The effect of Ga-grading in CIGS thin film solar cells

The effect of Ga-grading in CIGS thin film solar cells

O.Lundberg *,M.Edoff,L.Stolt

Uppsala University,A ?ngstro ¨m Solar Center,P .O.Box 534,SE-75121Uppsala,Sweden

Available online 2December 2004

Abstract

In this paper the effect of an in depth variation of the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio in CIGS based thin film solar cells is presented.The conclusions

made are based on a review of earlier publications,theoretical considerations and results from a large set of new devices.

For standard devices with normally thick CIGS films (1.5–2A m)deposited at a relatively long deposition time (60min)an improved efficiency of around 0.4%units for the devices with an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio towards the back contact is observed.This improvement is due to a field assisted carrier collection resulting in an improved QE response at long wavelengths.When the CIGS thickness is reduced the importance of the increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio towards the back contact is enhanced and at a CIGS thickness of 0.5A m a gain of 2.5%units is obtained.The gain is due to an improved V oc and FF.The main reason for the improvement is passivation of the back contact,which becomes increasingly detrimental for the device performance as the CIGS thickness is reduced.Also for pure CIS a significant improvement of the device performance is obtained by introducing an increased Ga concentration towards the back contact.This improvement is,however,more related to the introduction of Ga itself than the gradient of the Ga-concentration.

From many simulations the largest gain is predicted for an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio towards the CIGS surface.However,neither in the literature nor from our own experiments we can find evidence for an improved device performance due to an increased Ga-concentration towards the CIGS surface.

D 2004Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.

Keywords:Ga-grading;CIGS;Thin film solar cell

1.Introduction

A special quality of the Cu(In,Ga)Se 2(CIGS)material is its variable band gap,which can be changed by varying the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio.This quality can be used,not only to optimize the general band gap level,but also to obtain different band gaps at different depths in the CIGS film,so called band gap profiling.In CIGS thin film solar cells an in-depth band gap variation due to changes in the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio is commonly referred to as Ga-grading .Band gap profiling is commonly classified in two categories,normal and double grading.Normal grading is an increase of the band gap towards the back contact,while the double grading profile has a minimum band gap some distance into the CIGS layer and an increased band gap both towards the back and front contact.Many CIGS based solar cells with

both normal and double Ga-grading have been fabricated in the last 15years,but the actual effect of such an in-depth variation of the band gap is still not clear.In this paper an attempt is made to clarify the effect of Ga-grading in CIGS thin film solar cells by combining theoretical considerations,literature review and new experimental results.2.Potential improvement by Ga-grading

The variation of the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio,x ,will affect the band gap according to

E g ?eV ?1:02t0:67b x tb b x x à1eT

e1T

where values between 0.11and 0.24have been reported for the optical bowing coefficient,b [1].Wei and Zunger [1]have theoretically shown that a variation of the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio will mainly affect the level of the conduction band minima.In Fig.1,a band edge diagram for a CIGS layer with double grading profile is illustrated,i.e.an increased

0040-6090/$-see front matter D 2004Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2004.11.080

*Corresponding author.

E-mail address:olle.lundberg@angstrom.uu.se (O.Lundberg).Thin Solid Films 480–481(2005)520

–525

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/4212750428.html,/locate/tsf

Ga/(In+Ga)ratio both towards the back contact and in the space charge region (SCR).

The locally increased band gap has two effects on the photo-generated electrons.First of all the recombination probability will be reduced in the regions with increased band gap since this probability is inversely proportional to the band gap [2].Secondly an additional electric field,n A ,is obtained and can be described by Eq.(2)[3].n A ?

d D E g d x

e2T

where D E g is the change in band gap over the distance x due to the Ga-grading.

How can these two effects,which always come together,be used to improve the solar cell device performance?In the following we have classified the potential improvements an in-depth variation the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio can have on the device performance into two main categories.

2.1.Improved V oc by reduced impact of regions with high recombination

At open circuit conditions the dominating part of the recombination is expected to occur in the SCR region [4,5].By increasing the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio here this recombination can be reduced,resulting in an improved V oc .But,as mentioned above,there will also be an additional electric field,which in this case will counter act the built in electric field (p–n junction)resulting in an overall weaker electric field in the SCR as illustrated in Fig.1.Such a reduction of the electric field will most likely have a negative effect on the device performance.An increased band gap in the front part will also reduce the absorption in this region.This can be compensated for by an increased absorption further into the CIGS layer,where the band gap not is increased.Photo-

electrons generated deeper into the CIGS material will on the other hand have a lower collection probability.Whether an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio in the SCR will have a net beneficial effect or not is difficult to predict analytically.At the CIGS/Mo interface it would be desirable with an additional force keeping the photoelectrons away from this interface,which is expected to have a relatively high recombination velocity.By an increased conduction band minimum towards the back contact,we can keep the high conductivity for the majority holes and at the same time reject the minority electrons.An increased band gap will also here,further into the CIGS layer,lead to a reduced light absorption.But since the photo generation of carriers is expected to be rather small here anyway,this should only have a small effect on the resulting short circuit current.Whether a passivation of the CIGS back contact will have any significant beneficial effect or not,will depend on how detrimental this CIGS/Mo interface is for the device performance.

By using the formulas in Ref.[6]describing how V oc is limited by the effective diffusion length and how this effective diffusion length is limited by back contact recombination an estimation can be made of the potential gain by a reduced back contact recombination,S b .

Assuming a typical diffusion length of 1A m and a SCR width of 0.3A m,the gain in V oc by reducing S b from 106cm/s down to 104cm/s for a device with a standard CIGS thickness of 1.5A m,is only around 6mV .This clearly illustrates that the bulk diffusion length must be at least as long as the CIGS thickness if the back contact should have any significant influence on the device performance.For a device with a CIGS thickness of 0.5A m,the corresponding gain is 40mV.

2.2.Improved J sc due to field assisted carrier collection Carrier collection of photoelectrons generated outside the SCR in homogeneous CIGS layers rely on diffusion.The collection probability,f c ,outside the SCR is given by [2]f c ?e àx

d

e3T

where x is the distance from the SCR and L d is the diffusion length.As illustrated in Fig.1an additional force acting on the electrons can be obtained by increasing the Ga/(In+Ga)ratio towards the back contact,potentially improving the carrier collection.In order to qualitatively determine how large influence a Ga-gradient can have on the carrier collection,we can estimate how far an electron can drift in the additional effective electric field during one minority carrier lifetime.Eq.(4)describes the additional length,L ,that an electron with mobility,l e can drift in the additional effective electric field n A ,during a lifetime,s e .L ?l e b n A b s e ?

n A kT =q

b L 2d

c 1b 107b L 2

d ?m e4

T

Fig.1.Band edge diagram of a CIGS thin film solar cell where the dotted line illustrates how the conduction band minimum (E c min )is changed for a CIGS layer with an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio towards the back contact and in the SCR.An additional electric field,n A ,is obtained due to the band gap variation.

O.Lundberg et al./Thin Solid Films 480–481(2005)520–525521

By the use of L d=(D e d s e)1/2and D e=l e d kT/q we come to the second expression in Eq.(4).Assuming a linear additional effective electric field of3d105V/m through the neutral bulk of the CIGS layer(corresponding to a conduction band minimum increase of0.3eV over1 A m)the last expression is obtained.For a typical diffusion length of1A m the additional length an electron in this electric field can move is in average10A m.This means that the carrier collection can be significantly improved with the additional field obtained from Ga-grading.From Eq.(4)we can also see that the length an electron can move in an electric field is proportional to L d2.This means that the additional length L becomes much longer in a material that has a long diffusion length already without Ga-grading.On the other hand,the carrier collection in such a material is expected to be high anyway,and the potential for improve-ment is smaller than in a material with shorter diffusion length.Ultimately,it will be a balance between an improved carrier collection and reduced absorption that decides whether there will be a net improvement of the short circuit current or not.

3.Literature review

3.1.Device simulations

The complexity of how the device performance is affected by an in-depth variation of the band gap is well illustrated by the diverse results obtained by computer simulations on this topic.For the normal grading profile there exists some agreement on the results.Most of the simulations performed with a normal grading profile predict a small gain in J sc(around0.5mA/cm2)[7–10]. For a double grading profile the results become more diverse,but still a majority of these simulations predict an improved device performance,significantly larger than for a normal Ga-grading profile.The predicted gain for devices with such a profile is an improved V oc.In some simulations the improvement in V oc is accompanied with a reduction in J sc and FF resulting in an overall reduced device performance[8].

3.2.Experimental results

Many CIGS based solar cells with a Ga-graded CIGS layer have been fabricated during the last15years;see Lundberg[3]and references there in.In some processes,for example the selenization process,an increased concentration of Ga towards the back contact occurs spontaneously and in others it can be introduced intentionally.In the case when it is desirable to isolate the effect of the Ga-grading,the processes with a spontaneous Ga-grading formation are less suitable.The reason is that it becomes difficult to make reference devices,which are grown under similar conditions except for a homogeneous Ga/(In+Ga)ratio(no grading).The lack of good reference devices together with a low statistical significance(few devices)are the main reasons for the difficulty to draw conclusions concerning the effect of Ga-grading from the present results in the literature.A lot of devices with high efficiency have been fabricated with a Ga-graded CIGS layer,for example the present world record device[11].But this alone says little about the gain related to the Ga-grading.

There is only one case in the literature in which a significant gain in solar cell performance clearly can be correlated to the use of a Ga-graded absorber layer.This is when the importance of the back contact is enlarged,either by reducing the CIGS thickness[12]or by introduction of a less good back contact material[13].In both these cases a significant increased performance is obtained when a Ga-graded CIGS layer is used.In Lundberg et al.[12]we observed that as the CIGS thickness is reduced the importance of the Ga-grading is increased and at an absorber thickness of0.5A m,the gain in efficiency when using a normal Ga-graded CIGS layer is more the2%units compared to a device with a homogenous CIGS layer.The gain for these devices is seen in the V oc and FF,which reaches the same values as for devices with CIGS layers of standard thickness.As illustrated analytically in Section2 the importance of the back contact is increased as the absorber thickness is reduced,if the diffusion length not is decreased correspondingly.These observations strongly indicate that the gain related to the Ga-grading for devices with thin absorber layers is due to a passivation of the back contact.

For devices with absorber layers of pure CIS the incorporation of a Ga-gradient also leads to a significant improved device performance[14,15].However,here incorporation of Ga also means introduction of a fourth new element that alone is expected to have a number of beneficial effects on the device performance.For example can a more optimal band gap and an increased domain of the stable1:1:2compound in the phase diagram be obtained by introducing Ga[16].In order to explain the observed gain in V oc for these devices with a reduced back contact recombination a very long diffusion length(N4A m)needs to be assumed.Such a long diffusion length is not commonly observed and we thus think that the observed gain for CIS devices is more related to the incorporation of Ga itself than a true effect of Ga-grading.

The largest predicted gain from a majority of the simulation was made for an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio in the front part of the CIGS layer.Many attempts have been made with such a profile,see for example[9,17,18]in which most observed an improved V oc but also a reduced J sc and FF resulting in an overall reduced performance.Of all attempts there is only one case in which a gain in efficiency can be related to an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio in the front part[9].However,the gain was in this case not due to an improved V oc as the simulations in the same paper predicted, but due to a higher FF and J sc.Thus,there exist no

O.Lundberg et al./Thin Solid Films480–481(2005)520–525 522

experimental evidence for that an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio in the SCR has a beneficial effect on the device performance.

For standard devices with a normally thick absorber layer (1.5–2A m)the gain related to a normal grading profile is still unclear.Since the effect seems to be rather small a large set of devices with and without a Ga-grading needs to be compared in order to get a statistical significant result.In the following chapter such data will be presented.

4.The effect of Ga-grading in standard devices In our lab we regularly fabricate both devices with a homogenous CIGS layer and CIGS layers with a normal Ga-grading profile.See Lundberg [3]for a detailed experimen-tal description of these processes.The Ga-gradient is obtained by starting the co-evaporation by evaporating a pure CGS layer with a thickness of 10–15%of the total

thickness.Due to diffusion of indium and gallium this CGS layer will result in a smooth gradient of the Ga concentration [19].Since the device performance is significantly affected by the Cu/(In+Ga)ratio [20]and the effect of Ga-grading is relatively small,it only makes sense to compare devices with a similar Cu/(In+Ga)ratio.In order to compare open circuit voltages (V oc )and short circuit currents (J sc )of devices with slightly different Ga/(In+Ga)ratios,we introduce the following b band gap normalized Q I –V para-meters:D V oc =V oc à(E g /q à0.6V )and J sc rel =J sc measured /J sc max

.Here E g is the band gap of the CIGS layer,q is the

elementary charge,J sc measured

is the J sc obtained from the QE

measurement and J sc max

is the J sc that would be obtained in a device with the QE equal to 1between 360nm and the wavelength corresponding to the band gap,E g [3].E g was determined by finding the intercept of a straight line fitted to (E d QE)2,where E is the photon energy,and the energy axis.

In Fig.2,the g ,D V oc ,J sc rel

and the FF are shown as a function of the Cu/(In+Ga)ratio for a large number of

Table 1

The difference in the band gap normalized I –V parameters between Ga-graded and homogeneous CIGS layers in different Cu/(In+Ga)regions Cu/(In+Ga)ratio –0.750.76–0.850.86–0.950.96–Average g Graded –g Homo 0.270.340.770.160.4[%units]FF Graded –FF Homo à1.5à0.30.30.170.0[%units]J sc rel Graded –J sc rel Homo

0.74 2.18 3.3 1.3 1.6[%units]D V oc_Graded –D V oc_Homo

15

à2

à1

à7

1.5

[mV]

The average is taken over the four intervals in the

table.

Fig.2.The band gap normalized I –V parameters g ,FF,D V oc and J sc rel

vs.the Cu/(In+Ga)ratio for devices with and without a Ga-graded CIGS layer.The absorber thickness is 1.5–2A m.

O.Lundberg et al./Thin Solid Films 480–481(2005)520–525523

samples,grown at baseline conditions [3]both with and without a Ga-grading.Each point in Fig.2is an average over eight individual cells.The composition is measured by X-ray fluorescence.A slight overestimation of the Cu concentration close to stoicheometry leads to a unrealistic result of working devices for Cu/(In+Ga)ratios above 1.From Fig.2we can see that the effect of the Ga-grading is small,but there is a statistically significant beneficial effect.In order to obtain numbers that make sense to compare for these devices with such a large variation in the Cu/(In+Ga)ratio,we divided the CIGS layers after their Cu/(In+Ga)ratio into four different groups.Within each group the performance variation is relatively small.In Table 1the difference in the band-gap normalized I –V parameters between devices with Ga-graded and homogenous CIGS layers is shown for the four different Cu/(In+Ga)regions,where the last column shows the average over these four regions.

In average the devices with a Ga-graded CIGS layer have 0.4%units higher efficiency than devices with a homoge-neous CIGS layer with a similar Cu/(In+Ga)ratio.The gain is largest for Cu/(In+Ga)ratios between 0.86and 0.95,where also the overall best device performance is obtained.All the gain in efficiency can be attributed to an improved J sc .No gain in V oc or FF due to the Ga-grading can be observed.In Fig.3,the QE as a function of wavelength is shown for two typical devices,with and without Ga-grading.

The carrier collection for the device with the Ga-graded CIGS layer is improved for photoelectrons generated by light with a wavelength longer than 800nm.The improved carrier collection in Fig.3corresponds to a gain in J sc of 0.7mA/cm 2.These results are in good agreement with that the additional electric field obtained from the Ga-grading improves the carrier collection for photo generated electrons generated outside the SCR as discussed in Section 2.The size of the improvement in J sc is also in agreement with most computer simulations performed on this topic.

5.Conclusions

Concerning the beneficial effect of Ga-grading we conclude:

!For devices with a standard thick CIGS layer (1.5–2A m)with a Ga/(In+Ga)ratio between 0.25and 0.5and a Cu/(In+Ga)ratio between 0.7and 1the efficiency gain with a normal Ga-grading profile is in the order of 0.4%units.The main part of the gain is due to an improved carrier collection at long wavelengths due to the additional effective electric field obtained from the increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio towards the back contact.No significant gain in V oc or FF related to the Ga-grading is obtained under these conditions.

!By reducing the CIGS thickness,the beneficial effect of Ga-grading is increased.At an absorber thickness of 0.5A m the gain in efficiency is around 2.5%units due to an increased FF and V oc,which becomes comparable to those obtained for standard devices.The increased gain at thinner CIGS layers is due to a passivation of the CIGS back contact,which becomes increasingly detrimental for the device performance as the CIGS thickness is reduced.!No additional gain in performance due to an increased Ga/(In+Ga)ratio in the front part of the CIGS layer can be concluded.

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O.Lundberg et al./Thin Solid Films480–481(2005)520–525525

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The way常见用法

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争，往往是悲惨的、没有光华的、没有幸福的，在孤独与静寂中展开的斗争。……他们只能依靠自己，可是有时连最强的人都不免于在苦难中蹉跎。罗曼·罗兰 8.伟大的心胸，应该表现出这样的气概用笑脸来迎接悲惨的厄运，用百倍的勇气来应付开始的不幸。鲁迅人在逆境里比在在顺境里更能坚强不屈。遇厄运时比交好运时容易保全身心。 9.要抓紧时间赶快生活，因为一场莫名其妙的疾病，或者一个意外的悲惨事件，都会使生命中断。奥斯特洛夫斯基。 10.在我一生中最悲惨的一个时期，我曾经有过那类的想法：去年夏天在我回到这儿附近的地方时，这想法还缠着我;可是只有她自己的亲自说明才能使我再接受这可怕的想法。 11.他们说一个悲惨的故事是悲剧，但一千个这样的故事就只是一个统计了。 12.不要向诱惑屈服，而浪费时间去阅读别人悲惨的详细新闻。 13.那起悲惨的事件深深地铭刻在我的记忆中。 14.伟大的心胸，应该用笑脸来迎接悲惨的厄运，用百倍的勇气来应付一切的不幸。 15.一个人要发现卓有成效的真理，需要千百万个人在失败的探索和悲惨的错误中毁掉自己的生命。门捷列夫 16.生活需要爱，没有爱，那些受灾的人们生活将永远悲惨;生活需要爱，爱就像调味料，使生活这道菜充满滋味;生活需要爱，爱让生活永远充满光明。

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(完整版)the的用法

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“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法

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不对。 Ｔｈｅｗａy(that ,ｉn ｗhiｃh)yoｕ’ｒe doinｇit is comple ｔeｌy crａzy.你这么个干法,简直发疯。 Wｅａdmiｒｅd him for thｅｗay ｉｎｗhｉch he fａｃeｓdiｆficultieｓ． Waｌlａｃe ａｎd Ｄarwiｎｇreed ｏn the way ｉｎwhi ｃh ｄｉfｆｅrｅnt forms ｏf life had ｂegｕn.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 Thｉs is ｔｈe ｗaｙ（tｈａｔ) hｅdｉd it. I lｉkeｄｔhe waｙ(ｔhat) ｓｈeｏｒganized ｔhe ｍeetｉng． 3.theｗay(tｈat)有时可以与hｏw(作“如何”解）通用。例如： That’s tｈe ｗaｙ(tｈaｔ) shｅspoke. = Tｈat’s how shｅspoke.

知己的近义词反义词及知己的造句

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6、波兰斯基有着一段声名卓著的电影生涯，也是几乎所有电影界重要人物们的挚友和同事，他们是知己，是亲密的伙伴。 7、搜索引擎变成了可以帮追我们的忏悔室，知己，信得过的朋友。 8、这样看来，奥巴马国家安全团队中最具影响力的当属盖茨了――但他却是共和党人，他不会就五角大楼以外问题发表看法或成为总统知己。 9、我们的关系在二十年前就已经和平的结束了，但在网上，我又一次成为了他精神层面上的评论家，拉拉队，以及红颜知己。 10、这位“知己”，作为拍摄者，站在距离电视屏幕几英尺的地方对比着自己年轻版的形象。 11、父亲与儿子相互被形容为对方的政治扩音筒、知己和后援。 12、这对夫妻几乎没有什么至交或知己依然在世，而他们在后纳粹时期的德国也不可能会说出实话的。 13、她把我当作知己，于是，我便将她和情人之间的争吵了解得一清二楚。 14、有一种友谊不低于爱情；关系不属于暖昧；倾诉一直推心置腹；结局总是难成眷属；这就是知己！ 15、把你的治疗师当做是可以分享一切心事的知己。 16、莉莉安对我敞开心胸，我成了她的知己。 17、据盖洛普民意调查显示，在那些自我认同的保守党人中，尽管布什仍维持72%支持率，但他在共和党领导层中似乎很少有几位知

way 用法

表示“方式”、“方法”，注意以下用法： 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式，通常用介词in(此介词有时可省略)。如： Do it (in) your own way. 按你自己的方法做吧。 Please do not talk (in) that way. 请不要那样说。 2.表示做某事的方式或方法，其后可接不定式或of doing sth。 如： It’s the best way of studying [to study] English. 这是学习英语的最好方法。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 做这事有不同的办法。 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句，但是其后的从句不能由how 来引导。如： 我不喜欢他说话的态度。 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way that he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way in which he spoke. 误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4.注意以下各句the way 的用法： That’s the way (=how) he spoke. 那就是他说话的方式。 Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. 没有人像我这样爱你。 The way (=According as) you are studying now, you won’tmake much progress. 根据你现在学习情况来看，你不会有多大的进步。 2007年陕西省高考英语中有这样一道单项填空题： ——I think he is taking an active part insocial work. ——I agree with you_____. A、in a way B、on the way C、by the way D、in the way 此题答案选A。要想弄清为什么选A，而不选其他几项，则要弄清选项中含way的四个短语的不同意义和用法，下面我们就对此作一归纳和小结。 一、in a way的用法 表示：在一定程度上，从某方面说。如： In a way he was right.在某种程度上他是对的。注：in a way也可说成in one way。 二、on the way的用法 1、表示：即将来(去)，就要来(去)。如： Spring is on the way.春天快到了。 I'd better be on my way soon.我最好还是快点儿走。 Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way.无线电预报说将有六级大风。 2、表示：在路上，在行进中。如： He stopped for breakfast on the way.他中途停下吃早点。 We had some good laughs on the way.我们在路上好好笑了一阵子。 3、表示：(婴儿)尚未出生。如： She has two children with another one on the way.她有两个孩子，现在还怀着一个。 She's got five children，and another one is on the way.她已经有5个孩子了，另一个又快生了。 三、by the way的用法

小学语文反义词仿照的近义词反义词和造句

仿照的近义词反义词和造句 仿照的近义词 【仿制解释】：仿造：～品 【模仿解释】：个体自觉或不自觉地重复他人的行为的过程。是社会学习的重要形式之一。尤其在儿童方面，儿童的动作、语言、技能以及行为习惯、品质等的形成和发展都离不开模仿。可分为无意识模仿和有意识模仿、外部模仿和内部模仿等多种类型。 仿照的反义词 【独创解释】：独特的创造：～精神ㄧ～一格。 仿照造句 一、老师让我们仿照黑板上的图画一幅画。 二、仿照下面的句式，以“只有”开头，写一结构与之相似的复句。 三、仿照例句的句子，在下面两句的横线上补写相应的内容。 四、仿照例句，以“记忆”或“友情”开头，另写一句话。 五、仿照下面两个例句，用恰当的词语完成句子，要求前后语意关联。 六、仿照开头两句句式，通过联想，在后面两句横线上填上相应的词语。 七、仿照所给例句，用下面的词展开联想，给它一个精彩的解释。 八、仿照例句，以“你”开头，另写一个句子。 九、仿照下列句式，续写两个句子，使之与前文组成意义相关的.句子。 十、我们也仿照八股文章的笔法来一个“八股”,以毒攻毒,就叫做八大罪状吧。

十一、仿照例句，任选一种事物，写一个句子。 十二、仿照下面一句话的句式和修辞，以“时间”开头，接着写一个句子。 十三、仿照例句，以“热爱”开头，另写一句子。 十四、仿照下面的比喻形式，另写一组句子。要求选择新的本体和喻体，意思完整。 十五、根据语镜，仿照划线句子，接写两句，构成语意连贯的一段话。 十六、仿照下面句式，续写两个句式相同的比喻句。 十七、自选话题，仿照下面句子的形式和修辞，写一组排比句。 十八、仿照下面一句话的句式，仍以“人生”开头，接着写一句话。 十九、仿照例句的格式和修辞特点续写两个句子，使之与例句构成一组排比句。 二十、仿照例句，另写一个句子，要求能恰当地表达自己的愿望。 二十一、仿照下面一句话的句式，接着写一句话，使之与前面的内容、句式相对应，修辞方法相同。 二十二、仿照下面一句话的句式和修辞，以“思考”开头，接着写一个句子。 二十三、仿照下面例句，从ABCD四个英文字母中选取一个，以”青春”为话题，展开想象和联想，写一段运用了比喻修辞格、意蕴丰富的话，要求不少于30字。 二十四、仿照下面例句，另写一个句子。 二十五、仿照例句，另写一个句子。 二十六、下面是毕业前夕的班会上，数学老师为同学们写的一句赠言，请你仿照它的特点，以语文老师的身份为同学们也写一句。

The way的用法及其含义(一)

The way的用法及其含义（一） 有这样一个句子：In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. 1770年，这间琥珀屋按照她的要求完成了。 the way在句中的语法作用是什么？其意义如何？在阅读时，学生经常会碰到一些含有the way 的句子，如：No one knows the way he invented the machine. He did not do the experiment the way his teacher told him.等等。他们对the way 的用法和含义比较模糊。在这几个句子中，the way之后的部分都是定语从句。第一句的意思是，“没人知道他是怎样发明这台机器的。”the way的意思相当于how；第二句的意思是，“他没有按照老师说的那样做实验。”the way 的意思相当于as。在In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted.这句话中，the way也是as的含义。随着现代英语的发展，the way的用法已越来越普遍了。下面，我们从the way的语法作用和意义等方面做一考查和分析： 一、the way作先行词，后接定语从句 以下3种表达都是正确的。例如：“我喜欢她笑的样子。” 1. the way+ in which +从句 I like the way in which she smiles. 2. the way+ that +从句 I like the way that she smiles. 3. the way + 从句(省略了in which或that) I like the way she smiles. 又如：“火灾如何发生的，有好几种说法。” 1. There were several theories about the way in which the fire started. 2. There were several theories about the way that the fire started.

暗示的近义词和反义词 [暗示的近义词反义词和造句]

暗示的近义词和反义词[暗示的近义词反义词和造句] 【暗示解释】：用含蓄、间接的方式使他人的心理、行为受到影响。下面小编就给大家整理暗示的近义词，反义词和造句，供大家学习参考。 暗示近义词 默示 示意 暗指 暗意暗示反义词 明说 表明 明言暗示造句 1. 他的顶级助手已经暗示那可能就在不久之后，但是避免设定具体的日期。 2. 一些观察家甚至暗示他可能会被送到了古拉格。 3. 要有积极的心理暗示，达成目标的好处不够充分，画面不够鲜明那它对你的吸引力就不够强烈，你就不易坚持下去! 4. 不要经常去试探男人，更不要以分手做为威胁，当你经常给他这种心理暗示，他的潜意识就会做好分手的打算。 5. 向读者暗示永远不必为主角担心，他们逢凶化吉，永远会吉人天相。 6. 约她一起运动，不要一下跳跃到游泳，可以从羽毛球网球开始，展示你的体魄和运动细胞，流汗的男人毫无疑问是最性感的，有意无意的裸露与靠近，向她暗示你的运动能力。 7. 正如在上一个示例所暗示的，只有在这些对象引用内存中同一个对象时，它们才是相同的。 8. 渥太华此时打出中国牌，巧妙地对美国这种行为作出警告，暗示美国如果长期这样下去的话，美国将自食其果。 9. 团长用震撼人心的嗓音喊道，这声音对他暗示欢乐，对兵团暗示森严，对前来校阅阅兵的首长暗示迎迓之意。 10. 渥太华此时打出中国牌，巧妙地对美国这种行为作出警告，暗示美国如果长期这样下去的话，美国将自食其恶果。 11. 我们需要邀请用户，为他们描述服务产品有多少好，给他们解释为什么他们需要填那些表单并且暗示他们会因此得到利益的回报。 12. 她对暗示她在说谎的言论嗤之以鼻。 14. 在力士参孙中，整首诗都强烈暗示着弥尔顿渴望他自己也能像参孙一样，以生命为代价，与敌人同归于尽。 15. 戴维既然问将军是否看见天花板上的钉子，这就暗示着他自己已看见了，当将军做了肯定的答复后，他又说自己看不见，这显然是自相矛盾。 16. 自我暗示在我们的生活中扮演着重要角色。如果我们不加以觉察，通常它会与我们作对。相反地，如果你运用它，它的力量就可以任你使唤。 17. 纳什建议太阳招兵买马，暗示去留取决阵容实力。 18. 同时，还暗示了菊既不同流俗，就只能在此清幽高洁而又迷漾暗淡之境中任芳姿憔悴。 19. 学习哲学的最佳途径就是将它当成一个侦探故事来处理：跟踪它的每一点蛛丝马迹每一条线索与暗示，以便查出谁是真凶，谁是英雄。 20. 不要经常去试探你的伴侣，更不要以分手做为威胁，试探本身就是一种不信任，当

放弃的近义词反义词和造句

放弃的近义词反义词和造句 下面就给大家整理放弃的近义词，反义词和造句，供大家学习参考。 放弃的近义词【废弃解释】：抛弃不用：把～的土地变成良田ㄧ旧的规章制度要一概～。 【丢弃解释】：扔掉;抛弃：虽是旧衣服，他也舍不得～。 放弃的反义词【保存解释】：使事物、性质、意义、作风等继续存在，不受损失或不发生变化：～古迹ㄧ～实力ㄧ～自己，消灭敌人。 放弃造句(1) 运动员要一分一分地拼，不能放弃任何一次取胜的机会。 (2) 我们不要放弃每一个成功的机会。 (3) 敌军招架不住，只好放弃阵地，狼狈而逃。 (4) 为了农村的教育事业，姐姐主动放弃了调回城市的机会。 (5) 都快爬到山顶了，你却要放弃，岂不功亏一篑?(6) 纵使遇到再大的困难，我们也要勇往直前，不轻言放弃。 (7) 逆境中的他始终没有放弃努力,仍满怀信心,期待着峰回路转的那一天。 (8) 听了同学的规劝,他如梦初醒,放弃了离家出走的想法。 (9) 因寡不敌众,我军放弃了阵地。 (10) 要日本帝国主义放弃侵华野心,无异于与虎谋皮。 (11) 永不言弃固然好，但有时放弃却也很美。

(12) 他这种放弃原则、瓦鸡陶犬的行径已经被揭露出来了。 (13) 适当放弃，做出斩钉截铁的决定，才能成为人生的赢家。 (14) 他委曲求全地放弃自己的主张，采纳了对方的意见。 (17) 我们要有愚公移山一样的斗志，坚持不懈，永远不放弃，去登上梦想的彼岸!(18) 只要有希望，就不能放弃。 (19) 为了大局着想，你应该委曲求全地放弃自己的看法。 (20) 既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。 (21) 即使没有人相信你，也不要放弃希望。 (22) 无论通往成功的路途有多艰辛，我都不会放弃。 (23) 在困难面前，你是选择坚持，还是选择放弃?(24) 无论前路多么的漫长，过程多么的艰辛，我都不会放弃并坚定地走下去。 (25) 你不要因为这点小事就英雄气短,放弃出国深造的机会。 (26) 像他这样野心勃勃的政客，怎么可能放弃追求权力呢?(27) 鲁迅有感于中国人民愚昧和麻木,很需要做发聋振聩的启蒙工作,于是他放弃学医,改用笔来战斗。 (28) 我们对真理的追求应该坚持不懈，锲而不舍，绝不能随便放弃自己的理想。 (29) 感情之事不比其他，像你这样期盼东食西宿，几个男友都捨不得放弃，最后必定落得一场空。 (30) 爷爷临终前的话刻骨铭心，一直激励着我努力学习，无论是遇到多大的困难险阻，我都不曾放弃。

way 的用法

way 的用法 【语境展示】 1. Now I’ll show you how to do the experiment in a different way. 下面我来演示如何用一种不同的方法做这个实验。 2. The teacher had a strange way to make his classes lively and interesting. 这位老师有种奇怪的办法让他的课生动有趣。 3. Can you tell me the best way of working out this problem? 你能告诉我算出这道题的最好方法吗？ 4. I don’t know the way (that / in which) he helped her out. 我不知道他用什么方法帮助她摆脱困境的。 5. The way (that / which) he talked about to solve the problem was difficult to understand. 他所谈到的解决这个问题的方法难以理解。 6. I don’t like the way that / which is being widely used for saving water. 我不喜欢这种正在被广泛使用的节水方法。 7. They did not do it the way we do now. 他们以前的做法和我们现在不一样。 【归纳总结】 ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，如表示“以……方式”，前面常加介词in。如例1； ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，其后可接不定式to do sth.，也可接of doing sth. 作定语，表示做某事的方法。如例2，例3；

体面的近义词-反义词及造句

体面的近义词|反义词及造句 我们还必须迅速采取行动，为实现社会包容和人人体面工作营造有利的环境。下面是小编精选整理的体面的近义词|反义词及造句，供您参考，欢迎大家阅读。 体面的近义词： 面子、合适、美观、颜面、场合、场面、排场、得体、好看、局面 体面的反义词： 难听、寒碜、邋遢、寒酸、难看 体面造句 1、我认为，帖在墙面上的证书，并不能使你成为一个体面的人。 2、他是那里唯一的看上去很体面的人;我认为他从来没有这样好看过。 3、所有的美国人都是好的，体面的人们每天都在践行着他们的责任。 4、美国人民慷慨、强大、体面，这并非因为我们信任我们自己，而是因为我们拥有超越我们自己的信念。 5、工人就是工人，无论他们来自哪里，他们都应该受到尊重和尊敬，至少因为他们从事正当的工作而获得体面的工资。 6、然而反之有些孩子可能就是多少有些体面的父母的不良种子这一概念却令人难以接受。

7、如果奥巴马能够成就此功，并且帮助一个体面的伊拉克落稳脚跟，奥巴马和民主党不仅是结束了伊拉克战争，而是积极从战争中挽救。 8、而且，等到年纪大了退休时，他们希望能得到尊重和体面的对待。 9、爸爸，您倒对这件事处理得很体面，而我想那可能是我一生中最糟糕的一个夜晚吧。 10、有一些积极的东西，低于预期的就业损失索赔和零售销售是体面的。 11、如果你努力工作，你就能有获得一份终生工作的机会，有着体面的薪水，良好的福利，偶尔还能得到晋升。 12、体面的和生产性的工作是消除贫困和建立自给自足最有效的方法之一。 13、同时，他是一个仁慈、温和、体面的人，一个充满爱的丈夫和父亲，一个忠实的朋友。 14、几周前我们刚讨论过平板电脑是如何作为一个体面且多产的电子设备，即使它没有完整的键盘，在进行输入时会稍慢些。 15、什么才是生活体面的标准? 16、我们还必须迅速采取行动，为实现社会包容和人人体面工作营造有利的环境。 17、她告诉我人们都担心是不是必须把孩子送到国外去学习，才能保证孩子们长大后至少能过上体面正派的生活。

the-way-的用法讲解学习

t h e-w a y-的用法

The way 的用法 "the way+从句"结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 一.在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮.

近义词反义词大全有关聆听的反义词近义词和造句

近义词反义词大全有关聆听的反义词近义词和造句 【聆听解释】：1.汉扬雄《法言.五百》:"聆听前世﹐清视在下﹐鉴莫近于斯矣。"后多用于书面语﹐常指仔细注意地听。下面就给大家聆听的反义词，近义词和造句，供大家学习参考。 嘱咐 [注释]1.叮嘱，吩咐 倾听 [注释]1.侧着头听。 2.细听;认真地听 凝听 [注释]1.聚精会神地听 谛听 [注释]注意地听;仔细听：侧耳谛听 细听 [注释]… 1. 学校应充分利用社会的各种，调动一切可以调动的力量，应尽一切可能请进名师专家，让教师和学生有较多的机会聆听大师的声音、与大师对话。这多少会机器他们向往大师、成为大师的冲动，多少会使他们觉得大师就在身边，大师并不遥远。 2. 今天妈妈带我来到了这个美丽的大安森林公园玩，这儿有漂亮的花儿和绿油油的树，草，看起来像一个我好想好想要的花园。树

上有小鸟儿在唱歌，有蝉声在帮忙和弦，树下有小朋友再安静仔细聆听著这最自然的交响曲。 3. 静静聆听那滴滴答答的声音，不知在为谁倾诉?她在偶尔低语，偶尔高唱，偶尔呻吟，偶尔叹息，生动灵活，充满了立体与层次之美，在心灵中轻轻一吻，便触发了思绪，这思绪时而短暂，时而绵长，时而深沉，时而悠远…… 4. 九月的手掌拂去小溪夏日的狂躁，用心聆听着秋日的私语，温顺地弹唱着九月醉人的秋歌，惹得天空湛蓝高远，碧空如洗。 5. 我光着脚丫，踩着海水，注视着波光粼粼的海面，听着哗哗的响声，那声音好像高超演奏家的激越的钢琴曲，又像歌唱家的雄浑的进行曲，那声音使胸膛激荡，热血奔涌，啊，我多么愿意聆听大海老人的谆谆教诲啊! 6. 雪花飘飘，寒风阵阵，我细细地聆听着寒风谱写成的有声有色的乐谱，为雪花的舞步增添一些光彩。寒风真像一位默默为雪花服务的人。过了一会儿，又为雪花写了一篇朗朗上口的诗歌，一会儿又为她热烈地鼓起了清脆的掌声。

way的用法总结大全

way的用法总结大全 way的用法你知道多少，今天给大家带来way的用法，希望能够帮助到大家，下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 way的用法总结大全 way的意思 n. 道路,方法,方向,某方面 adv. 远远地，大大地 way用法 way可以用作名词 way的基本意思是“路,道,街,径”,一般用来指具体的“路,道路”,也可指通向某地的“方向”“路线”或做某事所采用的手段,即“方式,方法”。way还可指“习俗,作风”“距离”“附近,周围”“某方面”等。 way作“方法,方式,手段”解时,前面常加介词in。如果way前有this, that等限定词,介词可省略,但如果放在句首,介词则不可省略。

way作“方式,方法”解时,其后可接of v -ing或to- v 作定语,也可接定语从句,引导从句的关系代词或关系副词常可省略。 way用作名词的用法例句 I am on my way to the grocery store.我正在去杂货店的路上。 We lost the way in the dark.我们在黑夜中迷路了。 He asked me the way to London.他问我去伦敦的路。 way可以用作副词 way用作副词时意思是“远远地,大大地”,通常指在程度或距离上有一定的差距。 way back表示“很久以前”。 way用作副词的用法例句 It seems like Im always way too busy with work.我工作总是太忙了。 His ideas were way ahead of his time.他的思想远远超越了他那个时代。 She finished the race way ahead of the other runners.她第一个跑到终点,远远领先于其他选手。 way用法例句

终于的近义词,反义词及造句

终于的近义词，反义词及造句 …终究[注释]副词。 总：总归;毕竟;最终：我们只要把事情办好，人们终究会相信我们的|腐朽的东西终究要灭…到底[注释]1.直到尽头。 2.始终;从头到尾。 3.毕竟;究竟。 …结果[注释]结果1在一定阶段，事物发展所达到的最后状态：优良的成绩，是长期刻苦学习的～ㄧ经过一番争论…终归[注释]1.传说中神兽名。 2.终究;毕竟。 …究竟终于的反义词：起初、最初、原来、依旧、起先终于的造句：(1) 盼望了一个冬天的雪花，下午终于飘飘洒洒满天飞舞般降落。 同事们也如孩子般奔向办公室的走廊，欣喜地用手去接冰凉的小雪花再用盆子收拢些飘舞的小雪花。 隔窗望去，天地之间因突然多了这白色的小精灵而愈发显得美丽。 (2) 快乐的暑假终于到了，我可以开开心心痛痛快快地玩一顿了!当然，在这之前，我也会好好安排一下我的暑假生活，使我过个既快乐又充实的暑假，我快乐的暑假生活。 (3) 坚韧，让沙石煎熬住大海的蹂躏，终于化作璀璨的珍珠;坚韧，让天空忍受住雨水倾盆的阴霾，终于看见那一道彩虹;坚韧，让泉水忘记流进山谷崎岖的历程，终于汇入蔚蓝无垠的大海。

它的叶子正面是身绿色的，反面是浅绿的，经脉上还有一些毛绒绒的小细毛。 又过了几天，含羞草的花蕾也长出来了，圆溜溜的，紫红色，还有着一些像针一样的东西，非常美丽。 (5) 漫长而炎热的夏天终于过去了，凉爽怡人的秋天来到了。 (6) 随着天空被点燃，太阳也终于露出脸来，它没有害羞，而是大大方方地把它独特的热情展示给我们，毫不吝惜地奖光芒撒向大地。 (7) 大约过了二十分钟，太阳终于挣脱了大地妈妈的怀抱，在崇山俊岭之间冉冉升起，真像个大红球，又像气得涨红了脸。 (8) 半个月的低烧，终于有了好转，高烧了……(9) 夏天的雨后，太阳冲出乌云的包围，终于露出了整张脸，此时阳光直直的，却不呆板、单调，它们穿梭在树枝之间，织成一道道金色的丝，将鱼后的水珠串成一串金黄的珍珠。 夏天少有的凉意伴着美丽的阳光，令人沁透心脾。 (10) 终于到达了果园。 我们忽然发现，果园里还种了一些菊花。 这些菊花有红的蓝的黄的白的……它们颜色不同，姿态也不同：菊花们有的含苞欲放，有的开了一半，有的已经绽开了笑脸……千姿百态，十分美丽。 (11) 发改委终于超越了统计局，说北京人均绿地是巴黎两倍。 最牛回复：“是算上了开心农场吧?。

the_way的用法大全教案资料

t h e_w a y的用法大全

The way 在the way+从句中, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 如果怕弄混淆，下面的可以不看了 另外，在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的