词汇学。

第一章

1. 定义：Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

2. sound和meaning关系：There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German， ’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand， the same sound /rait/ can mean right， rite and write， though denoting different things， yet have the same sound.

3. 发音与形式的差异原因：The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.

（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）

a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.

b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling

c）. Influence of the work of printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500

d）. Borrowing of foreign language

　

4.词的分类—by use frequency， by notion， by origin

1）. Basic word stock（基本词汇） – the foundation of the vocabulary.基本词汇的特点1. all national character （全明性most important）– natural phenomena，most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us， names of plants and animals2. stability稳定性 – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life， they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.3. productivity多产性 – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words， they can form new words with other roots and affixes.4. polysemy一次多义 – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.5. collocability习惯搭配 – quite a number of set expressions， idiomatic usages， proverbial saying and others



2）.Non-basic vocabulary（非基本词汇） ——例如：1. terminology术语 – technical terms:photoscanning， hepatitis， indigestion， penicillin， algebra， trigonometry， calculus.2. jargon行话 – specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line， ballpark figures， bargaining chips， hold him back， hold him in， paranoid。3. slang俚语 —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread， grass and pot， beaver， smoky， bear， catch， holler， Roger， X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot黑话 – words used by sub-cultured groups
can-opener， dip， persuadercant， jargon ， argot are associated with， or most available to， specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words方言 – only by speakers of the dialect beauty， chook， cocky， station， auld， build， coo， hame， lough， bog。6. archaisms古词 – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poem

s， legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism新意 – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics， futurology， AIDS， internet， E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse， monitor

3）. Content word实词 （notional word） – denote clear notions.

Functional word虚词 （empty word， form word） – do not have notions of their own， express the relation between notions， words and sentences.

a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.

Functional words are in a small number.

b. Content words are growing.

Functional words remain stable.

c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.

4）. Native words母语 – are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words， 50，000-60，000

What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are

1. neutral in style中性词 （not stylistical specific ）

2. 2.frequent in use常用词 （in academic fields and science French， Latin or Greek are used） （usage 70-90%）

Borrowed words外来语 （loan words， borrowing） – words taken over from foreign language. 80%

According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing， we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.

1.Denizens同化词 – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.

e.g. port from portus（L） shift， change， shirt， pork

cup from cuppa（L）

2.Aliens非同化词 – retained their original pronunciation and spelling

e.g. décor（F） blitzkreeg（G） emir， intermez， rowtow， bazaar， rajar， status quo

3.translation loans译借词 – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.


4. Semantic loans借义词 – their meaning are borrowed from another language

e.g. stupid old dump

new sassy

dream old joy and peace

pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work

new a member of the young pioneer

fresh old impertinent， sassy， cheeky



第二章：印欧语系。Indo-European language family （Europe， the Near East， India）



Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic Germanic

Prussian Persian Portuguese Norwegian

Lithuanian Hindi Spanish Icelandie

Polish Italian Danish

Bulgarian Roumanian Swedish

Slovenian French English

Russian German

Albanian Armenian Celtic Hellenic

Irish Greek

Breton

Scottish

2. 重点！History （时间，历史事件，特征）

1）古英语时期 Old English （450-1150） totally 50，000-60，000 words

The 1st people known t

o inhabit England were Celts， the language was Celtic.

The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions.

The Germanic tribes called angles， Saxons and Jutes and their language， Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English.

At the end of 6th century， the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.

The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.

In the 9th century， many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English， our daily life and speech.

特点： highly inflected language

complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）

2）中世纪英语 Middle English （1150-1500） English， Latin， French

Until 1066， although there were borrowings from Latin， the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest诺曼征服！ started a continual flow of French words into English.两个后果：it brought to an insular nation a new and larger continental culture，second ，it forced on england ‘the national idea’，a concept against which the Saxons had long struggled。

By the end of the 13th century， English gradually come back into public areas.

Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.

As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点： fewer inflections，leveled ending


3）现代英语 Modern English （1500-up to now） early modern English早期 （1500-1700）

后期late modern English（1700-up to now）

The Renaissance文艺复兴！ Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage.the Bourgeois revolution资产阶级革命 followed by The Industrial Revolution工业革命 was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization， British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe， thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.

After World War II， many new words have been created to express new ideas， inventions and scientific achievements.

More words are created by means of word-formation.

thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions， and scientific achievements.

more words are created by means of word-formation.

in modern English， word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.

science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated


with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .

mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words fal

ling out if use.

特点： ending are almost lost.

3. 重点：Three main sources new words

1.The rapid development of modern science and technology

2.Social， economic and political changes

3.The influence of other cultures and languages

4. 词汇发展的三种方式：

1. Creation派生 – the formation of new words by using the existing materials， namely roots， affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）

2. Semantic change词义转变 - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.

3. Borrowing外来 – to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time）

第三章
1. 词素的定义：Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）

2.形素的定义：Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.

3.定义：Mono-morphenic words – morphemes are realized by single morphs.

4.词素的变体的定义：Allomorph——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s） has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context， e.g. in cats/s/， in bags/z/， in matches/iz/.

5. 自由词素（词根）：Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences， e.g. cat， walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.

6. 粘附词素：Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words， e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion） collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix） Bound morphemes are found in derived words.

7. Bound root —— A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root， it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example： it conveys the meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin root， but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before） we obtain the verb predict meaning “tell beforehand”。 Contradict “ speak against”。 Bound roots are either Latin or Greek.

Although they are limited in number， their productive power is amazing.

8. 词缀的定义：Affixes —— Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes.

9. 曲折词素的定义：Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes —— Affixes attaches to the end of words to indi

cate grammatical relationships are inflectional， thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.

a. There is the regular plural suffix -s（-es） which is added to nouns such as machines,desks.

b. Simple present for the third person singular. –s（-es）

c. The possessive case of nouns. ’s

d. –er and –est to show comparative and superlative degree

e. The past tense marker –ed

f. –ing to form present participles or gerunds.

10. 派生词素的定义：Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes —— Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.

11. 前缀的定义：Prefixes —— Prefixes are affixes that come before the word， such as， pre+war， sub+sea

12. 后缀的定义：Suffixes —— suffixes are affixes that come after the word， for instance， blood+y.

13. 词根：Root —— A root is the basic form of a word， which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. （What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.） .e.g. “internationalists” removing inter-， -al-， -ist， -s， leaves the root nation.

14. 词干：Stem —— a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. E.g. “internationalists”， nation is a root and a stem as well.

a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix.

a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.

Chapter 4
1)构词法的种类：affixation; compounding; conversion; shortening (clipping, cronymy); blending
2)clipping: 截短法