct 4. A(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. allophone C. phoneme D. sound 5. The morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. A. derivational B. inflectional C. free D. word-forming 6. WH-movement is __________ in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. A. obligatory B. optional C. selectional D. arbitrary 7. Naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by _________. A. Grice B. Plato C. Saussure D. Ogden and Richards 8. “John married a blond heiress.”__________ “John married a blond.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 9. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called _______, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A. utterance B. reference C. predication D. morpheme 10. In Austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A. a perlocutionary act B. a locutionary act

英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx

第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）

英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.doc

英语语言学一、名词解释第一课共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.

英语语言学概论复习考试

《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an