new venture growth

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/404384574.html,

Journal of Management

DOI: 10.1177/0149206306293860

2006; 32; 926 Journal of Management Brett Anitra Gilbert, Patricia P. McDougall and David B. Audretsch New Venture Growth: A Review and Extension https://www.sodocs.net/doc/404384574.html,/cgi/content/abstract/32/6/926

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Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth927 development has generated a large literature seeking to explain why some new ventures grow more than others.

A distinct literature focusing specifically on new venture growth has emerged for several reasons. First,attaining growth has different implications for new ventures than for their established counterparts. Unlike established firms,which have already achieved a level of viability and survival,new ventures are subject to a liability of newness where,in the absence of growth,their survival may be significantly reduced (Buederal,Preisendoerfer,& Ziegler,1992). An exhaustive set of studies have similarly acknowledged that new ventures face an analogous liability of smallness (Carroll,1983),where in the absence of large size that results from growth,the survival of the firms is challenged. In the absence of growth, both new and small ventures are confronted by a lower likelihood of survival (Freeman, Carroll,& Hannan,1983),but as firm size and age increase,the adverse impact of lack of growth on firm survival is reduced. Thus,whereas the growth of established firms is about sustaining viability,new venture growth is about obtaining viability. Second,the variance of growth rates across firms diminishes with both firm size and firm age making the variance of growth rates for new ventures considerably greater than that for established firms. The economics literature acknowledges that for large and established firms,growth rates con-form to what is known as Gibrat’s Law,where growth is independent of size and age (Sutton, 1997). But Gibrat’s Law has not been found to hold systematically for new ventures,which are characterized by a higher variance in growth rates. Given this difference from established firms,explaining growth for new ventures takes on special significance.

The new venture growth literature that has emerged to date primarily addresses the ques-tion implied by the high variance of new venture growth rates:Why do some new ventures grow more than others? Yet,this question largely disregards the manner by which growth has been attained. This literature review seeks to address this gap in the literature. We begin the literature review first by explaining how the articles used were selected for analysis. We then present a small body of literature that addresses the fundamental question of “how much”to grow that reflects the individual entrepreneur’s attitude toward an appropriate level of desired growth. We next consider the various ways the concept of growth has been opera-tionalized in prior entrepreneurship research. In particular,the three main measures of growth that are suggested by the literature to be the most salient for scholars to consider in eval-uating new venture growth are identified and explained. We then examine the main factors addressing the “why”question,that is,the compelling predictors of growth that have been iden-tified in previous new venture growth studies. The studies reviewed in this section represent the bulk of the new venture growth literature. Next,our discussion turns to what we believe are essen-tial elements that are largely missing in the existing literature. Although the existing literature pro-vides a rich overview of why growth rates vary across new ventures,research focusing on criti-cal strategic decisions related to the how and where firms should grow has generally been neglected. New insights and research questions are raised in our discussion uniting the existing research in relation to the “how”decision of internal versus external growth and the “where”deci-sion of domestic versus international growth. By revealing critical gaps in the literature,we hope to advance an important research agenda for furthering our knowledge of new venture growth.

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New Venture Growth Literature Review

In developing this review,we began with the existing models of new venture growth to identify the predictors believed to explain why some new ventures grow more than others. We began with Sandberg’s (1986) model of new venture performance that he derived from his study of venture capital?backed growth-oriented firms. Sandberg argues that new ven-ture performance is a function of the entrepreneur,industry structure,and strategy. Chrisman,Bauerschmidt,and Hofer (1998) extended the Sandberg (1986) model to include resources,organizational structure,processes,and systems. Other models focused on limited aspects of new venture growth such as an entrepreneur’s access to resources,opportunity choice,and managerial capability (Thakur,1999) or the psychological characteristics and the background of the entrepreneur,the scanning intensity,and industry dynamics (Box,White, & Barr,1993). All factors identified in these models were consistent with those identified in the Chrisman et al. (1998) research. We also examined Baum,Locke,and Smith’s (2001) empirical model of growth,which tests for the significance of several factors including the entrepreneur characteristics,and organizational- and environmental-level constructs. We reviewed other empirical research focusing on the growth of “emerging,”“start-up,”“new,”or “high- or rapid-growth”ventures to assess the impact of variables identified in one or more of the aforementioned models. Combined,these studies led us to conclude that the most important predictors of new venture growth include the entrepreneur characteristics, resources,strategy,industry,and organizational structure and systems.

The 48 empirical studies that serve as the basis for this review were published in foremost management and entrepreneurship journals. However,more than half (29) of the articles were published in the Journal of Business V enturing.Although most of the studies were published in the 1990s,some date into the 1980s. Several were published after 2000,some even in 2006. For the purpose of this review,we report the findings from the empirical growth studies integrated with insights from the small business literature regarding how those factors influence the growth of small firms. Because new venture survival and growth are so closely intertwined,we also scanned the new venture survival literature to determine whether findings reported to affect new venture survival were adequately represented through the constructs identified from the empir-ical growth studies. This latter step enabled us to consider the influence that factors that nega-tively influence survival may have on the venture’s growth potential. We identified one factor that researchers have begun to focus on as an important influencer of venture survival,a ven-ture’s geographic location (Folta,Cooper,& Baik,2006; Stuart and Sorenson,2003),and con-sider its influence on venture growth. The gaps we identify and directives we advance for future researchers derive from our review of the new venture growth literature.

The Question of How Much to Grow

The entrepreneurship literature is replete with examples of entrepreneurs who realized little to no growth in their firms (e.g.,Gimeno,Folta,Cooper,& Woo,1997; Wiklund,

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth929 Davidsson,& Delmar,2003). Contrary to what some may think,limited growth is not always associated with an inability to grow but may actually be reflective of a limited desire of the entrepreneur to grow the firm (Cliff,1998). For example,Wiklund et al. (2003) found that entrepreneurs’attitudes toward growth are influenced by their beliefs regarding the extent to which a firm’s larger size may compromise the well-being of employees,the independence of the firm relative to key stakeholders,the owner’s ability to control the growth,and the ability to ensure that the firm would survive any crises. The entrepreneur’s belief that he or she could manage growth is very important for the growth the firms realized (Box et al., 1993). Baum and Locke (2004) similarly found that the goals the entrepreneurs set for grow-ing the firm,the vision they communicated to their employees,and their belief in themselves to effectively execute the growth were significant factors influencing the growth of new firms. Even growth that is realized has been found to be directed by intentional actions of the entrepreneurs to influence additional growth that occurs (Cliff,1998; Orser,Hogarth-Scott,& Riding,2000). These findings have led many to conclude that deciding to grow the firm is the first and foremost strategic decision all entrepreneurs must make (Chandler & Hanks,1994a; Cliff,1998).

The decisions entrepreneurs make in the venture’s early years have profound long-lasting implications for performance (Bamford,Dean,& Douglas,2004; Boeker,1989; Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven,1990; Park & Bae,2004; Stinchcombe,1965). Extant models of new ven-ture growth commonly reflect that the entrepreneur must choose growth and that growth will occur when the entrepreneur possesses the resources that enable growth,has a strategy that fosters growth,operates in an industry conducive for growth,and develops structures and systems that accommodate growth (e.g.,Baum et al. 2001; Box et al.,1993; Chrisman et al., 1998; Thakur,1999). Barringer et al. (2005) used content analysis to determine growth ori-entation for the firms and found that it delineated rapid?sales growth firms from other firms. Baum and Locke (2004) also found the extent to which the firm’s goals and vision were com-municated to employees influenced their sales and employment growth. These findings sug-gest that it is important for scholars to consider growth aspirations of the entrepreneurs when designing research as entrepreneurs have been found to vary considerably in their desire to realize growth (Liao & Welsch,2003; Wiklund et al.,2003).

Measuring New Venture Growth

Growth can occur in many different aspects of a firm’s operations,such as its cash flow, net income,customer base,sales,employment,and market share (Murphy,Trailer,& Hill, 1996). Although there is no single overriding measure of new venture growth,our review of the literature suggests that the most important measures of new venture growth are in terms of sales,employment,and market share. Empirical evidence confirms that strong corrections exist among these three different size-based measures of growth (Baysinger,Meiners,& Zeithaml,1982). Even so,there are distinct considerations that delineate each measure of growth from the others.

Sales growth provides evidence of how revenues of a venture change over time. It indi-cates the extent to which customers are increasingly accepting the products or services

930Journal of Management / December 2006

offered by the firm (K. Robinson,1998). As such,sales are the most commonly used indi-cator of new venture growth (Murphy et al.,1996; Weinzimmer,Nystrom,& Freeman, 1998). When sales growth occurs,a venture is supplied with revenues that can be reinvested into resource expansion or capability development. However,sales growth is dependent on the firm having a product or service available to sell,and some industries,such as biotech-nology,may spend years developing their products for the market. Thus,a more relevant indicator of growth performance for such ventures,particularly in high-technology indus-tries such as biotechnology,may be their growth in employment.

Employment growth indicates that a change has occurred in the organizational composi-tion or strategy of the firm (Hanks,Watson,Jansen,& Chandler,1993),which warrants an increase in the number of individuals working for the firm. This change is often due to expansion in the scope of firm operations or an immediate increase in business. With employment growth,a venture is equipped with new human capital through which its objec-tives can be executed. The venture is also better enabled to assess the external environment to ensure it can compete most effectively (Box et al.,1993). In addition to indicating inter-nal changes occurring in the firm,employment growth signals the contribution the venture is making to the community from which it operates (Kirchoff & Phillips,1988; Venkataraman,Van de Ven,Buckeye,& Hudson,1990).

Market share growth,like sales growth,provides an indication of the acceptance of the venture’s products or services in the market. However,unlike sales growth,market share growth is an external measure of venture growth that depends in part on the state of compe-tition in the firm’s industry. A firm’s market share can increase as a result of concerted efforts on behalf of the firm to increase its share,or simply from industry dynamics,such as the withdrawal of a competitor,that result in it being awarded to the firm. Market share growth can be evaluated based on the industry or at the level of a given product category (Kerin, Varadarajan,& Peterson,1992).

Understanding Why New Ventures Grow Our review of the literature revealed several key factors influencing why some new ven-tures experience higher growth rates than their counterparts. In the sections below,we con-sider each of these factors and the manner in which each influences whether the venture will be capable of realizing growth through the growth outcomes discussed above.

Entrepreneur Characteristics

The belief that the entrepreneurial firm is an extension of the entrepreneur has led many researchers to examine the character traits of the entrepreneur that are most likely to influence the growth of the firm. A plethora of personality traits have been considered,most of which are now believed to have indirect rather than direct effects on the growth of the firms (Baum et al.,2001; Baum & Locke,2004). Characteristics such as the educational background (Sapienza & Grimm,1997),prior related industry experience of the entrepreneur(s) (Baum et al.,2001; Box et al.,1993; Cooper,Gimeno-Gascon,& Woo,1994; Eisenhardt &

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth931 Schoonhoven,1990; Siegel,Siegel,& MacMillan,1993),and prior entrepreneurial or start-up experiences (Box et al.,1993; Baum et al.,2001),on the other hand,have well-established direct effects on the sales and employment growth of new firms. Experience growing other firms is also supported as an important catalyst for higher levels of growth in small firms (Wasilczuk,2000).

Prior experience is important because the knowledge relevant for making business deci-sions is often tacit and requires time spent observing and studying a specific activity before tacit knowledge of the activity is developed (Cooper et al.,1994). Too much knowledge,how-ever,has been shown to have diminishing returns on the sales and employment growth of new firms (Chrisman,McMullan,& Hall,2005). Even still,education and background experi-ences are valued because they enable entrepreneurs to know where to go to obtain informa-tion relevant to the venture and also how to deploy the resources they obtain (Kirzner,1983). For this reason,an entrepreneur’s prior experiences in an activity will provide competencies that influence the decisions he or she makes regarding a given activity (Buchele,1967; Mullins,1996; Scherer,Adams,& Wiebe,1989; Susbauer,1979). Presumably,an entrepre-neur with related experience makes better decisions than an entrepreneur who lacks similar experience.

Our review also reveals that when new ventures are founded by teams,rather than indi-viduals,the experiences of the founders are of substantial importance. Under these circum-stances,their tenure together,as well as their background heterogeneity and number of indi-viduals involved,are important for the sales growth of the firms (Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven, 1990). The tenure of teams,specifically the cohesiveness they exhibit,is influential for sales growth as it makes communication between members easier (Ensley,Pearson,& Amason, 2002). Team size is also important because it enables the firm to distribute responsibility across a greater number of individuals. Larger team size,however,can lead to higher levels of disagreement between team members especially when the team is diverse. Research sug-gests that such disagreements,however,can “result in more extensive discussion of strategic options,more learning opportunities,and,thereby,reduce the likelihood of a groupthink-type phenomenon occurring”(Lant,Milliken,& Batra,1992:591). Disagreement (at least on secondary goals) is shown to correlate positively with the growth of firms relative to their competitors (West & Meyer,1998). The heterogeneity of the top management team is another factor that may increase the likelihood that disagreements between team members will occur. Differences in age,education,major,and functional expertise have been found significant to new venture sales growth (Amason,Shrader,& Tompson,2006). Such diver-sity,however,has been found to have negative implications for the process top management team members use for strategic decision making by lengthening the time it takes to make decisions (Miller,Burke,& Glick,1998). As decision speed can affect the longevity of new firms (Forbes,2005),the factors that influence it may be important indirect predictors of new venture growth.

Although the decisions entrepreneurs make are clearly important for new venture out-comes,most researchers link the entrepreneur characteristics directly to the sales growth of the firms. This relationship is commonly examined during a 3- to 5-year time period but is also often examined annually. The majority of researchers use an objective measure of growth; however,some scholars use subjective measures over the time period of interest. Interestingly,

932Journal of Management / December 2006

the 3- or 5-year period seldom coincides with the first 3 to 5 years of the venture’s history when sales,employment,and market share growth rates are likely to be most volatile and the decisions entrepreneurs make more crucial (Bamford,Dean,& McDougall,2000b). Resources

For an entrepreneur to execute a strategic decision,it is necessary for him or her to allo-cate resources to that endeavor (Arthurs & Busenitz,2006). However,the task of attracting resources into a new venture is perhaps the greatest challenge faced by entrepreneurs as the lack of both reputation and a track record creates a heightened perception of risk by poten-tial resource providers (Brush,Greene,& Hart,2001). To be successful at executing the deci-sion requires that the firm possess the right fit of resources (Chandler & Hanks,1994a). Although many different types of resources enable firms to efficiently and effectively pursue growth objectives through their quality (Chandler & Hanks,1994b),strength (Brush & Chaganti,1998),and the competencies they generate for the firm (Chandler & Hanks,1994a, 1994b),the two resources examined most often and found to be most clearly related to new venture growth are the financial (Bamford,Dean,& McDougall,2000a; Cooper et al.,1994; Lee,Lee,& Pennings,2001) and human capital (Birley,1987; Cooper et al.,1994) resources the firms employ.

Human capital.Resource-based capabilities of firm employees contribute positively to venture growth by helping the entrepreneurs execute their objectives (Chandler & Hanks, 1994a). However,human resource needs change as the firm progresses from start-up to an established mature firm (Thakur,1999). According to Cardon (2003),a start-up may require more specific expertise and highly skilled workers than a mature firm. As the firm enters its expansion stage,it may be able to use lower skilled workers to meet production demands. In order for a start-up to survive the expansion stage Cardon argues,it is necessary for the entre-preneur to staff for it ahead of time. The majority of research we examined analyzed the effect of human capital resources on the sales or employment growth of the venture. However,most of the studies examined the effect over an aggregate period of time,such as a 3- or 5-year period,when human capital needs could drastically change as strategic direc-tion changes.

As Birley (1987) reported,the growth in certain classes of employees is likely to change with the needs of the firms. The rate at which each of these classes of employees increases may also inform the field a great deal about strategic directions in which the firm is heading and the extent to which the venture is staffed to exploit new strategic opportunities.

Financial capital.The financial capital a firm holds is known to influence the sales and employment growth performance of new firms (Cooper et al.,1994; Lee et al.,2001). A higher level of financial capitalization is important because it buys entrepreneurs time to suc-cessfully execute strategic objectives,enables entrepreneurs to either undertake more ambi-tious strategies or change their course of action,and simply empowers the entrepreneurs to meet the financing demands that are required to sustain the growth being realized (Cooper

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth933 et al.,1994). Financial capital provides the flexibility needed to support the firm’s strategic endeavors (Zahra & Bogner,1999),which has led some to investigate the options entrepre-neurs have for accumulating financial capital. For example,Bollingtoft,Ulhoi,Madsen,and Neergaard (2003) found that for entrepreneurs with less innovative technologies,financial capital often comes from the entrepreneur’s personal resources. For more innovative tech-nologies,financial capital is often sourced from external sources of capital,such as banks or venture capitalists.

Although the initial financing needed to start a new venture may come from the entre-preneur’s personal funds or from monies borrowed from relatives (Berger & Udell,1998), the amount of financing required to obtain growth is often beyond that which can be gar-nered from one’s own or network of personal resources. Some ventures have been able to accelerate their sales and employment growth by use of allowances from the government (Dahlqvist,Davidsson,& Wiklund,2000). For those for which governmental support is not an option,the entrepreneur’s ability to obtain capital from sources such as banks or venture capitalists takes on great importance for the growing firm. Not surprisingly,connections to sources of external funding such as banks and venture capitalists are significant predictors of new venture sales growth (e.g.,Lee et al.,2001).

Outside resources.Our review of the literature reflects a strong consensus that a venture’s connections to outsider competencies are beneficial for the growth of the firm. Cooper (1985),for example,found that growth-oriented ventures tended to be birthed out of other organizations and also to be engaging in activities that were related to those of the “incuba-tor”organization. Chrisman et al. (2005) found that having used the assistance of counselors from a Small Business Development Center significantly influenced the sales and employ-ment growth to a point,whereas too much assistance proved a hindrance for sustaining high levels of growth. Bamford et al. (2004) found that a firm’s board of directors is influential for sales growth.

Geographic Location

Increasingly,a venture’s geographic location has become a commonly recognized factor responsible for differences in survival in new and small firms (Lechner & Dowling,2003). In recent work,Folta et al. (2006) reported that when a venture’s location had more than 65 competing firms in it,a given new firm operating from such a location was more likely to fail than firms operating from other regions. These scholars reasoned that the competition for resources firms face in high-clustering locations influences their ability to acquire the resources needed to sustain operations. Because new ventures are highly dependent on the local environment for resources needed to sustain operations (Romanelli & Schoonhoven, 2001),any inability to acquire resources locally will have substantial implications for the levels of growth the firms will attain. As there is an inequality of resources available in dif-fering locations,a venture’s geographic location has strong implications for the growth it may be able to realize.

For example,Silicon Valley is often acknowledged for the breadth of financial capital available within the region (Saxenian,1990,1994). Inner cities,by contrast,are reported to

934Journal of Management / December 2006

be deficient of high levels of financial capital (Porter,1995; Taub,1988). Rural areas have also been reported to be at a disadvantage in providing financial capital to its firms (Green & McNamara,1987). Greater access to financial capital may make it easier for a firm located in cluster regions like Silicon Valley to finance growth,whereas it is more difficult for an inner city or rural firm to do so. Ventures in such locations may grow at a slower rate than ventures in cluster locations. Similar inequities exist with human capital. The human capital of inner cities has been reported to be incapable of supporting highly skilled industries (Porter,1995). In contrast,the human capital of cluster areas is widely acknowledged for its superiority and in some cases abundance (Hanson,2000; Saxenian,1994). Growing ventures require a ready supply of workers with specific competences (Baum et al.,2001; Chandler & Hanks,1994b). As cluster locations may provide a more abundant supply of such work-ers with relevant competencies and skill sets (Feldman & Florida,1994; Saxenian,1990), ventures starting up in such locations may be more capable of attracting workers with the expertise that would enable the venture to pursue growth objectives.

Strategy

Numerous studies on new venture growth have considered the importance of a venture’s strategy for its growth performance. The results of such studies have often yielded mixed results concerning the strategies that lead to growth for new venture firms. For example, Siegel et al. (1993) found that ventures with focused strategies,operationalized as more rev-enue being generated by a single product,had higher sales growth rates. Baum et al. (2001), on the other hand,found that low-cost and focus strategies correlated negatively with their aggregate measure of venture sales and employment growth,whereas differentiation through high quality and innovation exhibited positive relationships with venture sales,employment, and profit growth. These disparate results may be related to the fact that Siegel et al. (1993) used a 3-year measure of sales growth only,whereas Baum et al. (2001) used an annual mea-sure of sales and employment growth combined. In the short term,focus strategies may require employees with specialized competencies that may be difficult to acquire short term.

A negative relationship with employment growth might result. Too few studies,however, have considered the short-term versus potential long-term effects of venture strategies.

Alternatively,the disparate results could also point to the conclusion that there is a con-tingency or “fit”perspective that better reflects the nature of the relationship between a ven-ture’s strategy and its growth (Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven,1990). Chandler and Hanks (1994b) reported support for a fit hypothesis,finding that ventures pursuing a quality differ-entiation strategy had higher aggregate market share,sales,and cash flow growth when they also had resources supportive of a quality strategy. In addition,McGee,Dowling,and Megginson (1995) observed that ventures entering into marketing cooperatives that empha-sized marketing differentiation strategies had higher levels of sales growth. Similar results were found for firms emphasizing technical differentiation and entering into R&D coopera-tive strategies. In a prior study,McGee and Dowling (1994) found that the experiences of the top management moderated the relationship between cooperative arrangements and venture sales growth,with technical experience being crucial to observing significant sales growth from technical alliances and marketing experience being crucial to observing significant

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth935 sales growth from marketing alliances. Similarly,Lee et al. (2001) found that technological capabilities were important for helping new ventures achieve the highest levels of sales volume through their network relationships.

Collectively,these studies corroborate the contingent relationship found by Chandler and Hanks (1994b) whereby the strategy-growth relationship is contingent on the resources the venture has to support the strategy being executed. Researchers have also considered other interaction effects between the strategy-growth relationship (McDougall,Covin,Robinson, & Herron,1994) and reported a positive relationship between broad-breadth strategies and venture sales growth,particularly when the industry was in a growth stage. Further still, researchers have considered the effect of entry barriers on the strategy-growth relationship (Robinson & McDougall,2001),finding again that the relationship between entry barriers and sales growth is more positive when the firms execute a broad-breadth strategy.

The influence of a venture’s strategy on sales,employment,and market share growth may also depend on the scope of the product line the venture offers and the order of entry in which the venture enters the market. For example,Sandberg and Hofer (1987) found that broad,dif-ferentiation strategies appear to be marginally more effective than focused strategies when the venture is an early entrant; otherwise,focused strategies appear more effective for late entrants. Given the fact that industry characteristics seem partially responsible for determin-ing how a venture’s strategy influences its growth,it is surprising to see that few studies used market share growth as the measure of growth the ventures realized. Most studies use sales growth over a 3- or 5-year time period,which determines the extent to which internal execu-tion of the venture’s strategy is enabling it to realize growth but does not reflect the advantage the strategy may be providing the venture in the broader competitive space. Whereas sales or employment growth is more germane to the daily operations of the venture,market share growth indicates the extent to which the venture ultimately may remain viable in its compet-itive space and may be a better indicator of the effectiveness of a venture’s strategy. Industry Context

The founding conditions of new ventures are known to have long-reaching implications beyond founding (Bamford et al.,2000a; Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven,1990) making it par-ticularly important to understand the characteristics of the industry in which a firm operates in order to understand its patterns of growth. The stage of the industry,especially emerging or growing markets,has been found to have a significant impact in many studies of new venture growth (Brush & Chaganti,1998; Covin,Slevin,& Covin,1990; Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven,1990; Chandler & Hanks,1994b; McDougall et al.,1994; Park,Chen & Gallagher,2002; Robinson & McDougall,2001). In growing or emerging markets,the envi-ronment is munificent in available resources,and mistakes are not as costly as in less munif-icent environments (Castrogiovanni,1991). One natural conclusion deriving from this research is that high growth will be realized by firms in growing markets. Even in growing markets,however,the growth that is possible may be dependent on the strategies the firms implement (McDougall,Robinson,& DeNisi,1992; Park et al.,2002; Sandberg & Hofer, 1987). For example,Park et al. (2002) found that in growing markets,alliances were more

936Journal of Management / December 2006

common,making alliance strategies beneficial for propelling venture growth. Sandberg and Hofer (1987),on the other hand,found that the stage of market determines whether the ven-ture’s product scope matters for its sales growth. Specifically,in early-stage markets,broad strategies help firms capture higher levels of sales growth,whereas in later-stage markets, focused strategies help firms capture higher sales growth.

The stage of the industry’s life cycle may also create opportunities for a firm’s products and services to be adapted for new markets (Koberg,Uhlenbruck,& Sarason,1996). Ventures competing in growth industries may have greater opportunities than ventures in emerging or mature markets to provide new product or service offerings that fill niches in the market. A continued ability to introduce products to the market has been found impor-tant for the sales growth of new firms in growing industries (Siegel et al.,1993).

Other characteristics of the industry environment that are significant influencers on the sales and market share growth that new ventures attain include the capital requirements (Robinson & McDougall,2001),level of competition (Baum et al.,2001),dynamism,het-erogeneity,and lack of price hostility (Zahra & Bogner,1999). To date,only one character-istic,environmental hostility,has been empirically examined and determined to be a known suppressor of venture employment and market share growth (Nicholls-Nixon,Cooper,& Woo,2000; Zahra & Bogner,1999). It is unknown,however,how environmental hostility influences sales growth. Presumably,environmental hostility negatively influences sales as it does a venture’s market share; however,it is possible that ventures with strong competi-tive advantage in the market are less affected by environmental hostility,and their sales, therefore,are less likely to be affected.

Organizational Structures and Systems

To sustain the growth that occurs,it is necessary for the entrepreneur to adapt the internal structure of the firm to accommodate the growth it is experiencing. One of the few new ven-ture growth studies to investigate the relationship with organizational structure and systems focuses on the impact of functional specialization and decision making on sales growth out-comes (Kazanjian & Drazin,1990). Functional specialization is important because it enables individuals occupying functional positions to gain expertise in those areas. When a venture is small,the operations may be insufficient to sustain functional specialization to any great extent. As the venture grows and faces new challenges,specific functional expertise is needed to manage new roles for the firm (Kazanjian & Drazin,1990). Functional specialization also enables the venture to engage in higher levels of environmental scanning. Individuals occu-pying functional positions can monitor the environment in their respective areas. Enhanced scanning enables the venture to recognize opportunities through which sales growth can occur (Box et al.,1993). It also enables ventures to become more innovative with their product and service offerings,to engage in more formal internal planning,and to experience higher levels of growth (Olson & Bokor,1995). Essentially,the decision-making structure must enable the firm to remain flexible if sales growth will continue to occur (Kazanjian & Drazin,1990). As ventures move through stages of conception and development,commercialization,growth, and stability,their decision making must become increasingly decentralized. At the same

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth937 time,however,the decision-making structure must enable the entrepreneur to maintain a level of control that will enable growth to occur.

Other studies have included organizational structure or systems as a small part of a larger research program. For example,Barringer et al. (2005) found that the training the ventures provided,financial incentives,stock options,and overall development of employees were common systems in place in ventures experiencing rapid sales growth. Clearly,ventures must appropriately compensate their employees for helping the firm successfully manage the past, current,and future growth. Ensley,Pearce,and Hmieleski (2006) found that whether the ven-ture was founded as an independent firm or through a university affiliation had implications for sales growth performance,with independent start-ups doing better than university-based start-ups. One interesting observation with regard to this area of research is the fact that researchers have only examined its impact for the sales growth of the ventures. It is likely, however,that changes to the organizational structure or system will also have implications for the employment growth of the firm in the event that such restructuring requires additional employees,as well as the market share growth of the firm in the event that necessary changes result in new divisions being created or acquired to exploit a growth opportunity. Summary

This review of the literature demonstrates that new venture growth researchers have been intrigued with understanding why some ventures grow more than others. The extant models presented in our review commonly reflect that the entrepreneur must choose growth and that growth will occur most readily when the entrepreneur possesses the resources that enable growth,has a strategy that fosters growth,operates in an industry conducive for growth,and develops structures and systems that accommodate growth (e.g.,Baum et al.,2001; Box et al., 1993; Chrisman et al.,1998; Thakur,1999). The literature review also revealed that scholars have pointed to human,financial,and outside resources as important for the growth of new firms,yet the resources a venture will require depend on the decisions the entrepreneurs have made for how growth will be realized. For example,a venture growing through internal inno-vation has greater need for technical employees than one that does not grow through innova-tion. Similarly,a venture’s strategy influences its growth particularly when certain resource and industry characteristics are in place. Resource or industry constraints will also influence the decisions entrepreneurs make for how they choose to grow and structure the venture. Although new venture researchers have developed a rich literature on the factors influencing growth,new venture scholars have given scant consideration to the complexities of the growth phenomenon.

In the following section,we build on the reviewed studies and examine two key decisions that are related to new venture growth that are scantly reflected in extant empirical research: how to grow and where the growth will occur.

Gaps in the Literature—How and Where New Ventures Grow The shortcoming to omitting how the ventures are growing (i.e.,via internal or external growth) and where that growth is occurring (i.e.,domestically or internationally) when examining new

938Journal of Management / December 2006

venture growth performance is equivalent to assuming all students achieving an A in any class have achieved equivalent performance. It is true that in a grade report,an A is indeed an A,but the courses the students took often influence our final assessment of performance. For example,the performance of students achieving an A in advanced courses may be esteemed differently than those earning an A in basic courses. These two courses place different demands on the student’s abilities,and the requirements for demonstrating mastery will differ. Likewise, to evaluate whether new ventures are achieving superior performance,it is not enough to observe the firms that are achieving the highest level of growth. It is also necessary to under-stand the factors that are driving the growth that is observed. Therefore,understanding the strategic decisions in place while growth was occurring will not only facilitate an apples-to-apples comparison when assessing new firm growth but also enables understanding of the challenges potentially affecting new firm growth that could impede levels of profitability.

In the following sections,we demonstrate the relevance of these “how”and “where”strate-gic decisions with existing predictors of new venture growth before advancing new directions for future research on new venture growth. The how decision is examined through a compari-son of internal (organic) and external (acquisition) growth,and the where decision is examined through a comparison of a domestic or international market focus. We believe these decisions are important gaps in the literature that should be considered to advance our knowledge of new venture growth.

Internal or External Growth

Growing through mechanisms internal to the firm means that the venture uses innovative product development or marketing practices to identify and develop products to capture prospective audiences. The innovations a firm creates will either be highly novel,where a new category or product/service is offered,or incremental,where an existing product/service is improved upon or refined (Amason et al.,2006). Both novel and incremental innovation are important to the venture,but each has differing implications for growth performance. For new ventures,initial product entries that are more novel than those that exist in the market-place have the strongest potential to build the venture’s market share (Banbury & Mitchell, 1995; W. T. Robinson,1990). Once a firm is established,incremental introductions,and in particular rapid introductions,become important for sustained growth (Banbury & Mitchell, 1995). Even still,research suggests that firms whose products represent more novel concepts to the marketplace are better positioned for higher success (Bruton & Rubanik,2002). These findings underscore the importance of the technology strategies the ventures implement to maintain their level of internal innovation for new venture growth (Dowling & McGee, 1994). Research suggests that the radical nature of new products; frequency of product upgrades; use of external technology sources,patents,and copyrights (Zahra & Bogner, 1999); and use of advanced technologies (Siegel et al.,1993) or technologically advanced partners (Stuart,2000) make important contributions to new venture growth.

Ventures pursuing external growth place emphasis on acquiring firms competing in the same or a complementary market. Acquisitions enable firms to enhance their product or service offerings (Penrose,1959) or extend their reach into new markets without developing

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth939 the competencies required to do so independently. By purchasing an existing business,a firm benefits from the reputation that firm established in the market (Banbury & Mitchell,1995) and,naturally,increases its share of the market after the purchase is complete. In our review of the literature,we were surprised by the paucity of studies that considered the effect of acqui-sitions on new venture growth,particularly in light of the time periods over which growth was analyzed and the fact that many studies examined rapid- or high-growth ventures. In fact,even studies on established firms acknowledge the paucity of research on acquisition strategies (Hopkins,1987). We did,however,identify a study (Delmar,Davidsson,& Gartner,2003) examining the growth patterns of a sample of high-growth ventures to determine how they grew. This study acknowledged that 10% of the ventures in their sample grew primarily through acquisition. Interestingly,the acquisition activity was the primary driver only of employment growth for the firms. Another study used acquisition activity as a criterion to help them identify a sample of high-growth firms that would enable them to determine why some firms succeeded,whereas others faltered in managing the growth they realized (Hambrick & Crozier,1985). Aside from these studies,however,there was little mention of the extent to which acquisition activity may have influenced the growth that occurred.

This absence in the literature is striking because clearly,growth resulting from internal or external mechanisms differentially influences the growth outcomes firms realize. Penrose (1959) acknowledged that the growth that results from internal growth mechanisms may be more constant but also slower than the growth that results from external growth mechanisms. For example,new product introductions may immediately increase the sales of the firm but may not immediately affect the firm’s market share or employment growth. Market share may be affected when the sales have reached a level where the firm has strong popularity in the marketplace and is exceeding the sales of its competitors. Employment growth may not increase until it appears that demand will exceed the ability of workers to meet the demand. Internal growth may immediately increase the sales of the firm but only gradually increase the employment or market share growth. External growth mechanisms,on the other hand,unlike internal growth mechanisms,may simultaneously influence growth outcomes. Unless a target firm lacks sales,buying an existing firm substantially increases the year-to-year sales in the months pursuant to an acquisition. Similarly,employment growth increases as an acquisition increases the number of employees on the firm’s payroll. The share of the market the com-bined firm holds should be greater as well. Therefore,growth outcomes that are observed are determined at least in part by the mechanisms the entrepreneur uses for growing the firm. Domestic or International Market Focus

Contrary to traditional theories of internationalization that suggest that firms enter inter-national markets after first becoming established in their home country,new venture schol-ars began in the late 1980s to observe that entrepreneurs were internationalizing their oper-ations from the inception of the firm (e.g.,McDougall,1989). D’Souza and McDougall (1989) have argued that internationalization activities may be essential for a venture’s ulti-mate survival and growth. Consistent with this assertion,many of today’s entrepreneurs are asking the question of where to compete at the time the venture is founded.

940Journal of Management / December 2006

Although internationalization is argued to be important for venture growth,it has not been found to equivalently affect the growth outcomes a firm may realize. For example,Shrader’s (1996) examination of 127 domestic new ventures and 87 international new ventures found that although the internationals outperformed the domestics in sales growth,the domestics had higher levels of employment growth. It is interesting to note that a further examination revealed that the internationals were more than twice as efficient in generating sales per employee. Although a positive relationship has been found with regard to the growth in sales of international new ventures,there is a need for additional research to validate these find-ings,particularly for samples of non-technology-based firms. There is also a need to exam-ine the varied impact of internationalization on different growth outcomes and the influence that competing domestically or internationally may have on other variables that also influ-ence new venture growth.

Whether growing domestically or internationally,a firm is likely to pursue one of two marketing expansion strategies. With market penetration strategies,a firm purports to sell larger volumes of products within its intended target market. To execute a market penetra-tion strategy,a firm may need extensive advertising programs or partners that can promote the firm’s products to the respective market. A market development strategy,on the other hand,pushes a firm to sell its products to new markets. An effective market development strategy may require the firm to either establish a new entity to service the new markets or partner with another firm already selling to the desired market. Either expansion strategy, whether it results from domestic or international markets,can strongly influence the sales and market share growth of the firms. However,by working with partners or leveraging the productivity and efficiency of current workers,a venture may be able to grow without increasing the number of individuals it employs. Moreover,in international markets,the growth that occurs may depend on the mode of entry selected for international operations (Brouthers & Nakos,2004). A venture that internationalizes through exporting or licensing modes of entry may see an increase in sales or market share growth but little to no increase in employment growth. A venture using a foreign direct investment or joint venture mode of entry may see changes in employment for the firm before increases in sales or market share occur. Most new venture growth research does not account for these differences in foci for domestic or international growth strategies (Zahra & George,2002),and some research that has assessed the influence of international activities on growth performance has presented results that run counter to conventional wisdom (Wijewardena & Tibbits,1999). Thus,there is much to be learned about how domestic or international foci influence new venture growth.

Extending New Venture Growth Research Our review of the literature suggests that the identified factors have strong implications for growth. Even so,the best predictors may depend on how and where the growth is real-ized. In this section,we draw on the reviewed studies to present research questions that chal-lenge the way new venture growth is currently examined and encourage future researchers to integrate the important questions of how and where into their new venture growth studies.

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth941 Internal growth and external growth use different sets of competencies and,therefore, may require different characteristics in the entrepreneurs. For example,internal growth through innovation is a complex process that requires creativity and technical aptitude from both the entrepreneur and the firms’employees (Abernathy & Clark,1985). Prior experi-ences with innovation activities provide to an entrepreneur the know-how relevant to the product development process. External growth requires a different set of competencies,par-ticularly when the firm being acquired possesses assets that differ from those to which the acquiring firm is accustomed (Hopkins,1987). When acquiring a firm with different assets and capabilities,an acquiring firm must spend some time valuing the assets of the target firm and completing due diligence. Prior experiences working for firms exhibiting acquisition activity would enable entrepreneurs to observe the processes and procedures that must be in place to successfully assimilate a firm into current operations.

Past research establishes that both domestic and international expansion are affected by the entrepreneur’s knowledge and capabilities to guide the firm in identifying appropriate target markets,localizing and ultimately distributing products within the newly targeted market. Domestic expansion requires extensive planning and management to ensure success and will influence the sales and employment growth the venture realizes (Greening,Barringer,& Macy,1996). Prior experience growing a firm domestically can inform entrepreneurs of the tactics that can be initiated to expand the operations with minimal interruptions to the exist-ing business (Greening et al.,1996). International expansion is likewise a very complicated endeavor that requires good planning and management but can also require vast knowledge of international cultures and practices from those engaging in the process. For example,whereas entry through licensing or exporting may require little knowledge of the local area in which the entrepreneur operates,entry through direct investment or joint ventures necessitates greater understanding of the political as well as sociopolitical environment in which the firm will operate (Zahra,Ireland,& Hitt,2000). Experience with international operations can provide the knowledge and contacts needed for recognizing opportunities to conduct business interna-tionally (Bloodgood,Sapienza,& Almeida,1996; Coviello & Munro,1995). Without these capabilities,a firm may be constrained in its ability to expand operations into new geographic regions.

Future research must dig deeper to determine whether the specific forms of experiences the entrepreneurs hold have varying impact. It will also be important for the field to under-stand whether these experiences,or lack of specific experiences,may in some cases preclude the entrepreneur from successfully growing internally or externally,or domestically or inter-nationally. For example,if an entrepreneur has only had experience growing through exter-nal growth,how effective would he or she be at growing through internal growth? Does an individual with negative experiences abroad develop a disdain for conducting business inter-nationally and,therefore,limit future actions to the domestic market? Expanding our knowl-edge of experiences beyond those relating to prior start-up or industry experience will greatly enhance our understanding of how prior experiences influence new venture growth.

It will also be important to understand the role of teams in each of these processes. For example,are there certain size or team composition requirements that are best suited for growing internally or externally,domestically or internationally? Recent research suggests that some leadership styles are more associated with realizing higher levels of new venture

942Journal of Management / December 2006

growth than are others (Ensley et al.,2006). It seems reasonable to presume that there also are certain leadership styles that work best for growing via internal or external mechanisms or in domestic or international markets. Research that begins to illuminate these issues will provide great insight to the field.

There are many opportunities for researchers to examine the relationship of resources to venture growth. For ventures pursuing internal growth,it may be that technically skilled employees contribute significantly to growth,whereas ventures pursuing external growth may find that employees with financial or administrative skills more strongly influence growth. Ventures growing through international markets may see growth affected when employees have experience in international markets,whereas ventures growing domestically may have greater need for individuals with strong marketing skills. Moreover,the mode of entry (e.g.,exporting,licensing,direct foreign investment) into the international market requires differing skills from the managers (Oviatt & McDougall,1994) in order to success-fully execute the internationalization process.

In addition,most research has focused on the capabilities of the entrepreneur or top man-agement team to the exclusion of other employees the firm employs. Studies have also com-monly used employment size as a control variable but have seldom considered whether firms have an optimal number of employees for growing the firm or whether they are experienc-ing a shortage of workers. Delays in hiring key employees into the firm may preclude a venture’s ability to continue growing at a healthy pace. We suggest that understanding a ven-ture’s experiences in filling key positions and the type of employees that are needed may also contribute to a richer understanding of its growth.

The demands on financial resource requirements vary by the type of strategic initiative a venture undertakes. Financial resources are particularly important for supporting large strate-gic initiatives an entrepreneur may desire to undertake (Bamford et al.,2000b). For example, although innovation activities can require high levels of financial resources for development and successful execution (Abernathy & Clark,1985),purchasing an existing business can also require a significant level of financial capitalization in the acquiring firm. Similarly, expanding internationally can be a more costly endeavor than just expanding domestically as there may be substantially higher transportation and transaction costs. The modes of entry into international markets can also command high resource commitments and are likely selected on the basis of the resources available to the firm (Brouthers & Nakos,2004). The level of financial capital available to support strategic endeavors may influence the decisions entrepreneurs make,which in turn has implications for new venture growth. However,little consideration has been given to the indirect relationship financial capital may have on new venture growth. Moreover,given the importance of cash,it may be useful for scholars to con-sider the cash flow the firm has for operations during the time period of study. Growth can only be achieved when the venture is able to finance it and cash flow will help scholars understand why growth could or could not be accomplished during the period of investiga-tion. We suggest there is a need for additional research that enhances understanding of how financial capital enables or constrains the strategic decisions entrepreneurs make and ulti-mately the growth of the firm (see,e.g.,George,2005; Pissarides,1999).

Our review also identified geographic location as a compelling factor influencing new ven-ture growth. Geographic location has been confirmed to influence firm patenting performance,

Gilbert et al. / New Venture Growth943 ability to attract alliance partners as well as private equity partners,each of which are factors relating to the growth of new firms (Folta et al.,2006; Lechner & Dowling,2003). It is also reported to heighten demand for a firm’s products (Chung & Kalnins,2001) and to affect whether new ventures internationalize their operations (O’Farrell,Wood,& Zheng,1996; Westhead,Wright,& Ucbasaran,2001). It is apparent that a venture’s geographic location influences entrepreneurs’perceptions of the environment and the strategies they desire to pursue (Baum & Haveman,1997; Canina,Enz,& Harrison,2005; Furman,2003). If so,are ventures located in clusters better able to identify acquisition targets? Do ventures located in clusters mimic the international growth patterns of the established firms in their cluster? We must better understand what local environmental cues and dynamics influence the decisions entrepreneurs make and ultimately the growth their firms attain.

Prior research has shown that firms following niche strategies,as well as those pursuing first-mover advantages,may need to internationalize to maximize the size of the market they are targeting (Baum et al.,2001). The differences in national laws for foreign entrants into the market (Busenitz,Gomez,& Spencer,2000) may mandate that international ventures adapt new strategies to operate in the new foreign market. Internal growth mechanisms may be essential for such firms to constantly meet the needs of their specially targeted markets. Firms following broad-breadth strategies or those following early follower strategies may have a large enough market available to exploit that their urgency to internationalize their operations is suppressed relative to firms with focused strategies. Given the size of the market and likely presence of numerous competitors,firms following broad and follower strategies may find it necessary to acquire other firms to enhance their product offerings, which could more strongly affect the observed growth of the firms. We suggest that the field needs to consider the venture’s strategy in light of the strategic decisions the entrepreneur has made and the resources the entrepreneur has for growing the firm. As resource needs dif-fer depending on the strategic decisions that are made,this shift may be particularly impor-tant as some research has shown that neither resources nor strategies directly affect venture growth (Edelman,Brush,& Manolova,2005); rather,an effect on performance is only observed when strategies and resources appropriately align. As Chrisman et al. (1998) pro-posed in their listing of factors influencing new venture growth,we agree that it is important for the field to give more extensive consideration to the planning and formulation processes entrepreneurs undergo,the goals and objectives they set,the strategic direction they possess, the entry and business strategies used,the market segmentation selected,the scope of the market,and alliance strategies they employ.

Our review revealed a large and impressive body of research on the relationship between industry and new venture growth; however,researchers have not considered whether varying industry characteristics would affect the decision and success of internal versus external growth. How might the stage of the industry or the presence of a dominant design affect whether the venture should pursue internal or external growth? In industries with a high degree of rivalry,might external growth be the preferred mechanism? Most new venture stud-ies on industry factors have only considered the venture’s domestic operating environment. The international arena,however,may introduce new industry dynamics from which the domestic operations sheltered the venture. For ventures operating internationally,character-istics of the domestic environment may not adequately reflect the competitive environment

944Journal of Management / December 2006

the ventures face,and their relationship with growth may be little understood. We believe the emphasis on the interaction between industry characteristics and venture strategy is a crucial one that must continue to be developed if we are to continue comparing growth patterns of new firms. An important starting point would be expanding our use of industries to include a more diverse collection of industries at varying stages and determining the strategic elements that are needed to successfully grow in those industries. Some industries may be growing but at a less rapid pace than what is observed for the technology-related firms commonly reflected throughout extant research. Building on new venture research examining how the nature of products or services a venture offers influences its growth (e.g.,Sandberg & Hofer, 1987),future researchers should examine in the context of international and domestic mar-kets whether the nature of products bears significance. For example,when ventures offer products with the potential for global application yet do not operate beyond their domestic market,other factors are likely in place that may be suppressing the growth of the ventures. As we expand our understanding of the conditions under which entrepreneurs are competing, we will enhance understanding of why,given the same competitive environment,some ven-tures are more successful than others.

The organizational systems a firm uses have also been found to influence new venture growth. Sophisticated technologies are generally required for firms to create the proprietary products needed to grow in dynamic markets (Siegel et al.,1993). The organizational struc-ture and systems that entrepreneurs institute,however,will be related to the decisions they have made for growing the firm. Will ventures that have already adopted the systems and technologies needed for internal growth be more likely to reinvest in those activities and con-tinue exploiting growth through internal means? The basic questions related to the appropri-ate organizational structure and systems needed for a venture to grow externally are largely unanswered,even though acquisition strategies are common among ventures competing in growing industries.

Similarly,whether a firm grows in domestic or international markets may influence the determination of the systems and processes most conducive for sustaining growth. The coor-dination activities required for internationalizing may be best managed by those whose com-plex operations have them adept at balancing the specialization and coordination skills inter-nationalization will require (Oviatt & McDougall,1994). Consequently,might ventures without these structures and processes be limited in their international growth? As internal or external growth and domestic or international growth require differing structures and sys-tems to execute,surely the structures and systems may differentially affect the growth the firms realize.

Explicitly considering how and where new ventures grow will enhance our understand-ing of the conditions the venture faces while realizing growth. This understanding should foster greater knowledge of the potential problems firms face growing via a particular means,which should enlighten our understanding of why new firms fail. Equipped with this knowledge,entrepreneurs and scholars alike will be better enabled to make predictions of firm outcomes based on the method through which growth is occurring. It should also enable us to provide suggestions for overcoming those problems to preserve the future performance of the firm,which should advance the field toward broadening the normative component of new venture growth research.

系统概要设计文档

系统概要设计文档
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目录
系统概要设计文档 ....................................................................................................... 1b5E2RGbCAP 目录 ................................................................................................................................2p1EanqFDPw 1 引言 .............................................................................................................................. 3DXDiTa9E3d 1.1 编写目的及阅读建议 ...................................................................................... 3RTCrpUDGiT 1.2 系统概述 ......................................................................................................... 35PCzVD7HxA 1.3 文档概述 ............................................................................................................. 3jLBHrnAILg 1.4 设计原则与设计要求 ......................................................................................3xHAQX74J0X 2 引用文件 ...................................................................................................................... 3LDAYtRyKfE 3 设计概述 ....................................................................................................................... 4Zzz6ZB2Ltk 3.1 功能需求规定 .................................................................................................... 4dvzfvkwMI1 3.2 运行环境 ........................................................................................................... 4rqyn14ZNXI 4 系统体系结构设计 ..................................................................................................... 4EmxvxOtOco 4.1 系统总体设计 ................................................................................................... 4SixE2yXPq5 4.1.1 概述 ........................................................................................................ 46ewMyirQFL 4.1.2 设计思想 ............................................................................................... 5kavU42VRUs 4.1.3 基本处理流程 ........................................................................................ 6y6v3ALoS89 4.1.4 系统数据结构设计 ............................................................................... 9M2ub6vSTnP 4.4 接口设计 ........................................................................................................ 100YujCfmUCw 4.4.1 用户接口 ............................................................................................. 10eUts8ZQVRd 4.4.2 外部接口 ............................................................................................ 10sQsAEJkW5T 4.4.3 内部接口 ............................................................................................. 11GMsIasNXkA 5 运行设计 ..................................................................................................................... 11TIrRGchYzg 5.1 系统初始化 ................................................................................................... 117EqZcWLZNX 5.2 运行控制 ........................................................................................................... 11lzq7IGf02E 5.3 运行结束 .......................................................................................................... 11zvpgeqJ1hk 6 系统出错处理设计 ..................................................................................................... 11NrpoJac3v1 6.1 出错信息 ..........................................................................................................111nowfTG4KI 6.2 补救措施 .......................................................................................................... 12fjnFLDa5Zo 7 系统维护设计 ............................................................................................................. 12tfnNhnE6e5 附录 ............................................................................................................................. 12HbmVN777sL
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算法设计与分析课程设计(完整版)

HUNAN CITY UNIVERSITY 算法设计与分析课程设计 题目：求最大值与最小值问题 专业： 学号： 姓名： 指导教师： 成绩： 二0年月日

一、问题描述 输入一列整数，求出该列整数中的最大值与最小值。 二、课程设计目的 通过课程设计，提高用计算机解决实际问题的能力，提高独立实践的能力，将课本上的理论知识和实际有机的结合起来，锻炼分析解决实际问题的能力。提高适应实际，实践编程的能力。在实际的编程和调试综合试题的基础上，把高级语言程序设计的思想、编程巧和解题思路进行总结与概括，通过比较系统地练习达到真正比较熟练地掌握计算机编程的基本功，为后续的学习打下基础。了解一般程序设计的基本思路与方法。 三、问题分析 看到这个题目我们最容易想到的算法是直接比较算法：将数组的第 1 个元素分别赋给两个临时变量：fmax:=A[1]; fmin:=A[1]; 然后从数组的第 2 个元素 A[2]开始直到第 n个元素逐个与 fmax 和 fmin 比较，在每次比较中，如果A[i] > fmax，则用 A[i]的值替换 fmax 的值；如果 A[i] < fmin，则用 A[i]的值替换 fmin 的值；否则保持 fmax（fmin）的值不变。这样在程序结束时的fmax、fmin 的值就分别是数组的最大值和最小值。这个算法在最好、最坏情况下，元素的比较次数都是 2(n-1)，而平均比较次数也为 2(n-1)。 如果将上面的比较过程修改为：从数组的第 2 个元素 A[2]开始直到第 n 个元素，每个 A[i]都是首先与 fmax 比较，如果 A[i]>fmax,则用 A[i]的值替换 fmax 的值；否则才将 A[i]与 fmin 比较，如果 A[i] < fmin，则用 A[i]的值替换 fmin 的值。 这样的算法在最好、最坏情况下使用的比较次数分别是 n-1 和 2(n-1),而平均比较次数是 3(n-1)/2,因为在比较过程中，将有一半的几率出现 A[i]>fmax 情况。

古代汉语词类活用例句列举

古代汉语词类活用例句列举 古代汉语词类活用例句列举《郑伯克段于鄢》１、例：壮公生，惊姜氏。P97 惊：用作使动，使。。。惊。２、例：无生民心。P99 生：用作使动，使。。。产生。３、例：若阙地及泉，隧而相见。P101 隧：名词动用。《公孙无知之乱》４、豕立而啼，P109 立：名词作状语，像人一样丫立。〈安之战〉５、皆主？献子。P117 主：名词动用，以。。。为主。６、君无所辱命。P119 辱：动词使动，使。。。受辱。７、从左右，皆肘之。P123 肘：名词使动，表示用胳膊推撞。８、臣辱戎士。123 辱：动词使动。９、人不难以死免其君。P123 免：用作使动，使。。。免于。１０、故中御而从齐候。P123 中：方位名词做状语。〈子产说范宣子轻敝〉１１、三周华不注。P122 周：

名词动用。１２、郑人病之。P129 病：名词用作意动。１３、象有齿而焚其身。P130 焚：动词用作使动。１４、宣子说，乃轻弊。P130 轻：形容词用作使动，使。。。轻。〈苏秦连横约纵〉１５、今先生俨然不运千里而庭教之。P182 远：形容词用作意动。１６、明言章理，兵甲愈起。P183 明、章：用作使动。 1 １７、辨言伟服。攻战不息。P183 辩、伟：都用作使动，使。。。雄辩，使。。。华美。１８、繁称文辞，天下不冶。P183 文：名词用作使动。１９、夫徒处而致利，安坐而广地。P183 广：形容词用作使动，使。。。广。２０、言语相结，天下为一。P183 言语：名词作状语。２１、今欲并天下，凌万乘，诎敌国。制海内，子元元。臣诸候。非兵不可。P183 诎：用作使动，使。。。屈服；子：名词用作使动，使。。。成为子女；臣：名词用作使动，使。。。成为臣子。２２、约纵散横，以抑强秦。

视觉检测原理介绍

技术细节 本项目应用了嵌入式中央控制及工业级图像高速传输控制技术，基于CCD/CMOS与DSP/FPGA的图像识别与处理技术，成功建立了光电检测系统。应用模糊控制的精选参数自整定技术，使系统具有对精确检测的自适应调整,实现产品的自动分选功能。 图1 控制系统流程图 光电检测系统主要通过检测被检物的一些特征参数(灰度分布,RGB分值等)，从而将缺陷信息从物体中准确地识别出来，通过后续的系统进行下一步操作，主要分为以下几部分 CCD/CMOS图像采集部分 系统图像数据采集处理板中光信号检测元件CCD/CMOS采用进口的适合于高精度检测的动态分析单路输出型、保证实际数据输出速率为320MB/s的面阵CCD/CMOS。像素分别为4000*3000和1600*1200，帧率达到10FPS。使用CCD/CMOS 作为输入图像传感器，从而实现了图像信息从空间域到时间域的变换。为了保证所需的检测精度，需要确定合理的分辨率。根据被检测产品的大小,初步确定系统设计分辨率为像素为0.2mm。将CCD/CMOS接收的光强信号转换成电压幅值，再经过A/D转换后由DSP/ FPGA芯片进行信号采集，即视频信号的量化处理过程，图像采集处理过程如图所示：

图2 图像采集处理过程 数据处理部分 在自动检测中，是利用基于分割的图像匹配算法来进行图像的配对为基础的。图像分割的任务是将图像分解成互不相交的一些区域，每一个区域都满足特定区域的一致性，且是连通的，不同的区域有某种显著的差异性。分割后根据每个区域的特征来进行图像匹配，基于特征的匹配方法一般分为四个步骤：特征检测、建立特征描述、特征匹配、利用匹配的“特征对”求取图像配准模型参数。 算法基本步骤如下: 1)利用图像的色彩、灰度、边缘、纹理等信息对异源图像分别进行分割，提取区域特征； 2)进行搜索匹配，在每一匹配位置将实时图与基准图的分割结果进行融合，得到综合分割结果； 3)利用分割相似度描述或最小新增边缘准则找出正确匹配位置。 设实时图像分割为m个区域，用符号{A1，A2，… Am}表示，其异源基准图像分割为n个区域，用符号{B1，B2，…Bn}表示。分割结果融合方法如下: 在每一个匹配位置，即假设的图像点对应关系成立时，图像点既位于实时图中，又位于其异源基准图像中，则融合后区域点的标识记为：（A1B1，A1B2，…，A2B1，A2B2，…）。标识AiBj表示该点在实时图中位于区域i，在基准图中位于区域j。算法匹配过程如下图所示：

算法设计与分析详细设计说明书

高校医务收费管理系统研究项目详细设计 第一部分、引言 1.1编写目的 本说明在概要设计的基础上，对高校医务收费管理系统研究项目的各模块、程序、子系统分别进行了实现层面上的要求和说明。根据概要设计说明书中的设计内容，编写详细设计说明书，为开发过程提供系统处理过程的详细说明，使系统开发各类技术人员对整个系统所需实现的功能以及系统的功能模块的划分、实现和数据库的表结构清楚的认识，为整个系统的开发、测试、评定和移交的提供基础，本报告一旦确认后将成为系统开发各类技术人员共同遵守的准则，并为以后的编程工作提供依据。 软件开发小组的产品实现成员应该阅读和参考本说明进行代码的编写、测试。 1.2背景 说明： A、软件系统的名称：高校医务收费管理系统研究项目 B、任务提出者：高校医务人员 开发者：医务收费系统开发小组 实现完成的系统将在高校医务收费的诊断室、门诊、住院部使用，所应用的网络系统是该系统的内部局域网。 C、本系统将是独立的系统，目前不与高校医务收费的财务系统和其他资料系统提供接口， 所产生的输出都是独立的。 本系统将使用SQL Server 2000作为数据库存储系统，SQL Server 2000企业版将由高校医务收费自行购买。

1.3定义 IPO图——输入/处理/输出图，一般用来描述一个程序的功能和机制； VB语言：1991年，美国微软公司推出了Visual Basic(可简称VB），目前的最新版本是VB 2005(VB8)中文版。Visual 意即可视的、可见的，指的是开发像windows操作系统的图形用户界面（Graphic User Interface,GUI）的方法，它不需要编写大量代码去描述界面元素的外观和位置，只要把预先建立好的对象拖放到屏幕上相应的位置即可。SQL全称是“结构化查询语言(Structu red Query Language)”，最早的是IBM的圣约瑟研究实验室为其关系数据库管理系统SYSTEM R开发的一种查询语言，它的前身是SQUARE语言。SQL 语言结构简洁，功能强大，简单易学，所以自从IBM公司1981年推出以来，SQL语言，得到了广泛的应用。医务收费系统：医务收费是帮助医务人员、医务工作人员对医务收费管理软件。 1.4参考资料 相关的文件包括： A、《高校医务收费高校医务收费管理系统研究项目可行性研究报告》； B、《高校医务收费高校医务收费管理系统研究项目概要设计》； 参考资料： ①杨晶《VB程序设计教程与实训》北京-科学出版社2006 ②张海潘《软件工程》北京清华大学出版版社2003 ③李昭原《数据库原理与应用》科学出版社2002 ④徐兰芳, 彭冰《数据库设计与实现》上海-上海交通大学出版社2006 ⑤(美)Wendy Boggs 《UML与Rational Rose 2002从入门到精通》邱仲潘等译北京-电子工业出版社2002 ⑥《金华市发达装配厂库存管理系统KCGL》的可行性分析 ⑦《中华人民共和国国家标准UDC 681．3》 ⑧《计算机软件产品开发文件编制指南GB 8567-88》 第二部分、程序系统的结构 2.1系统结构

算法设计与分析

Ex.1(p20)若将y ← uniform(0, 1) 改为 y ← x, 则上述的算法估计的值是什么？ 解：若将y ←uniform(0, 1) 改为 y ←x，此时有 ，则k++，即 ，此时k++，由于此时x ← uniform(0, 1)，所以k/n=，则此时4k/n=2。所以上述算法估计的值为2。 Ex.2(p23) 在机器上用 估计π值，给出不同的n值及精度。 解：由ppt上p21可知，的大小 ，其中k为落入圆内的数目，n为总数，且π=，即需要计算4k/n。我们先令x ← uniform(0, 1)，y ← uniform(0, 1)。 计算的值，如果小于等于1，那么此时k++。最后计算4k/n的值即可估计此时的π值。代码的主要部分为： 执行结果为：

结果分析：随着N的取值不断地增加，得到的π值也就越来越精确。 Ex.3(p23) 设a, b, c和d是实数，且a ≤ b, c ≤ d, f:[a, b] → [c, d]是一个连续函数，写一概率算法计算积分： 注意，函数的参数是a, b, c, d, n和f, 其中f用函数指针实现，请选一连续函数做实验，并给出实验结果。 解：的值为y=，y=0，x=a，x=b围成的面积。根据之前的例子我们可以知道= k(b-a)d/n。其中k是落在函数y=，x=a，x=b以及y=0所包围区间内的个数。 代码的主要部分为： 运行结果为：

结果分析： 随着N的取值不断地增加，得到的积分值越来越精确。 Ex4(p24). 设ε,δ是(0,1)之间的常数，证明：若I是的正确值，h是由HitorMiss算法返回的值，则当n ≥ I(1-I)/ε2δ时有： Prob[|h-I| < ε] ≥ 1 –δ 上述的意义告诉我们：Prob[|h-I| ≥ε] ≤δ, 即：当n ≥ I(1-I)/ ε2δ时，算法的计算结果的绝对误差超过ε的概率不超过δ，因此我们根据给定ε和δ可以确定算法迭代的次数 () 解此问题时可用切比雪夫不等式，将I看作是数学期望。 证明：由切比雪夫不等式可知： P( | X - E(X) | < ε ) ≥ 1 - D(X) / ε2 由题目知，E(X)=I。且根据题意，我们可知，在HotorMiss算法中，若随机选取n个点，其中k个点在积分范围内，则 。且k的分布为二项分布B(n，I)（在积分范围内或者不在 积分范围内），则 。又因为k=x*n，所以D(X)=I(1-I)/n。再将E(X)和D(X)带入切比雪夫不等式中即可得到 Ex5(p36). 用上述算法，估计整数子集1~n的大小，并分析n对估计值的影响。 解：由题知，集合的大小，通过计算新生成的集合中元素的个数来估计原集合的大小，代码的主体部分如下：

古代汉语练习题 词类活用

古代汉语练习（词类活用） 班级：姓名：学号： 一、简答： 1、什么是古代汉语的词类活用？古代汉语中的词类活用有哪几种？ 2、怎样区别使动用法和意动用法？试举例说明。并说明如何翻译。 3、试说明名词做状语主要有哪几种情况。 4、名词、形容词用作动词的情况主要有哪些？应该如何辨认？ 二、多项选择题（在每小题的四个备选答案中，选出二个至四个正确的答案，并将其号码分别填在题干后的括号内，多选、少选、错选均无分。每小题1分，共5分） 1．下列各句中加着重号的词，属于词类活用的是（） A．斩一首者爵一级B．能富贵将军者，上也 C．曹人凶俱，为其所得者棺而出之 D．夫鼠，昼伏夜动，不穴于寝庙，畏人故也 2．下列各句中加着重号的词属于名词作状语的是（） A．裂裳衣疮，手往善药 B．其经承子厚口讲指画为文词者，悉有法度可观 C．范增数目项王D．诸侯宾至 3．下列各句含宾语前置现象的是（） A．姜氏何厌之有B．楚君之惠，末之敢忘 C．除君之恶，唯力是视D．昭王南征而不复，寡人是问 4．对下列各句中加着重号的词组分析错误的是（） A．子重使太宰伯州犁待于王后（动宾）B．将塞井夷灶而为行也（连动） C．臣之壮也犹不如人（主谓）D．以勇力之所加而治智能之官（偏正） 5．下列句子中有使动用法的是（） A．秋九月，晋侯饮赵盾酒，伏甲将攻之 B．是时万石君奋为汉王中涓，受手谒，人见平

C．见灵辄饿，问其病，曰：“不食三日矣。”食之，舍其半 D．仓廪实而知礼节，衣食足而知荣辱 四、指出并具体说明下列文句中的词类活用现象： 1．秦数败赵军，赵军固壁不战。（秦与赵兵相距长平） 2．赵王不听，遂将之。（秦与赵兵相距长平） 3．身所奉饭饮而进食者以十数，所友者以百数。（秦与赵兵相距长平） 4．括军败，数十万之众遂降秦，秦悉阬之。（秦与赵兵相距长平） 5．信数与萧何语，何奇之。（韩信拜将） 6．王必欲长王汉中，无所事信。（韩信拜将） 7．吾亦欲东耳，安能郁郁久居此乎？（韩信拜将） 8．何闻信亡，不及以闻，自追之。（韩信拜将） 9．今大王举而东，三秦可传檄而定也。（韩信拜将） 10．遇有以梦得事白上者，梦得于是改刺连州。（柳子厚墓志铭） 11．自子厚之斥，遵从而家焉，逮其死不去。（柳子厚墓志铭） 12．以如司农治事堂，栖之梁木上。（段太尉逸事状） 13．踔厉风发，率常屈其座人。（柳子厚墓志铭） 14．晞一营大噪，尽甲。（段太尉逸事状） 15．即自取水洗去血，裂裳衣疮，手注善药。（段太尉逸事状） 16．黄罔之地多竹，大者如椽。竹工破之，刳去其节，用代陶瓦。（黄冈竹楼记）17．晋灵公不君。厚敛以彫墙。（晋灵公不君） 18．既而与为公介，倒戟以御公徒而免之。（晋灵公不君） 19．盛服将朝，尚早，坐而假寐。（晋灵公不君） 20．晋侯饮赵盾酒，伏甲将攻之。（晋灵公不君） 五、说明下列文句中的词类活用现象，并将全文译为现代汉语：

概要设计及详细设计

概要设计 打招呼并判断用户是否使用该程序 1）获取数据确认用户使用该程序时提醒用户输入数据 判断用户输入数据的合法性并将合法数据存入数组 循环体1：控制第一个运算符 2）运算部分循环体2：控制第二个运算符 循环体3：控制第三个运算符 比较运算部分的结果与24：采用3个循环结构 3）输出结果打印出第一个可能的结果，终止程序 输出 没有结果时输出提示信息，终止程序 详细设计 先来分析输入部分的设计原理，作为程序的设计者，和用户的沟通是很重要的。所以开头设计了一个打招呼函数，在该函数中向用户说明程序的功能并征求用户是否开始该程序。这样的设计思路更加人性化。不仅如此，在输入数据时，设计一个循环结构，用来检测用户输入的数据是否合法，如果超出取值范围会提醒用户重新输入。这样就能够比较顺利地完成数据的获取任务。 基于穷举和简化算法结构两个出发点，该程序主体采用的是循环结构。 首先，考虑到四个数之间只能有三个运算符，每种运算符都有四种可能（加、减、乘、

除）。所以总共有4*4*4种可能的组合方式（暂不考虑家括号下的运算顺序），所以我设计了三重循环。分别以i，j，k作为计数变量，先固定i、j保持不变，k从0变到3，分别表示按照加、减、乘、除的方式依次循环，然后再让i保持不变，让k由0变到1，再将k循环从0到3循环一次，以此往复就可以把运算符所有可能的组合穷尽。 当然这是算法实现的基本过程，而在将运算方式（加、减、乘、除）与计数变量联系起来的桥梁就是函数。函数可以对两个整数进行处理，要使其根据计数变量的不同进行不同的类型的运算，就叫引入一个新的变量，在执行函数功能时让它作为开关（在该程序中，0代表加，1代表减，2代表乘，3代表除）就可以了。 最后一部分即输出部分给出了运算结果，先采用循环结构比较结果值与24是否相等（由于计算机本身精度的原因，其实只要当结果和24的差值足够小时就可以确定这种可能是可以得出24的），如果判断成立，马上输出结果并停止进一步的循环检测（减少运算量，提高效率）；如果没有可能，就输出“NO SOLUTION!”提醒用户所输入的四个数无法组合形成24。在这一步就会发掘出运算部分的四维数组的优势，中括号中的数字组合刚好对应一定的运算方式，在打印过程中就有章可循了。 总的设计思路还是按照解决问题的一般逻辑问题进行的，其中不乏很多以前没有实践过的思路和方法，而且也会涉及到一些其他方面的知识，比如电脑本身的数据结构、精度等等。所以一个完整的程序需要合乎逻辑的算法，以及多方面的考虑和技术的支持。

算法设计与分析学习总结

算法分析与设计 学习总结 题目:算法分析与设计学习总结 学院信息科学与工程学院专业2013级计算机应用技术 届次 学生姓名 学号2０１31１0６57 二○一三年一月十五日

算法分析与设计学习总结 本学期通过学习算法分析与设计课程，了解到:算法是一系列解决问题的清晰指令,代表着用系统的方法描述解决问题的策略机制。算法能够对一定规范的输入,在有限时间内获得所要求的输出。如果一个算法有缺陷，或不适合某个问题,执行这个算法将不会解决这个问题。不同的算法可能用不同的时间、空间或效率来完成同样的任务。一个算法的优劣可以用空间复杂性和时间复杂度来衡量。算法可以使用自然语言、伪代码、流程图等多种不同的方法来描述。计算机系统中的操作系统、语言编译系统、数据库管理系统以及各种各样的计算机应用系统中的软件，都必须使用具体的算法来实现。算法设计与分析是计算机科学与技术的一个核心问题。 设计的算法要具有以下的特征才能有效的完成设计要求，算法的特征有：（1）有穷性。算法在执行有限步后必须终止。(2)确定性。算法的每一个步骤必须有确切的定义。(3)输入。一个算法有0个或多个输入,作为算法开始执行前的初始值，或初始状态。(4）输出。一个算法有一个或多个输出，以反映对输入数据加工后的结果。没有输出的算法是毫无意义的。 (5)可行性。在有限时间内完成计算过程。 算法设计的整个过程,可以包含对问题需求的说明、数学模型的拟制、算法的详细设计、算法的正确性验证、算法的实现、算法分析、程序测试和文档资料的编制。算法可大致分为基本算法、数据结构的算法、数论与代数算法、计算几何的算法、图论的算法、动态规划以及数值分析、加密算法、排序算法、检索算法和并行算法。 经典的算法主要有: 1、穷举搜索法 穷举搜索法是对可能是解的众多候选解按某种顺序进行逐一枚举和检验，bing从中找出那些符合要求的候选解作为问题的解。 穷举算法特点是算法简单，但运行时所花费的时间量大。有些问题所列举书来的情况数目会大得惊人，就是用高速计算机运行,其等待运行结果的时间也将使人无法忍受。我们在用穷举算法解决问题是，应尽可能将明显不符合条件的情况排除在外，以尽快取得问题的解。 2、迭代算法 迭代法是数值分析中通过从一个初始估计出发寻找一系列近似解来解决问题（一般是解方程或方程组)的过程，为实现这一过程所使用的方法统称为迭代法。迭代法是用于求方程或方程组近似根的一种常用的算法设计方法。设方程为ｆ(ｘ)=0,用某种数学方法导出等价的形式x=g(x),然后按以下步骤执行： （1）选一个方程的近似根，赋给变量x0。 (2)将ｘ0的值保存于变量x1，然后计算g(x1),并将结果存于变量x0。 (3）当x0与x1的差的绝对值还小于指定的精度要求时，重复步骤（２）的计算。 若方程有根，并且用上述方法计算出来的近似根序列收敛,则按上述方法求得的x0就认为是方程的根。 3、递推算法 递推算法是利用问题本身所具有的一种递推关系求问题解的一种方法。它把问题分成若干步，找出相邻几步的关系,从而达到目的。 4、递归算法 递归算法是一种直接或间接的调用自身的算法。 能采用递归描述的算法通常有这样的特征：为求解规模为ｎ的问题，设法将它分解成规模较小的问题，然后从这些小问题的解方便地构造出大问题的解，并且这些规模较小的问题也能采用同样的分解和综合方法,分解成规模更小的问题,并从这些更小问题的解构造出规模

初中所学文言文中的五类常见词类活用现象

初中所学文言文中的五类常见词类活用现象

古代汉语中的词类活用现象 五种类型：名词用作动词 动词、形容词、名词的使动用法 形容词、名词的意动用法 名词用作状语 动词用作状语 （一）名词用如动词 古代汉语名词可以用如动词的现象相当普遍。如： 从左右，皆肘．之。（左传成公二年） 晋灵公不君．。（左传宣公二年） 孟尝君怪其疾也，衣冠 ．．而见之。（战国策·齐策四） 马童面．值，指王翳曰：“此项王也。”（史记·项羽本纪） 夫子式．而听之。（礼记·檀弓下） 曹子手．剑而从之。（公羊传庄公十三年） 假舟楫者，非能水．也，而绝江河。（荀子·劝学） 左右欲刃．相如。（史记·廉颇蔺相如列传） 秦师遂东．。（左传僖公三十二年） 汉败楚，楚以故不能过荥阳而西．。（史记·项羽本纪） 以上所举的例子可以分为两类：前八个例子是普通名词用如动词，后两个例子是方位名词用如动词。 名词用作动词是由上下文决定的。我们鉴别某一个名词是不是用如动词，须要从整个意思来考虑，同时还要注意它在句中的地位，以及它前后有哪些词类的词和它相结合，跟他构成什么样的句法关系。一般情况有如下四种：

①代词前面的名词用如动词（肘之、面之），因为代词不受名词修饰； ②副词尤其是否定副词后面的名词用如动词（“遂东”、“不君”）； ③能愿动词后面的名词也用如动词（“能水”、“欲刃”）； ④句中所确定的宾语前面的名词用如动词（“脯鄂侯”“手剑”） （二）动词、形容词、名词的使动用法 一、动词的使动用法。 定义：主语所代表的人物并不施行这个动词所表示的动作，而是使宾语所代表的人或事物施行这个动作。例如：《左传隐公元年》：“庄公寤生，惊姜氏。”这不是说庄公本人吃惊，而是说庄公使姜氏吃惊。 在古代汉语里，不及物动词常常有使动用法。不及物动词本来不带宾语，当它带有宾语时，则一定作为使动用法在使用。如： 焉用亡．郑以陪邻？《左传僖公三十年》 晋人归．楚公子榖臣与连尹襄老之尸于楚，以求知罃。（左传成公三年） 大车无輗，小车无杌，其何以行．之哉？《论语·为政》 小子鸣．鼓而攻之可也。《论语·先进》 求也退，故进．之；由也兼人，故退．之。《论语·先进》 故远人不服，则修文德以来．之。《论语·季氏》 有时候不及物动词的后面虽然不带宾语，但是从上下文的意思看，仍是使动用法。例如《论语·季氏》：“远人不服而不能来也”这个“来”字是使远人来的意思。 古代汉语及物动词用如使动的情况比较少见。及物动词本来带有宾语，在形式上和使动用法没有什么区别，区别只在意义上。使动的宾语不是动作的接受者，而是主语所代表的人物使它具有这种动作。例如《孟子·梁惠王上》“朝秦楚”，不食齐宣王朝见秦楚之君，相反的，是齐宣王是秦楚之君朝见自己。 下面各句中的及物动词是使动用法： 问其病，曰：“不食三日矣。”食．之。《左传·宣公二年》

人脸识别主要算法原理

人脸识别主要算法原理 主流的技术基本上可以归结为三类，即：基于几何特征的方法、基于模板的方法和基于模型的方法。 1. 基于几何特征的方法是最早、最传统的方法，通常需要和其他结合才能有比较好的效果； 2. 基于模板的方法可以分为基于相关匹配的方法、特征脸方法、线性判别分析方法、奇异值分解方法、神经网络方法、动态连接匹配方法等。 3. 基于模型的方法则有基于隐马尔柯夫模型，主动形状模型和主动外观模型的方法等。 1. 基于几何特征的方法 人脸由眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴、下巴等部件构成，正因为这些部件的形状、大小和结构上的各种差异才使得世界上每个人脸千差万别，因此对这些部件的形状和结构关系的几何描述，可以做为人脸识别的重要特征。几何特征最早是用于人脸侧面轮廓的描述与识别，首先根据侧面轮廓曲线确定若干显著点，并由这些显著点导出一组用于识别的特征度量如距离、角度等。Jia 等由正面灰度图中线附近的积分投影模拟侧面轮廓图是一种很有新意的方法。 采用几何特征进行正面人脸识别一般是通过提取人眼、口、鼻等重要特征点的位置和眼睛等重要器官的几何形状作为分类特征,但Roder对几何特征提取的精确性进行了实验性的研究，结果不容乐观。

可变形模板法可以视为几何特征方法的一种改进，其基本思想是:设计一个参数可调的器官模型(即可变形模板),定义一个能量函数，通过调整模型参数使能量函数最小化，此时的模型参数即做为该器官的几何特征。 这种方法思想很好，但是存在两个问题，一是能量函数中各种代价的加权系数只能由经验确定，难以推广，二是能量函数优化过程十分耗时，难以实际应用。基于参数的人脸表示可以实现对人脸显著特征的一个高效描述，但它需要大量的前处理和精细的参数选择。同时，采用一般几何特征只描述了部件的基本形状与结构关系，忽略了局部细微特征，造成部分信息的丢失，更适合于做粗分类，而且目前已有的特征点检测技术在精确率上还远不能满足要求，计算量也较大。 2. 局部特征分析方法（Local Face Analysis） 主元子空间的表示是紧凑的，特征维数大大降低，但它是非局部化的，其核函数的支集扩展在整个坐标空间中，同时它是非拓扑的，某个轴投影后临近的点与原图像空间中点的临近性没有任何关系，而局部性和拓扑性对模式分析和分割是理想的特性，似乎这更符合神经信息处理的机制，因此寻找具有这种特性的表达十分重要。基于这种考虑，Atick提出基于局部特征的人脸特征提取与识别方法。这种方法在实际应用取得了很好的效果，它构成了FaceIt人脸识别软件的基础。 3. 特征脸方法（Eigenface或PCA）

最全面的概要设计说明书

xxxx信息系统V2.0 【模块名称】 概要设计说明书 版本号 xxx信息化建设项目组2018年05月01日

修正历史表 文档信息

目录 1.引言 (7) 1.1编写目的 (7) 1.2阅读对象 (7) 1.3术语定义 (7) 1.4参考资料 (7) 1.5图例 (7) 1.6其他 (7) 2.总体设计 (7) 2.1系统目标 (7) 2.2需求规定 (7) 2.2.1系统功能 (7) 2.2.2系统性能 (7) 2.2.3输入输出要求 (7) 2.2.4数据管理能力要求 (7) 2.2.5故障处理要求 (8) 2.2.6其他专门要求 (8) 2.3设计原则 (8)

2.5用户类及特征要求 (8) 2.6功能模块清单 (8) 2.7人工处理过程 (8) 2.8尚未解决的问题 (8) 2.9限制与约束 (8) 3.接口设计 (8) 3.1用户接口 (8) 3.2外部接口 (8) 3.3内部接口 (8) 4.全局数据结构设计 (8) 4.1数据库表名清单 (9) 4.2数据库表之间关系 (9) 4.3数据库表的详细清单 (9) 4.4视图的设计 (9) 4.5数据结构和程序的关系 (9) 4.6主要算法设计 (9) 4.7其他数据结构设计 (9) 5.系统功能说明 (9) 5.1系统功能概述 (9) 5.2系统数据流图 (9) 5.3系统外部接口 (9)

6.用户界面设计 (9) 6.1用户界面设计基本原则 (9) 6.1.1用户界面设计原则 (10) 6.1.2一般交互原则 (10) 6.1.3信息显示原则 (10) 6.1.4数据输入原则 (10) 6.2设计规范 (10) 6.2.1界面规范的总体规定 (10) 6.2.2界面一致性规范 (10) 6.2.3系统响应时间规范 (10) 6.2.4用户帮助设施规范 (10) 6.2.5出错信息和警告规范 (10) 7.运行设计 (10) 7.1运行模块设计 (10) 7.2运行控制 (10) 7.3运行时间 (10) 8.系统出错处理设计 (11) 8.1出错信息 (11) 8.2补救措施 (11) 9.安全性设计 (11) 9.1身份证认证 (11)

词类活用例子

文言实词词类活用 活用为一般动词 （一）名词活用为一般动词 1.两个名词连用，既不是并列关系，又不是修饰关系，便是动宾或主谓，其中一个必然活用为动词。 a .有一老父，衣褐，至良所。 b.籍吏民，封府库。 c.我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。 d.冬雷震震夏雨雪。 2.名词后紧跟代词，该名词活用为动词。 a.驴不胜怒，蹄之。 b.以其乃华山之阳名之。 c.名余曰正则兮。 3.名词放在副词后，便活用为动词。 a.日将暮，取儿槁葬。 b.太子及宾客知其事者，皆白衣冠以送之。 c.从弟子女十人所，皆衣缯单衣，立大巫后。 4.名词放在“能”“可”“足”“欲”等呢过愿动词后，便活用为动词。 a.假舟楫者，非能水也。 b.云青青兮欲雨。 c.其力尚足以入，火尚足以明。 d.子谓公冶长：“可妻也。” 5.名词带介宾结构做补语，这个名词活用为动词。 a.晋军（于）函陵，秦军（于）氾南。 b.唐浮图慧褒始舍于其址。 6.名词用“而”同动词或动宾词组连接时，活用为动词。 a.三代不同礼而王，五霸不同法而霸。 7.名词在“所”“者”结构中便活用为动词。 a.置人所罾鱼腹中。

a.是以，令吏人完客所馆。 形容词活用为一般动词 1.形容词用在“所”字之后，便活用为动词。 故俗之所贵，主之所贱；吏之所卑，法之所尊也。 （认为宝贵、认为低贱、认为卑下、认为高贵） 2.形容词在能愿动词后，活用为动词。 问其深，则其好游者不能穷也。（走到尽头） 3.形容词在“之”“我”能代词前，活用为动词。 稍出近之。（靠近） 4.形容词后带介宾结构做补语，它活用为动词。 令尹子兰……率使上官大夫短屈原于顷襄王。 （诋毁） 数词活用做一般动词 六王毕，四海一。（统一） 名词做状语 一、普通名词作状语 1.表比喻 a.嫂蛇行匍匐。 b.狐鸣呼曰。 c .赢粮而景从。 d .天下云集响应。 e.常以身翼蔽沛公。 f.一狼径去，其一犬坐于前。 2.表对人的态度 a.君为我呼入，吾得兄事之。 b.人人皆得以隶使之。 3.表动作行为的处所 a.夫以秦王之威，相如廷叱之，辱其群臣廷：在朝廷上 b.童子隅坐而执烛. 隅：在墙角 4.表动作行为的工具、凭借、方式

人脸识别主要算法原理

人脸识别主要算法原理 主流的人脸识别技术基本上可以归结为三类，即：基于几何特征的方法、基于模板的方法和基于模型的方法。 1. 基于几何特征的方法是最早、最传统的方法，通常需要和其他算法结合才能有比较好的效果； 2. 基于模板的方法可以分为基于相关匹配的方法、特征脸方法、线性判别分析方法、奇异值分解方法、神经网络方法、动态连接匹配方法等。 3. 基于模型的方法则有基于隐马尔柯夫模型，主动形状模型和主动外观模型的方法等。 1. 基于几何特征的方法 人脸由眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴、下巴等部件构成，正因为这些部件的形状、大小和结构上的各种差异才使得世界上每个人脸千差万别，因此对这些部件的形状和结构关系的几何描述，可以做为人脸识别的重要特征。几何特征最早是用于人脸侧面轮廓的描述与识别，首先根据侧面轮廓曲线确定若干显著点，并由这些显著点导出一组用于识别的特征度量如距离、角度等。Jia 等由正面灰度图中线附近的积分投影模拟侧 面轮廓图是一种很有新意的方法。 采用几何特征进行正面人脸识别一般是通过提取人眼、口、鼻等重要特征点的位置和眼睛等重要器官的几何形状作为分类特征,但Roder对几何特征提取的精确性进行了实验性的研究，结果不容乐观。

可变形模板法可以视为几何特征方法的一种改进，其基本思想是: 设计一个参数可调的器官模型(即可变形模板),定义一个能量函数，通过调整模型参数使能量函数最小化，此时的模型参数即做为该器官的几何特征。 这种方法思想很好，但是存在两个问题，一是能量函数中各种代价的加权系数只能由经验确定，难以推广，二是能量函数优化过程十分耗时，难以实际应用。基于参数的人脸表示可以实现对人脸显著特征的一个高效描述，但它需要大量的前处理和精细的参数选择。同时，采用一般几何特征只描述了部件的基本形状与结构关系，忽略了局部细微特征，造成部分信息的丢失，更适合于做粗分类，而且目前已有的特征点检测技术在精确率上还远不能满足要求，计算量也较大。 2. 局部特征分析方法（Local Face Analysis） 主元子空间的表示是紧凑的，特征维数大大降低，但它是非局部化的，其核函数的支集扩展在整个坐标空间中，同时它是非拓扑的，某个轴投影后临近的点与原图像空间中点的临近性没有任何关系，而局部性和拓扑性对模式分析和分割是理想的特性，似乎这更符合神经信息处理的机制，因此寻找具有这种特性的表达十分重要。基于这种考虑，Atick提出基于局部特征的人脸特征提取与识别方法。这种方法在实际应用取得了很好的效果，它构成了FaceIt人脸识别软件的 基础。 3. 特征脸方法（Eigenface或PCA）

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