国际组织简介

This assessment covers the content of Outcome 1.

You are expected to answer BOTH questions, ensuring that you answer each part of question 1.

You should submit your answers in a report format and must quote all information sources that you used in the production of your report.

As a guide, your report should be approximately 2,000 words in length.

Questions

1 Answer the following questions giving detailed information on six international institutions

that you have studied. For each institution you should:

(a) Identify how, why and when these institutions originated.

(b) Identify their role and state how that role has developed from the institution’s origins

to the present day.

(c) Identify how the organisation contributes to the world economy.

2Explain the impact of current changes in the world economy on individual businesses operating in China. Use at least TWO examples to illustrate your answer.

IMF

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

regards it as one of the main pillars of the ‘new international financial architecture’ — that is, the package of proposals for reforming the international financial system that is intended to reduce the frequency and severity of financial

and currency crises in emerging markets. The other pi llars of the IMF’s proposed packag e transparency, prudential regulation of financial institutions, cautious liberalisation of international capital markets and the implementation of codes of international best practice for making and documenting economic policies.

2 To make it easier for developing country governments to force private creditors to concede partial forgiveness of debts in a crisis, the IMF should sometimes ‘lend into arrears’ — that is, it should lend to countries that are in default on contracted debt service payments to banks or private bond holders. During the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s, the IMF refrained from lending to untries in arrears to private creditors, but it began to do so in 1989, and further extended the conditions under which it was willing to do so in 1999.

3 The IMF and G-7 governments should promote the use of collective action

clauses in sovereign bond contracts.1 These clauses make it easier for a

super-majority of bondholders to overrule objections from the remainder to a

proposal by the debtor to reduce, or postpone, contracted debt service payments.

In some sense, the IMF already gives moral support to some standstills by

agreeing to lend to countries that are in arrears to their

private creditors, as long as they are negotiating with those creditors in

good faith to reach a collaborative agreement.

The IMF has become an almost universal financial institution, with its

membership rising from 44 states in 1946 to 184 at present. However,

the members of the IMF do not have an equal voice. States alone and a

group of three Western European countries have veto power.

It is disingenuous of the IMF to imply that its practice of lending to

countries that are in arrears to private creditors gives onl y ‘moral’

support to debtors that unilaterally suspend contracted debt service

payments. The difficulty of forcing debtor governments to honour their

contracts used to be ameliorated by the IMF’s refusal to lend into arrears;

its new willingness to lend into arrears has therefore removed part of the

underpinning of sovereign bond contracts. While the IMF cannot prevent

private bondholders from taking legal actions to enforce contracts, it can

exert enormous influence on a debtor’s decision to renege on deb ts, or to

repay them in full. The reason for this is that Paris Club agreements to

reschedule debts are normally conditional on the debtor government

satisfying the IMF that it is keeping to the terms of an IMF economic

policy program. Whether the IMF approves or condemns a debtor

government’s policies on repayment of private debts is therefore crucial to

obtaining the support of the Paris Club. This in turn is of vital importance to

a debtor government, since the Paris Club’s principles of consensus and

so lidarity make it a cartel of the world’s largest and richest lenders.

Clusion

There are two main objections to bailing up private lenders by having the IMF,

or G-7 governments, provide support to governments that suspend debt service

payments to private bondholders. First, the real conditions that govern bond contracts, as opposed to the nominal conditions, become obscured and ambiguous.

Second, negotiating CCLs with international banks appears to be a less inefficient

way for governments to buy insurance than issuing bonds containing explicit, let

alone implicit and ambiguous, conditions for reduced debt service payments in

adverse circumstances.

In recent decades, many countries have participated in loan programs of the International Monetary Fund. In fact, almost all developing countries have received IMF financial support at least once since 1970. The few exceptions include Botswana, Iraq, Malaysia,

and Kuwait.

WTO

Government Procurement Agreement of World Trade Organization (WTO GPA) aims at ensuring that its contracting parties conduct government procurement in accordance with the two major principles of so as to obtain the best value for money.

With headquarters in Geneva, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which was born in the aftermath of World War II in 1948 initially to liberalize trade in goods and reduce tariffs and other barriers to trade. The GATT dealt mostly with goods, but during the last round of rules revision called the 'Uruguay Round', trade in services was incorporated because tertiary industries (services like banking, investment, insurance, telecoms, travel and tourism) have been growing faster than manufacturing. At the end of the GATT Uruguay Round, the much more aggressive WTO was devised to begin work in 1994 and came into being on 1 January 1995. The rules of the WTO system are agreements resulting from negotiations among member governments. They are ratified by members' parliaments, a nd decisions taken in the WTO are virtually all made by consensus among all members. All agreements and rulings made by

the GATT are included in the WTO agreements.

WTO is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations at a global or near-global level. WTOproducers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. The functions of WTO are to administer WTO trade agreements by providing forum

for trade negotiations, handling trade disputes, monitoring national trade policies, providing technical assistance and training for developing countries and co-operation with other international organizations. 13

The WTO currently has 150 members (including Tonga, the latest acceded member), accounting for over 90% of world trade.14

The WTO agreements are lengthy and complex because they are legal texts covering a wide range of activities. They deal with agriculture, textiles and clothing, banking, telecommunications, government purchases, industrial standards and product safety, food sanitation regulations, intellectual property,

and much more. A number of fundamental principles run throughout these agreements. These principles are the foundation of the multilateral trading system which should be without discrimination, freer, more predictable, with more competition and more beneficial for less developed countries.15 One of the WTO system's principles is for countries to lower their trade

BIS

The Bank for International Settlements(BIS) is an intergovernmental organization of central banks which "fosters international monetary and financial cooperation and serves as a bank for central banks It is not accountable to any national government. The BIS carries out its work through subcommittees, the secretariats it hosts, and through its annual General Meeting of all members. It also provides banking services, but only to central banks, or to international organizations like itself. Based in Basel, Switzerland, the BIS was established by the Hague agreements of 1930. The name of the BIS in German: Bank für Internationalen Zahlungsausgleich (BIZ), in French: Banque des Règlements Internationaux (BRI), in Italian: Banca dei Regolamenti Internazionali (BRI). It has representative offices in Hong Kong and Mexico City.

The Bank for International Settlements was established in 1930. It is the world's oldest international financial institution and remains the principal centre for international central bank cooperation.

The BIS was established in the context of the Young Plan (1930), which dealt with the issue

of the reparation payments imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles following the

First World War. The new bank was to take over the functions previously performed by the Agent General for Reparations in Berlin: collection, administration and distribution of the annuities payable as reparations. The Bank's name is derived from this original role. The BIS was also created to act as a trustee for the Dawes and Young Loans (international loans issued to finance reparations) and to promote central bank cooperation in general.

The reparations issue quickly faded, focusing the Bank's activities entirely on cooperation among central banks and, increasingly, other agencies in pursuit of monetary and financial stability.

Since 1930, central bank cooperation at the BIS has taken place through the regular meetings in Basel of central bank Governors and experts from central banks and other agencies. In support of this cooperation, the Bank has developed its own research in financial and monetary economics and makes an important contribution to the collection, compilation and dissemination of economic and financial statistics.

In the monetary policy field, cooperation at the BIS in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War and until the early 1970s focused on implementing and defending the Bretton Woods system. In the 1970s and 1980s, the focus was on managing cross-border capital flows following the oil crises and the international debt crisis. The 1970s crisis also brought the issue of regulatory supervision of internationally active banks to the fore, resulting in the 1988 Basel Capital Accord and its "Basel II " revision of 2001-06. More recently, the issue of financial stability in the wake of economic integration and globalisation, as highlighted by the 1997 Asian crisis, has received a lot of attention.

Apart from fostering monetary policy cooperation, the BIS has always performed "traditional" banking functions for the central bank community (eg gold and foreign exchange transactions), as well as trustee and agency functions. The BIS was the agent for the European Payments Union (EPU, 1950-58), helping the European currencies restore convertibility after the Second World War. Similarly, the BIS has acted as the agent for various European exchange rate arrangements, including the European Monetary System (EMS, 1979-94) which preceded the move to a single currency.

Finally, the BIS has also provided or organised emergency financing to support the international monetary system when needed. During the 1931-33 financial crisis, the BIS organised support credits for both the Austrian and German central banks. In the 1960s, the BIS arranged special support credits for the French franc (1968), and two so-called Group Arrangements (1966 and 1968) to support sterling. More recently, the BIS has provided finance in the context of IMF-led stabilisation programmes (eg for Mexico in 1982 and Brazil in 1998).

As an organization of central banks, the BIS seeks to make monetary policy more predictable and transparent among its 58 member central banks. While monetary policy is determined by each sovereign nation, it is subject to central and private banking scrutiny and potentially to speculation that affects foreign exchange rates and especially the fate of export economies. Failures to keep monetary policy in line with reality and make monetary reforms in time, preferably as a simultaneous policy among all 58 member banks and also involving the International Monetary Fund, have historically led to losses in the billions as banks try to maintain a policy using open market methods that have proven to be unrealistic. Central banks do not unilaterally "set" rates, rather they set goals and intervene using their massive financial resources and regulatory powers to achieve monetary targets they set. One reason to coordinate policy closely is to ensure that this does not become too expensive and that

opportunities for private arbitrage exploiting shifts in policy or difference in policy, are rare and quickly removed.

Two aspects of monetary policy have proven to be particularly sensitive, and the BIS therefore has two specific goals: to regulate capital adequacy and make reserve requirements transparent.

OECD

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an international economic organisation of 34 countries founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. It

is a forum of countries committed to democracy and the market economy, providing a platform

to compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practices, and

co-ordinate domestic and international policies of its members.

The OECD originated in 1948 as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), led by Robert Marjolin of France, to help administer the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe after W orld W ar II. Later, its membership was extended to

non-European states. In 1961, it was reformed into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development by the Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Most OECD members are high-income economies with a "very high" Human Development Index (HDI) and are regarded as developed countries.

Foundation

Following the 1957 Rome Treaties to launch the European Economic Community, the Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development was drawn up to reform the OEEC.

The Convention was signed in December 1960 and the OECD officially superseded the OEEC in September 1961. It consisted of the European founder countries of the OEEC plus the United States and Canada, with Japan joining three years later. The official founding members are the Republic of Austria, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Dominion of Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, the French Republic, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Greece, the Republic of Iceland, the Republic of Ireland, the Italian Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Norway, the Portuguese Republic, Spain, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Swiss Confederation, the Turkish Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America. During the next 12 years Japan, Finland, Australia, and

New Zealand also joined the organisation. Yugoslavia had observer status in the organisation starting with the establishment of the OECD until its dissolution.[3]

More than just increasing its internal structure, OECD progressively created agencies: the OECD Development Centre (1961), International Energy Agency (IEA, 1974), and Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering.

Unlike the organizations of the United Nations system, OECD uses the spelling "organisation" with an "s" in its name rather than "organization"

Enlargement

In 1989, after the political changes in Central and Eastern Europe, the OECD started to assist these countries to prepare market economy reforms. In 1990, the Centre for Co-operation with European Economies in Transition (now succeeded by the Centre for Cooperation with Non-Members) was established, and in 1991, the Programme "Partners in Transition" was launched for the cooperation with Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland.[3][4] This programme also included a membership option for these countries.[4] As a result of this, in 1994–2000 Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia as well as Mexico and the Republic of Korea became members of the organisation.

In the 1990s, a number of European countries, now members of the European Union, expressed their willingness to join the organisation. In 1995, Cyprus applied for membership, but, according to the Cypriot government, it was vetoed by Turkey.[5] In 1996, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania signed a

Joint Declaration expressing willingness to become full members of the OECD.[6] Slovenia also applied for membership that same year.In 2005 Malta applied to join the organization.

In 2003, the OECD established a working group headed by Japan's Ambassador to the OECD Seiichiro Noboru to work out a strategy for the enlargement and co-operation with non-members. The working group proposed that the selection of candidate countries to be based o n four criteria:

"like-mindedness", "significant player", "mutual benefit" and "global considerations". The working group's recommendations were presented at the OECD Ministerial Council Meeting on 13 and 14 May 2004. Based on these recommendations work, the meeting adopted an agreement on operationalisation of the proposed guidelines and on the drafting of a list of countries suitable as potential candidates for membership. As a result of this work, on 16 May 2007, the OECD Ministerial Council decided to open accession discussions with Chile, Estonia, Israel, Russia and Slovenia and to strengthen co-operation with Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and South Africa through a process of enhanced engagement.Chile, Slovenia, Israel and Estonia all became members in 2010.

In 2011 President Juan Manuel Santos of Colombia express the country's willingness to join the organization during a speech at the OECD headquarters.

variations in country effects among the OECD countries are not correlated with the income variables. There is however, severe serial correlation and a lack of cointegration. There clearly could therefore be omitted integrated variables.

The 51 non-OECD countries dominate the sample and so their results are mostly similar to those for

the World as a whole. As in the case of the World model, the random effects model cannot be consistently for the non-OECD countries. The estimated turning point is extremely high - $131867 - almost double th e turning point for the global sample. The EKC is th erefore monotonic for the non- OECD countries. The estimated time effects (Figure 2) are very similar to those estimated for the

global sample. Emissions decline strongly over time though emissions increase strongly with rising

income levels. Serial correlation is very strong but marginally less severe than for the global model.

List of Countries

OECD

Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,

U.K., U.S.A., West. Germany

Non-OECD

Algeria, Argentina, Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Cyprus, Czech oslovakia, Egypt, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Kenya, Korea, Kuwait, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Peru, Philippines, Romania, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Trinidad&Tobago, Tunisia, Uruguay, U.S.S.R., Venezuela, Yugoslavia, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe

G8

The Group of Eight(G8) is a forum for the governments of eight of the world's largest economies. The forum originated with a 1975 summit hosted by France that brought together representatives of six governments: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, thus leading to the name Group of Six or G6. The summit became known as the Group of Seven or G7the following year with the addition of Canada. In 1997, Russia was added to group which then became known as the G8The European Union is represented within the G8 but cannot host or chair summits"G8" can refer to the member states in aggregate or to the annual summit meeting of the G8 heads of government. The former term, G6, is now frequently applied to the six most populous countries within the European Union. G8 ministers also meet throughout the year, such as the G7/8 finance ministers (who meet four times a year), G8 foreign ministers, or G8 environment ministers.

Collectively, the G8 nations comprise 51.0% of 2011 global nominal GDP and 42.5% of global GDP (PPP). Each calendar year, the responsibility of hosting the G8 rotates through the member states in the following order: France, United States, United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada. The holder of the presidency sets the agenda, hosts the summit for that year, and determines which ministerial meetings will take place. Lately, both France and the United Kingdom have expressed a desire to expand the group to include five developing countries, referred to as the Outreach Five(O5) or the Plus Five: Brazil, People's Republic of China, India, Mexico, and South Africa. These countries have participated as guests in previous meetings, which are sometimes called G8+5.

With the G-20 major economies growing in stature since the 2008 Washington summit, world leaders from the group announced at their Pittsburgh summit on September 25, 2009, that the group will replace the G8 as the main economic council of wealthy nations.

History

The concept of a forum for the world's major industrialized democracies emerged following the 1973 oil crisis. In 1974, a series of meetings in the library of the White House in Washington, D.C. was known as the "Library Group".[5] This was an informal gathering of senior financial officials from the United States, the United Kingdom, West Germany, Japan and France.[6] In 1975, French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing invited the heads of government from West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States to a summit in Chateau de Rambouillet. The six leaders agreed to an annual meeting organized under a rotating presidency, forming the Group of Six (G6). The following year, Canada joined the group at the behest of Germany's Chancellor Helmut Schmidt and U.S. President Gerald Ford[7] and the group became the Group of Seven (G7). The European Union is represented by the President of the European Commission and the leader of the country that holds the Presidency of the Council of the European

Union. The President of the European Commission has attended all meetings since it was first invited by the United Kingdom in 1977[8] and the Council President now also regularly attends.

Following 1994's G7 summit in Naples, Russian officials held separate meetings with leaders of the G7 after the group's summits. This informal arrangement was dubbed the Political 8 (P8) – or, colloquially, the G7+1. At the invitation of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair and President of the United States Bill Clinton, Russia formally joined the group in 1997, resulting in the Group of Eight, or G8.

All eight of the G8 countries are amongst the thirteen top-ranked leading export countries. Six of the G8 countries are among the top 10 with the largest gold reserves (USA, Germany, Italy, France, Russia and Japan.) Some of the world's 18 largest major stock exchanges by traded value and market capitalization are in G8 countries (U.S., Japan, UK, Canada, Germany, Russia.) G8 countries are represented in the top ten economies (by nominal GDP) of the world, according to latest (2011 data) International Monetary Fund's statistics. Also, five countries of the G8 have nominal GDP per capita above US$40,000 (Canada, USA, Japan, France, Germany), from the same 2011 IMF data. However, only five of the G8 nations have a sovereign wealth fund, administered by either a national or a state/provincial government (Russia, USA, France, Canada, Italy).[46] Along with that, the G8 are ranked in the top thirty of nations with large amounts of foreign-exchange reserves in their central banks. The G8 nations also have some of the world's largest, most technologically advanced, and most powerful militaries. Four of the G8 nations have nuclear weapons in operation (France, Russia, UK, USA),[47][48] three others have the capability to rapidly produce nuclear warheads (Canada, Germany, Japan), and some have nuclear weapons sharing programs (Canada, Germany, Italy)。

WBG

The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that makes leveraged loans, generally to poor countries.

The WBG came into formal existence on 27 December 1945 following international ratification of the Bretton Woods agreements, which emerged from the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference (1–22 July 1944). It also provided the foundation of the Osiander-Committee in 1951, responsible for the preparation and evaluation of the World Development Report. Commencing operations on 25 June 1946, it approved its first loan on 9 May 1947 (US$250M to France for postwar reconstruction, in real terms the largest loan issued by the Bank to date). Its five agencies are:

Since inception in 1944, the World Bank has expanded from a single institution to a closely associated group of five development institutions. Our mission evolved from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) as facilitator of post-war reconstruction and development to the present-day mandate of worldwide poverty alleviation in close coordination with our affiliate, the International Development Association, and other members of the World Bank Group, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).

Once, we had a homogeneous staff of engineers and financial analysts, based solely in Washington, D.C. Today, we have a multidisciplinary and diverse staff that includes economists, public policy

experts, sector experts and social scientists—and now more than a third of our staff is based in

country offices.

Reconstruction remains an important part of our work. However, at today's World Bank, poverty reduction through an inclusive and sustainable globalization remains the overarching goal of our work.

The World Bank has long been criticized by a range of non-governmental organizations and academics, notably including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, who is equally critical of the International Monetary Fund, the US Treasury Department, and US and other developed country trade negotiatorsCritics argue that the so-called free market reform policies – which the Bank advocates in many cases – in practice are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence, or in very weak, uncompetitive economies World Bank loan agreements can also force procurements of goods and services at uncompetitive, non free-market, prices

In Masters of Illusion: The World Bank and the Poverty of Nations (1996), Catherine Caufield argues that the assumptions and structure of the World Bank operation ultimately harm developing nations rather than promoting them. In terms of assumption, Caufield first criticizes the highly homogenized and Western recipes of "development" held by the Bank. To the World Bank, different nations and regions are indistinguishable, and ready to receive the "uniform remedy of development". The danger of this assumption is that to attain even small portions of success, Western approaches to life are adopted and traditional economic structures and values are abandoned. A second assumption is that poor countries cannot modernize without money and advice from abroad.

A number of intellectuals in developing countries have argued that the World Bank is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and NGO driven imperialism and that its intellectual contribution functions, primarily, to seek to blame the poor for their condition

Defenders of the World Bank contend that no country is forced to borrow its money. The Bank provides both loans and grants. Even the loans are concessional since they are given to countries that have no access to international capital markets. Furthermore, the loans, both to poor and middle-income countries, are at below market-value interest rates. The World Bank argues that it can help development more through loans than grants, because money repaid on the loans can then be lent for other projects.

UNCTAD

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was established in 1964 as a permanent intergovernmental body. It is the principal organ of the United Nations General Assembly dealing with trade, investment, and development issues.

The organization's goals are to "maximize the trade, investment and development opportunities of developing countries and assist them in their efforts to integrate into the world economy on an equitable basis." (from official website). The creation of the conference was based on concerns of developing countries over the international market, multi-national corporations, and great disparity between developed nations and developing nations.

In the 1970s and 1980s, UNCTAD was closely associated with the idea of a New International Economic Order (NIEO).

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development was established in 1964 in order to provide a forum where the developing countries could discuss the problems relating to their economic development. UNCTAD grew from the view that existing institutions like GATT (now replaced by the World Trade Organization, WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Bank were not properly organized to handle the particular problems of developing countries.

The primary objective of the UNCTAD is to formulate policies relating to all aspects of development including trade, aid, transport, finance and technology. The Conference ordinarily meets once in four years. The first conference took place in Geneva in 1964, second in New Delhi in 1968, the third in Santiago in 1972, fourth in Nairobi in 1976, the fifth in Manila in 1979, the sixth in Belgrade in 1983, the seventh in Geneva in 1987, the eighth in Cartagena in 1992 and the ninth at Johannesburg (South Africa)in 1996. The Conference has its permanent secretariat in Geneva.

One of the principal achievements of UNCTAD has been to conceive and implement the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP). It was argued in UNCTAD, that in order to promote exports of manufactured goods from developing countries, it would be necessary to offer special tariff concessions to such exports. Accepting this argument, the developed countries formulated the GSP Scheme under which manufacturers' exports and some agricultural goods from the developing countries enter duty-free or at reduced rates in the developed countries. Since imports of such items from other developed countries are subject to the normal rates of duties, imports of the same items from developing countries would enjoy a competitive advantage.

Currently, UNCTAD has 194 member States and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. UNCTAD has 400 staff members and an annual regular budget of approximately US$50 million and US$25 million of extra budgetary technical assistance funds. It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.

2 Prices and quantities: measuring and interpreting changes within an

economy

Nominal and real changes in output and expenditure

For any country or individual economy for a specific period of time (normally a year),

its GDP is defined in terms of the value of the output of goods and services produced

within the economy over that period. For any given year, past or present, the outputs

that enter into GDP are measured and valued at the prices prevailing in that year: the

starting point is an estimate of the value of output at current prices, or nominal GDP.

To define and measure changes in aggregate output, or real GDP6 , such initial current-

price estimates have to be corrected for year-to-year changes in the average price level

of the goods and services concerned: for GDP, as for other economic time series,

‘Chages in the values of flows of goods and services can be directly factored into two

components reflecting changes in the prices of the goods and services concerned and

changes in their volumes?(SNA 1993, p. 379). Only by eliminating price effects, and valuing each year’s GDP accordingly, is it possible to derive a consistent measure of changes in output.

Such a measure is indispensable for establishing a true record of the past, for analysing and interpreting economic events and relationships, and for assessing current macroeconomic policy choices. As the SNA notes (para. 16.1), one objective is ‘to assemble a set of intrdependent measures which make it possible to carry out

systematic and detailed analyses of inflation and economic growth and

fluctuations?

For all the above purposes, a necessary first step is to separate out price and quantity elements.

Both nominal and real GDP can be expressed either as an output total, where the component parts comprise value added in different industries or sectors of the economy, or as an expenditure total, made up of final expenditures plus exports less spending on imports. Although the items that make up the two aggregates are thus different, the totals are constrained to be the same: both emerge from the same matrix of transactions in goods and services for the period in question. Changes over time in real GDP are defined as equal whether particular estimates relate to output or to expenditure.

In separating price changes from quantity changes, both practical and analytical problems necessarily arise, and in neither case are there unique and agreed solutions.

2 The entry of foreign banks is categorized as direct WTO effects. Regulations have been the major barriers for fair competition among banks in China. The WTO accession requires that China open up its financial services on equal terms to foreign banks by 2006. Based on their advantages and disadvantages, foreign banks have formulated their strategies after many restrictions previously imposed on them have been lifted by the WTO liberalization. Due to their different motivation in entering the Chinese market, their strategies in further expanding their business in China are also different. Most foreign banks have taken a cautious approach by keeping their focus on corporate customers and on foreign currency business. Because of their

disadvantage in lacking of physical networks, a few international banks willing to

expand in retail banking have to rely more on credit card and Internet banking business

and forge strategic alliances with Chinese banks. So far, foreign banks have taken a relatively big share in foreign currency loans - the business that they first started in

China and that foreign banks are more advantageous. However, on credit card business ?the one m ore closely related to e-commerce, foreign banks have focused

more on a group of elite customers than on ordinary customers, thus having little effect

in improving the online payment for e-commerce adoption in China.

The competitive pressure imposed by foreign banks?entry on domestic bank s is a

type of indirect WTO effect and self-initiated reforms is a complementary explanation.

As a part of its economic reform program, China started its banking reforms over two decades ago. Foreign banks were allowed to enter initially to follow their clients. But

later when China decided to use its WTO accession as external pressure to accelerate reforms and improve its banking sector, restrictions on foreign entry were gradually relaxed. Reforms in domestic banks have increased the competition among different commercial banks. Competitive pressure based on foreign banks?competitive advantages has further induced domestic banks to be more market-oriented and

profit-seeking. As a result, retail banking has attracted attention from Chinese banks.

The government_s effor s in promoting the Golden Card Project and China UnionPay constitute another complementary explanation.

Due to the above explanations, the number of bankcards issued has increased sharply and network interconnection among banks has been improved, thus creating a friendlier environment for e-commerce adoption. The percentage of using online payment method by Chinese Internet users has increased steadily.

In conclusion, the WTO commitments have both direct and indirect effects on banking services in China, but only indirect effects have impacts on e-commerce diffusion.

A.S.L. and Associates (1997) Sulfur Emissions By Country And Year, Report No: DE96014790, US Department of Energy, Washington DC.

Cole M.A., A.J. Rayner, and J.M. Bates (1997) The environmental Kuznets curve: an empirical

an alysis, Environment and Development Economics 2(4), 401-416.

de Bruyn S. M., J. C. J. M. van den Bergh, and J. B. Opschoor (1998) Economic growth and emissions: reconsidering the empirical basis of environmental Kuznets curves, Ecological Economics , special issue on EKC.

de Bruyn S. M. (1997) Explaining the environmental Kuznets curve: structural change an d internation al agreements in reducing sulphur emissions, Environment and Development Economics 2(4), 485-503.

Dignon J. and S. Hameed (1989) Global emissions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides from 1860 to 1980.Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association(JAPCA) 39, 180-186. Dijkgraaf E. and H. R. J. Vollebergh (1998) Growth and/or (?) Environment: Is There a Kuznets Curve for Carbon Emissions?, Paper presented at the 2nd biennial meeting of the European Society for Ecological Economics, Geneva, 4-7th March.

Engle, R. E. and C. W. J. Granger (1987) Cointegration and error-correction: representation, estimation, and testing, Econometrica55, 251-276.

【国际组织全说(一)】上合组织的简介

上海合作组织简介 上海合作组织简称上合组织，前身是“上海五国”会晤机制。1996年4月26日，中国、俄罗斯联邦、哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦五国元首在上海举行首次会晤。从此，“上海五国”会晤机制正式建立。 上海合作组织{[俄语]ШанхайскаяОрганизацияСотрудничества[英语]ShanghaiCooperation Organization（SCO）}。2001年6月14日~6月15日，上海合作组织国家元 首在上海举行第六次会谈，乌兹别克斯坦正式加入上海合作组织。并在次日，上海合作组织国家元首举行首次会谈并签署《上海合作组织成立宣言》，上海合作组织正式成立。上海合作组织国家元首正式签署《关于打击恐怖主义、分裂主义和宗教激进主义公约》。同年9月，上海合作组织政府首脑在哈萨克斯坦阿拉木图举行首次会谈。上海合作组织政府首脑在会谈中联合决定启动上海和组织多边经济合作进程，宣布正式建立上海合作组织政府首脑定期会谈机制。 中亚国家除土库曼斯坦外，均加入了上海合作组织。上海合作组织成员国总面积近3018.9万平方千米，占亚欧大陆面积的五分之三；人口15亿，占世界总人口的四分之一。 上海合作组织是致力于经济合作的国家间地区性国际组织。 起源和建立 上海合作组织起源于1989年开始的，是中国、俄罗斯、哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦的关于加强边境地区信任和裁军的谈判进程的组织。上海合作组织是第一座以中国城市命名的国际组织，它进一步加强了我国与周边国家的关系。 上海合作组织成员国：中国、哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、俄罗斯、塔吉克斯坦和乌兹别克斯坦；观察员国：蒙古、伊朗、巴基斯坦和印度。和平伙伴国：白俄罗斯和斯里兰卡。 成立宣言（全文） 哈萨克斯坦共和国、中华人民共和国、吉尔吉斯共和国、俄罗斯联邦、塔吉克斯坦共和国和乌兹别克斯坦共 和国国家元首，高度评价上海合作组织成立五年来在促进并深化成员国之间睦邻互信与友好关系、巩固地区安全 和稳定、促进联合发展方面发挥的积极作用；我们一致认为上海合作组织的建立和发展顺应了冷战结束后人类要求和平与发展的历史潮流，展示了不同文明背景、传统文化差异的国家通过互尊互信实现和平共处、团结合作的巨大潜力；特别指出哈萨克斯坦共和国、中华人民共和国、吉尔吉斯斯坦共和国、俄罗斯联邦和塔吉克斯坦共和国国家元首1996年和1997年分别在中国上海和俄罗斯莫斯科签署的关于在边境地区加强国防安全信任和关于在边境地区互相裁减国防武装力量的两项条约以及在哈萨克斯坦阿拉木图（1998年）、吉尔吉斯斯坦比什凯克（1999年）、乌兹别克斯坦杜尚别（2000年）会谈期间签署的总结性文件，为维护地区和世界的和平、安全与稳定作出了重要贡献，大大丰富了当代外交和地区合作的实践，在国际社会产生了广泛积极的影响；确信在二十一世纪政治多极化、经济和信息全球化进程迅速发展的背景下，将上海合作组织提升到更高的合作层次，有利于成员国更有效地联合利用机遇和应对新的挑战与威胁；兹郑重宣布： 一、哈萨克斯坦共和国、中华人民共和国、吉尔吉斯共和国、俄罗斯联邦、塔吉克斯坦共和国和乌兹别克斯坦共和国建立上海合作组织。 二、上海合作组织的宗旨是：加强成员国之间的互相信任与睦邻友好；鼓励成员国在政

国际组织图标 (1)

联合国(United Nations )：从北极看去的世界地图，图上标有陆地和海域，象征联合国是一个世界性的国际组织组织；周围环绕着橄榄枝环，象征着联合国的根本宗旨是维护世界和平。 世界卫生组织（World Health Organization ）简称世卫组织或世卫（WHO）：由一条蛇盘绕的权杖所覆盖的联合国标志组成，表明它是一个医药卫生机构，蛇杖很久以来就是医药与医药职业的象征。 国际红十字会（International Committee of the Red Cross-ICRC）：由于十字是基督教的宗教符号，伊斯兰国家不愿意接受而采用“红新月”标志，得到了国际红十字会承认。

世界贸易组织（World Trade Organization?），简称“世贸组织”（WTO）：标识久看有动感，象征世贸组织充满活力。 北大西洋公约组织（North Atlantic Treaty Organization ），简称北约组织或北约（NATO）：四角北极星图案，则是象征着北约-这个军事集团的根本宗旨。 石油输出国组织（Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ），简称“欧佩克”(OPEC)：英文缩写字母“OPEC”构成的几何图案。 欧洲联盟（European Union），简称欧盟（EU）：12个金色的星星代表着欧洲人民的团结与和谐，数字12在传统上是完美、完整和统一的象征。实际上这个十二星旗代表的是圣母玛利亚的十二星冠，寓意圣母玛利亚将永远保佑欧洲联盟。

国际刑警组织（International Criminal Police Organization” ），简称“ICPO”：会徽为中间缀有剑、天平和橄榄枝包围的地球，表示该组织的宗旨是维护社会的安定。 世界自然基金会（World Wide Fund For Nature） 国际志愿者组织 国际非盈利性组织

联合国主要机构及主要国际组织名称中英版本

1．联合国主要机构及主要国际组织名称 General Assembly of the United Nations 联合国大会 International Court of Justice 国际法院 Security Council 安理会 UNDOF(United Nations Disengagement Observer Force) 联合国脱离接触观察员 部队 UNPKF(United Nations Peace-keeping Force) 联合国维和部队 GATT(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) 关税及贸易总协定 ILO(International Labour Organization) 国际劳工组织 FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization) 联合国粮食及农业组织UNESCO(United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) 联合国教科文组织 UNEP(United Nations Environment Programme) 联合国环境规划署 UNDP(United Nations Development Program) 联合国开发计划署 World Food Council 世界粮食理事会 UNCTD(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) 联合国贸易和发 展会议 WHO(World Health Organization) 世界卫生组织 IMF(International Monetary Fund) 国际货币基金组织 IBRD(International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) 国际复兴开发银行 （世界银行） ICAO(International Civil Aviation Organization) 国际民用航空组织 UPU(Universal Postal Union) 万国邮政联盟 WIPO(World International Property Organization) 世界知识产权组织 IAEA(International Atomic Energy Agency) 国际原子能机构 UNHCR(Officer of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) 联合国难民事务高级专员处 ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations) 东南亚国际联盟，（“东盟”）Commonwealth of Nations 英联邦 EC(European Communities) 欧洲共同体 NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 北大西洋公约组织 OAU(Organization of African Unity) 非洲统一组织 OAS(Organization of American States) 美洲国家组织

【国际组织全说(二)】世界银行概况及发展简史

世界银行 世界银行（WBG）是世界银行集团的俗称，“世界银行”这个名称一直是用于指国际复兴开发银行(IBRD)和国际开发协会(IDA)。这些机构联合向发展中国家提供低息贷款、无息信贷和赠款。它是一个国际组织，其一开始的使命是帮助在第二次世界大战中被破坏的国家的重建。今天它的任务是资助国家克服穷困，各机构在减轻贫困和提高生活水平的使命中发挥独特的作用。 银行简介 世界银行成立于1945年12月27日，1946年6月开始营业。凡是参加世界 银行的国家必须首先是国际货币基金组织的会员国。成立的详细背景参照国际货币基金组织一章。世界银行集团目前由国际复兴开发银行(即世界银行)、国际开发协会、国际金融公司、多边投资担保机构和解决投资争端国际中心五个成员机构组成。总部设在美国首都华盛顿。国际银行家推动的美国联邦货币储备委员会也在此地。世界银行[1]仅指国际复兴开发银行(IBRD)和国际开发协会(IDA)。"世界银行集团"则包括IBRD、IDA及三个其它机构，即国际金融公司、多边投资担保机构和解决投资争端国际中心。这五个机构分别侧重于不同的发展领域，但都运用其各自的比较优势，协力实现其共同的最终目标，即减轻贫困。 世界银行的工作经常受到非政府组织和学者的严厉批评，有时世界银行自己内部的审查也对其某些决定质疑。往往世界银行被指责为美国或西方国家施行有利于它们自己的经济政策的执行者，此外往往过快、不正确地、按错误的顺序引入的或在不适合的环境下进行的市场经济改革对发展中国家的经济反而造成破坏。世界银行的真正掌控者是世界银行巨头，他们最终的目的是追逐利润，现在的状况可以说是一个妥协的结果。 今天世界银行的主要帮助对象是发展中国家，帮助它们建设教育、农业和工业设施。它向成员国提供优惠贷款，同时世界银行向受贷国提出一定的要求，比如减少贪污或建立民主等。 世界银行（WBG）与国际货币基金组织（IMF）和世界贸易组织（WTO）一道，成为国际经济体制中最重要的三大支柱。 股份介绍 世界银行的股份，世界银行按股份公司的原则建立。成立初期，世界银行法定资 本100亿美元，全部资本为10万股，每股10万美元。凡是会员国均要认购银行的股份，认购额由申请国与世行协商并经世行董事会批准。一般来说，一国认购股份的多少根据该国的经济实力，同时参照该国在国际货币基金组织缴纳的份额大小而定。会员国认购股份的缴纳有两种方法： (1)会员国认购的股份，先缴20%。其中2%要用黄金或美元缴纳，18%用会员国本国的货币缴纳。 (2)其余80%的股份，当世行催交时，用黄金、美元或世界银行需要的货币缴付。 世界银行的重要事项都需会员国投票决定，投票权的大小与会员国认购的股本成正比，与国际货币基金的有关投票权的规定相同。世界银行每一会员国拥有250票基本投票权，每认购10万美元的股本即增加一票。美国认购的股份最多，有投票权226178票，占总投票数的17.37%，对世界银行事务与重要贷款项目的决定起着重要作用。我国认购的股金为42.2亿美元，有投票权35221票，占总投票数的2.71%。2010年世界银行发展委员会春季会议4月25日通过了发达国家向发展中国家转移投票权的改革方案，这次改革使中国在世行的投票权从2.77%提高到4.42%，成为世界银行第三大股东国，仅次于美国和日本。 组织机构 世界银行的最高权利机构是理事会，由每一会员国选派理事和副理事各一人组成。任期

一些重要国际组织名称缩写

一些重要国际组织名称缩写Abbreviations for the Names of Important International Organiz ations 重要国际组织名称缩写 ADB = Asian Development Bank 亚洲开发银行 APEC = Asia-Pacific Economic Co operation (group) 亚洲和太平洋经济合作组织 ASEAN = Association of Southeas t Asian Nations 东南亚国家联盟AU = African Union 非洲联盟CARICOM = Caribean Community an

d Common Market 加勒比共同体和共同市场 CD = conference on Disarmament 裁军谈判会议 CHR = Commission on Human Right s (联合国)人权委员会 CIS = Commonwealth of Independe nt States 独立国家联合体 The Commonwealth = Commonwealth of Nations 英联邦 EC = European Community 欧洲共同体（已被EU取代） EFTA = European Free Trade Asso ciation 欧洲自由贸易协会 EP = European Parliament 欧洲议

IMF = International Monetary Fu nd (联合国)国际货币基金组织Interpol = International Crimin al Police Organization 国际刑事警察组织 IOC = International Olympic com mittee 国际奥委会 NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Or ganization 北大西洋公约组织NAM = Non-Aligned Movement 不结盟运动 OAS = Organization of American States 美洲国家组织 OAU = Organization of African U nity 非洲同一组织（已被AU取代）

国际组织重要知识点概括

第一单元：国家和国际组织 一、国家职能：、 二、国家管理形式（政体） 1、从国家权力机关和国家元首的产生方式及其职权范围看分为、 2、从立法机关与行政机关的关系看,现代资本主义国家可以分为、 、 3、我国的管理形式： （1）最重要、最显著的特点 （2）根本原因： 4、国体与政体的关系： 三、现代国家的国家结构形式 1、分类: 、 2、坚持一个中国,实现祖国统一： 为什么？ 怎么做？ 四、国际组织： 1、分类 2、作用 第二单元：君主立宪制和民主共和制:英国和法国为例 一、英国国王和君主立宪制 （一）英国的议会 1、议会是最高，由和组成。 ①下院 ②上院 （二）英国的内阁与首相 1、地位：内阁是英国政府的核心领导机关。 2、内阁权力主要有： （三）决定君主立宪制存在与否的因素：、、 (四)英国君主立宪制的结构和特点 1.英国国家的主要机构有、、 2.特点： （1）（2） （3）（4） （三）英国君主立宪制的实质 二、法国的民主共和制与半总统半议会制 （一）民主共和制的形成与主要权力机关 1、法国是典型的资产阶级民主共和制国家。人们根据它的政体特征，又把称为 2、法国国家机构由、、组成（1）总统是国家元首和武装部队的统帅；任期五年；由选民直接选举产生。 （2）总理是政府首脑，由总统任命。 （3）议会由和两院组成。 ①国民议会 A、由选民直接选举产生。 B、主要职权：、、 ②参议院成员 A、参议院由国民议会议员、省议会议员、市议会议员组成的选举团选举产生。 B、参议院的主要职权： （二）法国政体的运行 1、总统及其主要职权：、、

4、总理与总统的关系：、、 5、议会及其主要职权：、 （三）法国政体的特点： 1、半总统半议会制 （1）总统——地位高，权力大 （2）议会监督政府，削弱总统权力 （3）议会对总统有直接和间接的监督权 （4）总统的重要文件、命令要由总理副署 2、“左右共治”是法国政体结构导致的一种特有现象。 “左右共治”对总统和总理都是一种挑战，处理不好，就会引发危机。 原因：总统和总理权力来源不同。（选民选出总统，总统直接任命总理，但总理要对议会负责，因此总统任命总理时，必须接受议会多数党推举的总理候选人，但总统与总理不一定是同一党派） 3、多党制也是法国政体的一个特点。 三、英法政治体制的异同 （一）两国政体的差异： （二）政体相异的缘由、、 （三）英法两国政体的共同点： 第三单元：联邦制、两党制、三权分立：以美国为例 一、美国的联邦制 1、美国联邦制的特点：、、 2、联邦制的利弊：、 二、美国的两党制 1、美国两党制的主要表现： 2、美国政党的特征： 3、两党制的实质 三、美国的三权分立 1、三权分立制的含义及其影响： （１）含义： （２）影响： 2、美国确立三权分立原则的原因、 3、三权分立原则的地位： 4、核心内容——权力分立、制约和平衡。 （1）权力分立： （2）三种权力的相互制衡（一定要记住国会与总统的关系） 5、三权分立的历史进步性与弊端： 6、三权分立制的本质 四、美国的利益集团 （一）名目繁多的利益集团 1、利益集团在美国政治生活中的地位、影响： （二）利益集团的活动方式 1、利益集团用以影响美国政治的主要因素：、、 2、利益集团影响政府的手段（合法）： （三）利益集团的政治作用：

世界历史上的重要会议和国际组织

世界历史上的重要会议和国际组织 山东王涛 1.巴黎和会 （1）时间：1919年1月—6月。 （2）主要目的：战胜的协约国集团为了缔结和约，对战后的世界做出安排。 （3）操纵者：法国总理克里孟梭、英国首相劳合·乔治、美国总统威尔逊。 （4）中心问题：处置战败的德国。 （5）结果：签订了《凡尔赛和约》，形成了凡尔赛体系。 （6）《凡尔赛和约》的主要内容：①领土：由法国收回阿尔萨斯和洛林。②军事：禁止德国实行义务兵役制；不许拥有空军，陆军人数不得超过10万；莱茵河东岸50千米内，德国不得设防。③政治：德国承认并尊重奥地利的独立。④赔款：由协约国设立“赔款委员会”，决定德国战争赔款的总数。⑤殖民地：德国的全部海外殖民地由英、法、日等国瓜分。 （7）实质：是一次帝国主义分赃性质的会议（《凡尔赛和约》关于殖民地问题的规定最能体现出来）。 （8）评价：①积极方面：确立了帝国主义在非洲、欧洲和西亚的统治秩序；暂时调整了帝国主义在西方的矛盾；形成凡尔赛体系。②消极方面：加深了战胜国和战败国之间、战胜国之间、殖民地半殖民地与帝国主义间的矛盾，使体系不能长久。 （9）对中国的影响：《凡尔赛和约》规定德国在中国山东的全部权益由日本继承。这激起了中国人民的极大愤慨，引发了反帝反封建的五四运动，中国政府代表最终拒绝在和约上签字。中国进入新民主主义革命时期。 2.华盛顿会议 （1）背景：帝国主义在东亚、太平洋地区的矛盾十分尖锐，日美之间的矛盾尤为激烈。（2）时间：1921—1922年。 （3）参加国：美、英、日、法、意、中、比、荷、葡。 （4）操纵国：美、英、日。

（5）目的：协调帝国主义在东亚和太平洋地区的关系。 （6）结果：签订《九国公约》（对中国的和约）、《四国条约》、《五国条约》。 （7）《九国公约》的主要内容：尊重中国主权、独立与领土的完整；遵守各国在中国的“门户开放”、“机会均等”原则。主要问题是中国问题。 （8）评价：确立了帝国主义在东亚、太平洋统治的新秩序；形成华盛顿体系。 （9）对中国的影响：①使中国回复到几个帝国主义国家共同支配的局面。②打破了一战时日本独霸中国的局面，为美国在中国的扩张提供便利。③中国利用帝国主义之间的矛盾收回了山东主权。 3.慕尼黑会议 （1）时间：1938年9月。 （2）参加者：德国希特勒、意大利墨索里尼、英国张伯伦、法国达拉第。 （3）目的：英、法以牺牲捷克斯洛伐克为代价求得一时太平。 （4）内容及成果：会议签订《慕尼黑协定》（全称为《关于捷克斯洛伐克割让苏台德领土给德国的协定》）：规定捷克斯洛伐克必须在10天之内把苏台德等地割让给德国。 （5）实质：捷克斯洛伐克被出卖，会议是绥靖政策的集中体现，标志着绥靖政策达到了顶峰。 （6）后果：慕尼黑阴谋暴露了英法的软弱，助长了德国法西斯的侵略气焰。不久德国吞并整个捷克斯洛伐克，增强了德国的经济和军事实力，在战略上处于更加有利的地位，加速了德国发动侵略战争的步伐。此后，苏联对英法更加不信任，苏德间签订《苏德互不侵犯条约》，使德国消除了发动战争的后顾之忧，在客观上加速了二战的全面爆发。同时也不利于反法西斯同盟的早日形成。 4.雅尔塔会议（也称“克里木会议”） （1）时间：1945年2月。 （2）背景：世界反法西斯战争即将取得胜利。 （3）目的：为了协调行动，尽快打败法西斯；安排战后世界一系列政治与安全问题。 （4）与会国：美（罗斯福）、英（丘吉尔）、苏（斯大林）。 （5）内容：①打败德国后对其实行军事占领，彻底消灭德国的法西斯主义。②苏联承诺在德国投降后三个月内，参加对日本法西斯的作战。③成立联合国。

世界国际组织英文缩写大全

ACP Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific Region Countries 非洲、加勒比和太平洋国家集团 ADB Asian Development Bank 亚洲开发银行 ADB African Development Bank 非洲开发银行 APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 亚太经济合作组织 ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations 东南亚国家联盟公约 AU African Union 非洲联盟 BFA Boao Forum for Asia 博鳌亚洲论坛 BIE Bureau of International Expositions 国际展览局 BIS Bank for International Settlements 国际清算银行 CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission 食品法典委员会 CDB Caribbean Development Bank 加勒比开发银行 CFC Common Fund for Commodities 商品共同基金 CSD Commission on Sustainable Development 联合国可持续发展委员会 EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 欧洲复兴发展银行 ECLAC UN Economic Commission for Latin America and Caribbean 联合国拉丁美洲和加勒比经济委员会 ECOSOC UN Economic and Social Council 联合国经济和社会理事会 ESCAP UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific 联合国亚洲及太平洋经济社会委员会 ESCWA UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia 联合国西亚经济社会委员会 EU European Union 欧洲联盟G G 8 Summit Group of Eight Summit 八国集团首脑会议 G20 Group of Twenty 20国集团 G24 Group of Twenty Four 24国集团 IADB Inter-American Development Bank 美洲开发银行/泛美开发银行 IATA International Air Transport Association 国际航空运输协会 IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 国际复兴开发银行/世界银行 ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization 国际民航组织 ICC The International Chamber of Commerce 国际商会 ICO International Coffee Organization 国际咖啡组织 ICSID International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes 国际投资争端解决中心 IDA International Development Association 国际开发协会 IDB Inter-American Development Bank 美洲开发银行 IDB Islamic Development Bank 伊斯兰开发银行 IEA International Energy Agency 国际能源机构

世界主要国际经济组织介绍

世界主要国际经济组织 热点提示： 当今世界经济发展的区域集团化和全球化趋势日益明显,而一些主要国际经济组织的不断出现，推动了这两大经济发展趋势的加强，建议复习时注意如下几个知识点： 1、战后初期的资本主义世界经济体系 2、经济区域集团化和经济全球化发展趋势 3、主要的经济区域集团，中国和亚太经济合作组织的关系 4、主要的经济全球化组织，中国与关贸总协定、世界贸易组织的关系 考纲要求： 1、布雷顿森林体系”建立为例，认识第二次世界大战后以美国为主导的资本主义世界经济体系 的形成。 2、以欧洲联盟、北美自由贸易区及亚太经济合作组织为例，认识当今世界经济区域集团化发展 趋势。 3、了解世界贸易组织（WTO）的由来和发展，认识它在世界经济全球化进程中的作用。了解中国 参加世界贸易组织（WTO）的史实，认识其影响和作用。 史论共享： 1、美国主导的资本主义世界经济体系的形成： 为了建立以美国为主导的资本主义世界经济体系，除了建立“布雷顿森林体系”外，美国还致力于建立国际贸易组织。世界银行、国际货币基金组织和关贸总协定成为战后支撑世界经贸关系的三大支柱，在此基础上，战后资本主义世界经济体系形成。尽管美国拥有特殊地位，但三大支柱的出现顺应了经济全球化的历史趋势，反映了第二次世界大战后世界经济朝着体系化和制度化的方向发展。 2、认识世界经济区域集团化： 经济区域集团化是指在一定区域范围内，地理位置邻近的若干国家，通过一系列协议和条约建立的区域经济合作组织。经济区域集团化是战后世界经济中出现的一种新趋势。20世纪80年代中期以后，随着各国经济联系日益密切和国际经济竞争日益加剧，经济区域集团化发展迅速。 3、世界贸易组织在经济全球化进程中的影响： 世界贸易组织致力于促进各国市场开放，调解贸易纠纷，实现全球范围内的贸易自由化。世贸组织的一些决策，对抑制国际经济贸易关系中的强权政治，具有深远影响和现实意义。世界贸易组织的成立，表明经济全球化的进程又取得了实质性的进展。它的发展，意味着世界贸易自由化将在相互妥协、互相监督、尽量有序的基础上进行。中国加入世界贸易组织，有利于参与国际经济合作和国际分工，促进经济发展，赢得竞争机遇；同时，也会对中国带来压力和严峻的挑战，国内的某些产业会受到冲击。 知识结构： 一．二战后以美国为主导的资本主义世界经济体系的形成。 （一）布雷顿森林会议 1．背景：①大危机及二战的惨痛教训使人们认识到战后建立有效机制、稳定世界经济的必要性。②二战后资本主义经济格局发生变化：德、意、日战败，国内废墟一片；英法实力大为削弱；美国经济实力空前膨胀（出口额占资本主义世界出口额的32.5%，外汇黄金储备占资本主义世界总储备的74.6%，成为世界最大的债权国）。③美国企图凭借经济实力确立其世界经济的霸主地位。 2．召开：1944年7月，美、英、中等44个战时盟国代表在美国布雷顿森林举行联合国国际货币金融会议。 3．内容：通过《联合国货币金融会议最后决议书》及附件，决定成立国际货币基金组织和世界银行。 4．意义：标志着布雷顿森林体系——以美元为主导的国际货币金融体系的形成。

国际组织的标志

世界和平组织的标志 世界和平组织的标志(Greenpeace)是绿色和平组织的简称，属于一个国际性的非政府组织，以环保工作为主，总部设在荷兰的阿姆斯特丹。绿色和平于1971年9月15日成立于加拿大，创始人为工程师戴维·麦格塔格，捐款的人数已经累积到280万。在全球41个国家设有办事处。它开始时以使用非暴力方式阻止大气和地下核试以及公海捕鲸著称，后来转为关注其它的环境问题，包括水底拖网捕鱼、全球变暖和基因工程。绿色和平组织宣称自己的使命是：“保护地球、环境及其各种生物的安全及持续性发展，并以行动作出积极的改变。”不论在科研或科技发明方面，绿色和平都提倡有利于环境保护的解决办法。对于有违以上原则的行为，绿色和平都会尽力阻止。其宗旨是促进实现一个更为绿色，和平和可持续发展的未来。 世界遗产公约的标志 世界遗产公约的标志,它象征着“文化遗产与自然遗产”之间相互依存的关系。中央的正方形是人类创造的形状，圆圈代表大自然，两者密切相连。这个标志呈圆形，既象征全世界，也象征着要进行保护。

世界卫生组织会徽 世界卫生组织会徽是由1948年第一届世界卫生大会选定的。该会徽由一条蛇盘绕的权杖所覆盖的联合国标志组成。长期以来，由蛇盘绕的权杖系医学及医学界的标志。它起源于埃斯科拉庇俄斯的故事，古希腊人将其尊崇为医神，并且其崇拜涉及蛇的使用。（随便提及，埃斯科拉庇俄斯如此成功地拯救生命，以致传说地狱阎王哈德斯向至高无上的神宙斯抱怨他， 由于害怕医者可能使人永生，宙斯用雷电杀死了埃斯科拉庇俄斯。） 世界贸易组织 WTO/TBT的全称为“世界贸易组织贸易技术壁垒协定”，它是世界贸易组织（WTO）达成的一系列协议之一，世贸组织签署的各项协议均构成各成员必须遵守的法定合同。 所谓贸易技术壁垒是指由于各国或地区对技术法规、标准、合格评定程序以及标签标志制度 等技术要求的制订或实施不当，而可能给国际贸易造成不必要的障碍。

重要国际组织名称缩写

1.重要国际组织名称缩写 2.ADB=Asian Development Bank亚洲开发银行 APEC=Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(group)亚洲和太平洋经济合作组织 ASEAN=Association of Southeast Asian Nations东南亚国家联盟 AU=African Union非洲联盟 CARICOM=Caribbean Community and Common Market加勒比共同体和共同市场 CD=conference on Disarmament裁军谈判会议 CHR=Commission on Human Rights(联合国)人权委员会 CIS=Commonwealth of Independent States独立国家联合体 The Commonwealth=Commonwealth of Nations英联邦 EC=European Community欧洲共同体（已被EU取代） EFTA=European Free Trade Association欧洲自由贸易协会 EP=European Parliament欧洲议会 EU=European Union欧盟 GATT=General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade关税和贸易协定（已被WTO取代） G-7=Group of Seven(西方)七国集团 IAEA=International Atomic Energy Agency国际原子能机构 IBRD=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development(联合国)国际复兴开发银行

10.主要国际组织--中英

国际组织名称英文翻译[International Organizations] 阿拉伯国家联盟League of Arab States [=Arab League] 阿拉伯石油输出国组织Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries [=OAPEC] 阿拉伯首脑会议Arab Summit Conference 安第斯共同市场Andeans Common Market [=ACM]; Andeans Treaty Organization [=ATO] 安第斯集团Andeans Pact Organization; Andeans Group 安第斯条约组织Andeans Pact Organization; Andeans Group 澳新美理事会Australia, New Zealand, United States Treaty Organization Council [=ANZUS] 巴黎统筹委员会Coordinating Committee [=COCOM] 北大西洋公约组织North Atlantic Treaty Organization [=NATO] 北欧理事会Nordic Council 北约North Atlantic Treaty Organization [=NATO] 波罗的海商业和航运交易所Baltic Mercantile and Shipping Exchange 不结盟国家和政府首脑会议Conference of Heads of State and Government of Non-Aligned Countries 不结盟国家会议Conference of Heads of State and Government of Non-Aligned Countries 布里顿森林协议Bretton Wood Agreement 东非共同市场East African Common Market [=EACM] 东非共同体East African Community [=EAC] 东非和中非国家首脑会议Conference of Heads of State and Government of East and Central African Countries 东非和中非国家元首和政府首脑会议Conference of Heads of State and Government of East and Central African Countries 东盟Association of South East Asian Nations [=ASEAN] 全部： African Development Fund 非洲开发基金ADF African Groundnut Council 非洲花生理事会AGC African Liberation Committee 非洲解放委员会 African Postal Union 非洲邮政联盟AFPU African Postal and Telecommunication Union 非洲邮政电信联盟APU/ATU African Timber Organization 非洲木材组织ATO Agency for the Protection of Number weapons in Latin America 拉丁美洲禁止核武器组织OPANAL American International Chamber of Commerce 美国国际商会 Andean Pact Organization 安第斯条约组织（安第斯集团）Andean Group Andean Reserve Fund 安第斯储备基金会FAR Anzus Council 澳新美理事会 Arab African International Bank 阿拉伯-非洲国际银行 Arab Common Market 阿拉伯共同市场 Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development 阿拉伯经济和社会发展基金会AFESD

常见的国际组织

常见的国际组织 Internet Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)国际原子能机构 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)国际复兴开发银行International Cargo Handing Coordination Association(ICHCA)国际装卸调协会International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)国际商会 International Chamber of Shipping (ICS)国际航运商会 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 国际民航组织 International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC)国际棉花咨询委员会International Development Association (IDE)国际开发协会 International Energy Agency Program (IEAP)国际能源组织 International Energy Program (IEP)国际能源计划署 International Finance Corporation (IFC) 国际协会金融公司 International Labour Organization(ILO) 国际劳工组织 International Law Association (ILA) 国际法协会 International Law Commission(ILC) 国际法律委员会 International Monetary Fund(IMF) 国际货币基金组织 International Tea Committee (ITC)国际茶叶委员会 International Trade Centre (ITC)国际贸易中央 International Trade Development Association (INTRADE)国际贸易发铺协会International Union of Marine Insurance (IUMI) 国际航运保险联合会Organization of Raw Materials and Exporting Countries (ORMEC)原料生产同出口国组织 The Group of 77 77国集团 United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF)联合国资本开发基金会United Nations Children Fund (UNCF)联合国儿童基金会 United Nations Commission on International Trade Law(UNCITL) 联合国国际贸易法委员会 United Nations commission on Trade and Development (UNCTD) 联合国贸易同发铺会议 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 联合国开发计划署 United Nations Economic and Social Council (UNESC) 联合国经济及社会理事会United Nations Economic Development Administration (UNEDA) 联合国经济开发署 United Nations Educational,研究对象发生了较大变化, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)联合国教科文组织 United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF)联合国紧急部队 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 联合国环境规划署 United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization (UNFAO) 联合国粮农组织United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) 联合国人口活动基金会United Nation High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) 联合国难民署 United Nations Industrial development Organization (UNIDO) 联合国工业发铺组织 United Nations International V oluntary Service Fund (UNIVSF) 联合国国际志愿服务基金会

国际组织International Organization

International Organization I.Introduction简介 International organizations play a very important role in the global society. It is very difficult to imagine the contemporary world without them. A variety of other problems posed similarly complex challenges such as weapons of mass destruction, the continuing conflicts in the Middle East and the Balkans, tensions between India and Pakistan and so on. These global problems can not be solved only by one country, they are problems influence all of the world, even the superpower ,the United States can not. 国际组织在国际社会中起着非常重要的作用。难以想象没有他们的当代世界。国际问题例如大规模杀伤性武器的使用，在中东和巴尔干半岛持续的冲突，印度和巴基斯坦的紧张关系。这些问题不是一个国家所能解决，全世界的国家都被影响。即使是像美国一样的超级大国也不可能独自处理国际问题。 So it is the modern society that acquires the cooperation of some sort among governments and the increasing number of non-state actors in the world .We should have international organizations to communicate with each other .We should have the chance to exchange information in some formal area. 现代社会要求政府和非政府组织的共同合作。我们应该有国际组织来互相沟通。我们应该创造机会在某些专门领域进行信息交换。 And because of the different constitution of international organizations, they have been simply divided into two broad categories. They are international intergovernmental (IGO) and international non-governmental (INGO). They are founded to solve the wide variety of international problems, the motives are different interests that appeal to the human mind. Because of the various international organizations, we can use worldwide power and knowledge to solve problems. The human society is the final beneficiary. 由于国际组织不同的构成，他们被简单地分为两大类。分别是政府间国际组织（IGO）和非政府间国际组织（INGO）。他们基于不同的利益诉求而成立，为了解决各种各样的国际问题。因为国际组织，我们可以用世界的力量和知识来解决问题，人类社会将会是最终的受益者。 II.Development of International Organization 国际组织的发展历程 i.The establishment of international organization国际组织的建立