应用语言学第一二章

Chapter 1

1.What Is Applied Linguistics?

1).What is applied linguistics? Why is there no consensus on its definition and scope?

①Applied linguistics aimed to solve problems in various fields by applying the knowledge of linguistics.②As applied linguistics is a comparatively new discipline, there is as yet no consensus of opinions as to what its definition is and how wide its scope should be.

2.What is the role of applied linguistics? Why does it play that role?

① The role of applied linguistics

Linguistics, etc. ←→ Applied Linguistics ←→

Language Teaching, etc.

Figure---The role of applied linguistics as a mediator.

②Applied linguistics thus not only provides principles and basic methodology for language teachers, etc., based on the theories and insights of linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc.; it also provides feedback to linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc., by summing up the experience from the practical areas such as language teaching.

3.What is the nature of applied linguistics? What is the difference between applied linguistics and other applied sciences?

Answer: the nature of applied linguistics

(1) It is an independent discipline in its own right, because

* it has its own object of study;

* it has its own scientific system of theories and methodology; and

* it has its own researchers.

(2) It is an interdisciplinary science, because it draws upon theories not from a single science,

but from several. Besides, its application is also interdisciplinary in the broad sense.

(3) It is an applied science. Its goal is to solve problem, i. e. application, unlike pure science.

But we should not understand application in a narrow sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.

(4) It is an empirical science. Like natural sciences, it uses experiments as its basic way of research, emphasizing objectivity, systematicness, explicitness and economy.

The goal of applied linguistics is to solve problem, i.e., application. But we should not understand application in the literal sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.

4.What is the relationship between applied linguistics and language learning and teaching? Answer: Good language teaching practice is based on good theoretical understanding, and a good language teaching theory will strive to provide a conceptual framework devised for identifying all factors relevant in the teaching of language and relationship between them and for giving effective direction to the practice of language teaching, supported by the necessary research and inquiry.

5.Why is it necessary for the language teacher to learn applied linguistics?

Answer: Applied linguistics aims to provide language teachers with good language teaching

theories, principles and methodology. The language teacher can benefit from applied linguistics in, at least, the following three areas: a comprehensive and up-to-date grasp of the theoretical foundations of language learning and teaching; an integrated understanding of the various factors affecting language learning and teaching, and a basic knowledge about different language teaching approaches, methods and techniques. In short, applied linguistics will help the language teacher teach more effectively.

Chapter 2

Language, Learning and Teaching

1.What is the nature of language? Why is it necessary for the language teacher to know it?

Language is systematic and generative. It is a set of arbitrary symbols and they have conventionalized meanings to which they refer. is used for communication. operates in a speech community or culture. language and language learning both have universal characteristics.

By system: we mean the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. Every language contains two systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. This phenomenon is called duality.

―arbitrary vocal symbols‖: Anything that represents something else is a symbol.

Language consists of another type of symbols, sound symbols or speech sounds.

human communication: Language is a unique system of communication. It is the cement of society. It allows people to live, work and play together, to tell the truth or to tell lies.

Teachers cannot hope to teach a part (the particular language) of reality without knowing how that part fits into the whole(language in general) Your understanding of the components of language will determine to a large extent

how u teach a language.

2.What are the similarities and differences between human learning and animal learning？How do you understand language learning？

Animal learning for simple communication .express the food source, very simple emotion like anger and happiness. human learning complex idea. hypothesis , give command, thinking. Language learning in a broad sense include both formal learning in the classroom

stimulated by teaching and natural informal language learning without instruction from any teacher.

Learning is the prerequisite and basis of teaching.A theory of teaching always implies a theory of learning.

3.What is teaching? Can it be defined apart from learning? Why(not)?

①Teaching can be defined as ―activities which are intended to bring about learning. ‖

②Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning, because teaching presupposes learning. There will be no teaching if learning does not take place.

4.Illustrate the relationship between language teaching and language learning?

J. S. Bruner---1966 Toward a Theory of Instruction ―Learning something with

the aid of an instructor should, if instruction is effective, be less dangerous or risky or

painful than learning on one’s own.‖

Teaching understand the learners’ development ,skill, motivation and gives formal instruction ,training, by media or different kind of supportive activities. thus makes

learning easier.

5. Why is it necessary for the language teacher to have some knowledge not only of teaching but also of learning?

Since the mid-1960s,the student-centered view has been widely accepted, This reflects the theory that the students play an active role in learning ,and that they are not only actively participating in classroom activities ,but are interacting with the teacher and their peers.

Chapter 3

1. What are the characteristic features of human learning?

conceptualization of learning has several implications:

1）. Everything we learn is retained in some form in our brain, even though it may be forgotten.

2.）Learning cannot be equated with behavior or performance.

3）. Learning includes not only deliberately acquired new associations but also those acquired without conscious awareness, when we are paying primary attention to something else.

4）. The new associations which constitute learning vary in meaningfulness and complexity. 5）. All learning depends upon environmental input.

6）. Learning is not restricted to new associations or insights that result from experience with purely external stimuli.

2、What are the four general philosophical views of human nature? How are they related to human learning?

The pessimistic view

According to this view, humans are inherently evil. Therefore, education must be designed to keep dangerous instincts under control. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the will not engage in higher intellectual pursuit voluntarily, but they will learn if they are forced to.

The hedonistic view

According to this view, people are selfishly preoccupied with the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the need to make learning experience as enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding as possible.

The optimistic view

According to this view, people are naturally altruistic, humanistic and curious. This view leads to theories that picture people as thirsting for knowledge and actively processing information from the environment.

The tabula-rasa or ―blank-slate‖ view

This is a neutral view. According to this view, humans have few if any natural predispositions. Development, therefore, is dependent upon the individual’s experiences, which are determined by the environment and are thus open to planning and control. In its strongest form, this approach pictures learners as almost entirely passive and reactive, so that their behavior can be controlled predictably and systematically through environmental manipulation. Teaching then becomes a matter of structuring learning environments so as to produce desired outcomes.

3、What are the similarities and differences between classical behaviorism and neobehaviorism?

Similarities: They are predominantly concerned with the relationship between stimulus and response. According to them, behavior is acquired or changed when the organism builds up associations between stimulus and response either because of the closeness of stimulus and response or by satisfaction which comes from giving a correct response to a given stimulus.

Differences: classical behaviorism is related to association between stimuli and reflexive response, Classical conditioning, Reflex could also occur in response to stimuli that appear to be indirectly related to the reflex. neobehaviorism focuses on operant conditioning VS respondent conditioning (Classical conditioning). classical behaviorism stressed the environmental modifiability of behavior, as against determination by constitutional structure. Neobehaviorism : Guthrie stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity over instrumental conditioning and the principle of reinforcement. Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was controlled by reinforcement. Skinner stresses a particular kind of instrumental conditioning known as ―operant conditioning‖ . Operants are any behavioral ele ments or series f related behaviors that organisms presently perform or are capable of performing, and the produce an effect or operate on the environment.

4、What are the strengths and weaknesses of the behaviorist theories?

Watson’s behaviorism: he stres sed the environmental modifiability of behavior, as against determination by constitutional structure. He seek to make psychology a ―purely objective experimental branch of natural science‖ by restricting it to the study of the relations between environmental events(stimuli) and behavior(response). But there will be an increase in both frequency and recency of successful responses until a correct S-R pattern appears.

Guthrie’s S-R theory: He stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity over instrumental conditioning and the principle of reinforcement. However, it has difficulty accounting for more complex kinds of learning.

Hull’s S-O-R theory: Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was controlled by reinforcement. Reinforced responses would be more likely to appear in the future, and punished or unreinforced responses were less likely to reappear.

Skinner’s operant conditioning: he stresses a particular kind of instrumental conditioning known as ―operant conditioning‖ . Operan ts are any behavioral elements or series f related behaviors that organisms presently perform or are capable of performing, and the produce an effect or operate on the environment. Otherwise, when there is a punishment(i.e a positive reinforcing stimulus is removed or a negative reinforcing stimulus is presented), the rate of responding decreases.

5、What are the similarities and differences among the cognitive learning theories? Why are they cognitive?

Gestalt psychology: eh emphasizes on innate organizing principles(gestalt) in human perception, recognition, sensorimotor skills, learning and even in social conduct . according to this theory, organisms are innately active in their interactions with the environment.

Piaget’s developmental psychology: his basic concepts are assimilation and accommodation. He

refers to the learning process as the development of new schemata (the plural of schema) through assimilation and accommodation. Schemata are the cognitive or mental structures by which the individual intellectually adapts to and organizes the environment. These cognitive structures are used to process and identify incoming stimuli.

Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning: according to ausubel, meaning is a ―clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individual’s cognitive structure on a non-articulatory and substantivebasis‖ human learning is a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions. Meaning is therefore a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in the learner’s cognitive structure. Meaningful learning takes place when the learner has a disposition to relate the new material to what he already knows or when the learning task is potentially meaningful

If we can conceive of cognitive structure as a system of building blocks, then rote learning is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular function in the building of a structure, and therefore with no relationship to other blocks. Meaningful learning is the process whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or systematic clusters of blocks.

6、What do you think of the different learning theories? What is your own view of human learning?

Cognitive theories place greater store by the functioning of the mind, and postulate internal mental thinking as well as processes including perception, memorizing and cognitive structures which can be acquired from learn ers’ experience and can modify their present behavior. Much greater emphasis is placed on learners being aware of the surroundings and being flexible in solutions they adopt.

Chapter4

1. Is it easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue? Why (not)?

No, it is not easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue.

First of all, he must segment the sound stream into meaningful units (words or phrases). This requires his ability to analyze. Then, he must combine them to arrive at the intended underlying propositions. This requires his ability to synthesize.

2. What questions must theories of L1 acquisition answer? Why?

Psycholinguists who study child language are confronted with a more complex task than theoretical linguists whose major concern is competence (i.e. the system of language) and sociolinguists whose major concern is performance (i.e. the use of language). Psycholinguists have to be concerned with both competence and performance.

Because they look at language from different angles, and because their purposes in the study of language are different.

3. Sketch out Skinner’s behavioristic theory of L1 acquisition.

Skinner’s behavioristic model is embodied in his classic Verbal Behavior. His theory of verbal behavior is in fact an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other human behavior, is controlled by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding the behavior is reinforced and maintained, and

even increased in strength and frequency. When consequences are punishing or when there is no reinforcement, the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished. Therefore, effective language is the production of correct responses to external stimuli. The L1 acquisition process is one in which the child’s correct responses are repeatedly reinforced and finally a habit is formed.

4. What are the main points of mediation theories? Why are they called mediation theories?

Mediation theories are represented by O. H. Mowrer and C. E. Osgood. Their goal is to fill the ―black box‖ with postulated internal psychological structures and processes in order to account for the observed behavior of organisms. They have developed a principle of mediated association, according to which two things associated with a third thing tend to be in association with each other. Once the association is established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.

They need media. The internal mediating response is considered to be an internal replication of a ―real‖ response. From a behavioristic point of view, meaning is an internal replica of an external response.

5. How do the nativist theories account for L1 acquisition?

Nativist theories are represented by N. Chomsky, E. H. Lenneberg, and D. McNeill. According to these theories, human babies are somehow predisposed to acquire a language. Lenneberg contends that language is a species-specific behavior which is biologically determined. The child is born with the biological basis for the acquisition of language. Chomsky claims the existence of a little black box which he calls the language acquisition device (LAD). He regards it as ―the genetically determined language faculty”, ―an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented experience.‖ McNeill describes four innate linguistic properties of the LAD and suggests that infants are born with a hierarchy of linguistic categories and the basic grammatical relations.

6. What are the main arguments of the cognitive theories?

Cognitive theories are represented by D. I. Slobin, J. Piaget and L. Bloom, who attempt to account for the linguistic knowledge of the child by a more general theory of cognitive development. Slobin suggests that the conceptual development of all human children is the same with regard to the order of attainment of conceptual categories and that a number of cognitive prerequisites lie behind the emergence of communicative speech. Slobin characterizes this development as new functions first expressed in old forms. Piaget outlines four major stages of intellectual development in the child, and claims that intelligence actually develops well before language. Stage One, the sensory-motor stage(ages 0-2). Stage Two, the preoperational stage(ages 2-7). In the first stage(ages 2 to 4 or 5) the child’s language is egocentric speech. In the second stage(by ages 6-7), the child’s language has become socialized speech, which is characterized by intercommunication and exchange of ideas. Stage Three, the concrete operational stage (ages 7-11). Stage Four, the formal operational stage(ages 11-16). Bloom concludes that the development of perception and cognition are keys to the understanding of the process of child language acquisition.

7. What do you think of the different L1 acquisition theories?

There is one common problem with all of the theories. They all ignore the social aspect of L1 acquisition. Just as Armstrong et al point out‖…language acquisition studies show that language does not develop through an individual’s interaction with the natural environment. It emerges only

out of social interaction, but social interaction within constrained limits…Without the introduction to words and seminal idea that words symbolize—without the initial acquisition process which is social—we would have no equipment with which to make linguistic inferences.‖

Chapter5

1.Illustrate the use of the terms second language and foreign language

In the past, the term ―foreign language‖ was most widely used in contrast to ―native language‖. But in recent decades, the term ―second language‖ has been increasingly used to refer to all types of non-native language. In certain cases, they are distinguished from each other. According to Stern , ―second language‖ is used to refer to a non-native language learned and used within one country or community where it has official status or a recognized function, whereas ―foreign language‖is used to refer to a non-native language learned and used outside the country or community where it has official status or a recognized function. In a second language context, the target language is spoken by the community outside the classroom, whereas in a foreign language context, the target language is generally not spoken by the community but is limited to the classroom.

2.What does it mean to know a second language?

Knowing a language means having acquired the competence ore proficiency in the language. The idea goal of competence or proficiency in a second language is the native speaker’s competence or proficiency in the language, which is necessary point of reference for the concept of second language proficiency.

3.What is meant by second language proficiency ? How can the learner attain it?

Knowing a language means having acquired the competence or proficiency in the language. The ideal goal of competence or proficiency in a second language is the native speaker’s competence or proficiency in the language, which is a necessary point of reference for the concept of second language proficiency. Stern conceptualizes this native speakers’ proficiency as follows: 1. The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language, 2. The intuitive mastery of the linguistic , cognitive , affective and sociocultural meanings expressed by the language forms, 3. The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and 4. The creativity of language use.

4.Who is a better second language learner, the child or the adult? Why ?

Adults and old children in general initially acquire the second language faster than young children(older id better for the early stage of acquisition), but child second language acquires will usually be superior in terms of ultimate attainment(younger is better in the long run). We can explain it from three main aspects: the biological explanation, the cognitive explanation, and the affective explanation.

5.What does interlanguage refer to? What is the nature of interlanguage? Do you think we can apply this concept to foreign language learning? Why (not)?

The term interlanguage was defined differently by different experts, but now we say that inter language is in fact a language system bordering on the first language and the target language. I don’t think we can apply it to foreign language learning, because it has only a minor impact on L2 pedagogy.

6.How do you understand Kranshen’s monitor theory? Do you think it is applicable to

foreign language learning ? Why （not)?

Krashen’s monitor theory is considered the best known most ambitious most influential of all L2 theories. It has brought together research findings from a number of different domains, is closely tied to recommendations for classrooms practice and is readily understandable to L2 teachers. So I think it can be applied to foreign language learning.

7.How do Burt and Dulay account for the internal processing of second language ? Is foreign language learning also a creative construction process? Why (not)?

The creative construction model is developed by Burt and Dulay in 1977 to account for the internal processing of second language. It is based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory of creative aspects of language use. Foreign language learning is also a creative construction process. Creative construction in language acquisition refers to the process by which learners gradually reconstruct the rules for speech they hear, guided by innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypotheses about the language system being acquired, until the mismatch between what they are exposed to and they produce is resolved.

Chapter 6

1. How are different types of learning related to learning English as a foreign language? Learning has been classified in many different ways .The most useful classification is based on the task of learning (i.e. what is being learned).Based on the nature of the learning task, three types of learning are identified :skill learning ,affective and social learning, and cognitive learning .

Type 1,signal learning

This is a somewhat specialized type of learning.It is called signal learning to emphasize that the learner is associating an already available response with a new signal or stimulus .One important characteristics of this type of learning is that it involves the Pavlovian conditioned response ,which is general ,diffuse ,and emotional.This kind of response has a truly ―involuntary‖character .A fear response ,for example,involves general ,diffuse activity including speeded heartbeat,constriction of blood vessels and other internal involuntary behavior .In our daily life, learning to respond to alarm clock bells or automobile horns falls into this type of learning .

Type 2,stimulus-response learning

Type 3 chaining

Type 4 verbal association (or sequence)

Type 5 multiple discrimination

Type 6 concept learning

Type 7 principle learning

Type 8 problem-solving

Language learning is a complex task which involves all these types of learning . For example,in learning the pronunciation of a second language,the learner is concerned with how to produce the appropriate sound patterns –a sensorimotor skill or part of a skill.If the learner cannot distinguish two sounds and therefore cannot pronounce them,he needs to know the articulatory description of the two sounds .This involves conceptual learning.The actual learning of a second language is accompanied by emotional reactions, and entire learning experience may lead to a fixed constellation of likes and dislikes directed towards the language and the people speaking that

language.

2.Illustrate the general learning strategies with examples from yourself or your Students in learning English.

ways in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a language

metacognitive strategies :1.thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process2.monitoring learning while it is taking place, 3.evaluating learning after it has occurred A. advance organizersB. directed attentionC. selective attentionD. self-management

E. functional planning

F. self-monitoring

G. delayed production

H. self-evaluation

cognitive strategies:processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activities

A. repetition

B. Resourcing

C. translation

D. grouping

socioaffective strategies:social-mediating activity and transacting with others

3.What are the major strategies employed by good students in your class?

Tarone defines learning strategy as attempts to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. The motivation for the use of learning strategy is the desire to learn the target language rather than the desire to communicate .Production strategies are used to accomplish communication goals;they reflect an interest in using the language system efficiently and clearly without excessive https://www.sodocs.net/doc/4812901674.html,munication strategies are an adaptation to the failure to realize a language production goal.They therefore serve an important role in negotiating meaning between individuals.

Rubin suggests that the good language learner :

1)is a willing and accurate guesser

2) has a strong drive to communicate

3)is often uninhibited about his weaknesses in the L2 and ready to risk making mistakes

4)is willing to attend to form

5)practices

6)monitors

7)attends to meaning in its social context

Stern identifies four basic sets of strategies from the basic considerations and research of language learning:

1)Active planning strategy Good language learners will select goals and subgoals,recoginize stages and developmental sequences and actively participate in the learning process

2)‖Academic ―(explicit)learning strategy Good language learners are prepared to study and practice .They pay attention to the features of language as a formal system with rules and regular retationships between forms and meaning.

3)Social learning strategy Good language learners seek communicative contact with target language users and are active participants in authentic language use

4)Affective language Good language learners can cope effective with the emotion and motivational problems of language learning .They approach the task of L2 learning in a positive frame of mind and cultivate positive attitudes towards themselves as language learner s, towards

language and language learning in general,and towards the target language and its society and culture.

4.What is the difference between learning strategy and learning style?

There was significant difference between learning strategy and learning style.,but it simply existed in one type of learning strategy.

Three learning styles (visual,auditory and kinesthetic)did not influence all the six types of learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social).The learning styles only influenced the use of social strategies.

In addition ,after the Post Hoc Scheffe test,researchers found that learners with auditory learning styles use more social strategies than those with vusual learning style.

In conclusion, the common element in all these styles involves the way people perceive problems and the effect this might have on the paths taken to a resolution.In this sense, learning styles are more general and abstract than learning strategies,for learning style refers to the way people perceive problems , whereas learning strategies refer to the paths they take to arrive at a solution of the problem.

5.Discuss the relevance of the three pairs of learning styles to learning English as a foreign language.

Field independence vs.field dependence

A field-independent person tends to perceive analytically . That is ,he tends to perceive particular relevant items in a field as discrete from the field as a whole. A field-dependent person, on the other hand, tends to perceive globally; his perception tends to be dominated by the total field.As a result,the parts embedded in the field are not easily perceived. It has been found that field-dependent persons tends to show a strong social orientation; they are usually more empathetic and more perceptive of feelings of others. Field-independent persons , on the other hand, tend to show an ―impersonal orientation‖; they are generally individualistic and less aware of the things by which others are moved.Some researchers have found that the field-independent person is the better L2 learner because he will be better able to focus on the relevant variables in a language lesson or a conversation.Other researches, however, have found that field-dependent persons are superior L2 learners because of their social orientation. Brown speculates that field-independence may be more important in traditional classroom settings with a strong emphasis on analysis on analytical activities, whereas field dependence may be more important in the natural setting. In language learning it is often necessary to understand language items in their context and at the same time it is also necessary to classify the items out of that context to understand them paradigmatically . Therefore , the optimal degree of both may be necessary for successful language learning.

Reflectivity vs.impulsivity

The person who makes an impulsive, off-hand response is an impulsive, whereas the one who is prepared to pause and reflect on the mature of a question and the accuracy of the answer is a reflective . Reflectives tend to be more anxious about the quality of their performance and more capable of sustained attention than impulsives. It has been found that impulsive learners make more errors in L2 reading than reflective learners but they are faster readers. However , Hewett has found that subjects who rate themselves more frflective athan impulsive achieve significantly

better reading scores.Kagan et al. have found that inductive reasoning seems to be more effective with reflective learners.

Broad vs.narrow category width

It has been found that L2 learners who are broad categorizers tend to overgeneralize rules they have learned because they tend to subsume too many items under one rule,whereas narrow categorizers have difficulty in making generalizations, which are necessary for efficient L2 learning,because they tend to create a rule for every item. Naiman et al. have hypothesized that the best language lcarners would be those who neither generalize too much nor too little. That is to say, both operations are needed under different circumstances in language leaning;the good language learner is probably a ―middle-of-the-roader‖,reasonably precise in the application of rules and yet prepared to take risks in order to test the limits of a rule.

6. Why is it necessary for the language teacher to have some knowledge of these cognitive variables?

Three major groups of cognitive variables: types of learning, strategies of learning and styles of learning. The first is related to learning tasks, whereas the other two are related to individual characteristics of learners.

It is noteworthy that the combination of those variables constitutes a multiplicity of individual differences in language learners. The teacher needs to recognize and understand those differences so as to provide optimal opportunities for his learners.

To have some knowledge of these cognitive variables will undoubtedly help the language teacher to get a better understanding of students’ learning potential and eventually contribute to language teaching.

财政学考试重点知识

导论：简略的财政概念：财政是指国家的一个经济部门，及财政部门是国家的一个综合性经济部门通过他的收支活动筹集经费资金以保证国家职能的实现。 财政的基本特征1．阶级性与公共性2．强制性与非直接偿还性3．收入与支出的对称性（或平衡性） 公共财政与国家财政的区别： 1、公共财政预算决定具有明显的公共性。公共财政直接决定于公共选择过程，政府只是代理执行。 国家财政的预算强调政治权力的作用，并不具有必然的公共性。 2、公共财政的收入是基于公共权力，主要通过税收征集收入。 国家财政的收入即可通过以所有权为基础的资产收益取得收入，也可依据公共权力和收费取得收入。 3、公共财政支出是提供公共商品。 国家财政支出可能（甚至主要提供）私人产品。 第一章 市场失灵：指市场经济中存在一些自身难以克服的缺陷或不足。 市场失灵主要表现：（1）垄断 （2）信息不充分和不对称 （3）外部效应与公共物品 （4）收入分配不公 （5）经济波动 （6）偏好不合理 （7）市场不完全 （8）失业、通货膨胀和经济波动 外部性：指经济主体的行为以市场价格意外的方式影响他人福利的情形。 政府干预手段：（1）立法和行政手段（2）组织公共生产和提供公共物品（3）财政政策 政府干预失效：政府为弥补市场失灵而对经济、社会生活进行干预的过程中，由于政府行为自身的局限性和其他客观因素的制约而产生新的缺陷，进而无法使社会资源配置达到最佳的情景。 原因和表现：（1）政府决策失误（2）寻租行为（3）公共产品供给的低效率性（4）政府机构和公共预算的扩张。

政府的寻租活动：通过政府管制的寻租、通过关税和进出口配额的寻租、在政府订货中的寻租。 财政职能 1、资源配置职能：政府运用财政手段，实现政府资源和社会资源有效率配置的功能。 2、收入分配职能：政府为了实现公平分配，对市场机制形成的收入格局予以调整的职责和功能。 3、经济稳定与发展职能：政府运用财政工具和政策保障宏观经济稳定运行和增长的职能 4.从我国财政支出看财政维护国家的职能（政治职能） 洛伦兹曲线: 收入分配的公平程度，曲线越弯，收入水平越不公平。 基尼系数：G=A/A＋B 0

财政学的复习重点

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1财政：财政是国家或政府为了满足社会公共需要，以国家或政府为主体对一部分社会产品与服务的分配活动， 2市场失灵：现实的市场机制本身存在固有的缺陷与不足 3外部性：无法在价格中得以反映的市场交易成本或收益 4纯公共产品：是指每个人对这种产品的消费并不会导致任何其他人消费的减少 5收入分配职能：是指财政运用多种方式参与国民收入的分配和调节，以期达到收入分配的经济公平和社会公平 6消费的排他性：指产品一旦被供给，不能将任何人排除在该产品的消费之外 7科斯定理：认为外部性产生的主要原因在于产权界定不明确或界定不当 8庇古税：通过使卖者支付与每单位产出的边际外部成本相等的费用来实现负外部性的内部化 9公共选择：指人们通过整治过程来决定公共产品的需求，供给和产量，从而把个人偏好转化为集体决策的一种机制或过程，它是对资源配置的非市场决策机制 10投票悖论：虽然单个个人的偏好是一致的，但在多数票规则下却得不出一致的集体偏好11购买性支出：直接表现为政府向企业和个人购买商品或服务的支出，包括购买进行日常政务活动所需的商品和服务的支出，也包括用于进行国家投资所需的商品和服务的支出12转移性支出：是政府为实现社会公平目标，单方面对居民和企业等微观经济主体的无常财政拨款，不以获得同等价值的商品或服务作为补偿，受益者得到财政的转移资金后也不需要返还给政府 13瓦格纳法则：随着社会经济日益发展，国家职能的内涵和外延在不断扩大，从而导致政府经济活动不断增加，所需的公共支出将不断增加 14财政投资性支出：也称为财政投资或公共投资，是以政府为主体，将其从社会产品或国民收入中筹集起来的财政资金，用于国民经济各部门的一种集中性，政策性投资 15现收现付制：是指以横向平衡原则为依据，以当期正在工作的所有人的缴费来支付现在保险受益人开支的制度 16财政补贴：是指政府为了实现某种特定的政策目标，在一定时期内，通过财政分配，向特定的企业或私人提供的无偿性补助支出。 17支付能力原则：政府提供的产品和劳务的成本费用的分配，要与社会成员的支付能力相联系 18税收收入效应：对消费者表现为国家征税之后会使纳税人的收入下降，从而降低商品的购买量，而居于较低的消费水平。对生产者表现为政府课税之后会使生产者可支配的生产因素减少，从而降低了商品的生产能力，而处于较低的生产水平。 19税收中性：不对纳税人的经济选择或经济行为产生任何影响 20次优税收：是指在满足政府一定收入规模的前提下，课税所导致的效率损失或超额负担最小 21宏观税收负担：亦称总体税负，是指一定时期内国家在参与社会产品的分配过程中，以税收形式集中的收入总额。 22公平定价：政府相关部门通过一定程序和规则制定提供公共产品的价格和收费标准 23债务负担率：是指当年国债累积余额占ＧＤＰ的比例

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税收中性：指政府课税不扭曲市场机制的正常运行，或不影响私人部门原有的资源配置状况。两种含义： ?国家征税使社会所付出的代价以税款为限； ?应避免对市场经济正常运行的干扰。 ?特别注意，税收的中性原则，并不意味着取消或忽视税收对经济的调节作用，而应在市场起基础性作用的前提下，有效地发挥税收的调节作用，使税收机制与市场机制两者取得最优的结合。 ?税收中性强调税收对经济不发生额外的影响，经济体系仅仅承受税收负担，不再给纳税人和社会造成其他额外损失或额外收益。其实质是，国家征税不应对市场机制产生影响，课税时，市场机制仍然是影响资源配置和纳税人决策的主要力量，税收不应成为影响资源配置和纳税人经济决策的主要因素 超额负担：政府通过征税将社会资源从纳税人转移向政府部门的过程中，给纳税人造成了相当于纳税税款以外的负担。 税收超额负担表现两个方面： –1、国家征税一方面减少纳税人支出，同时增加政府部门支出，若因征税而导致纳税人的经济利益损失大于因征税而增加的社会经济效益，则发生在资 源配置方面的超额负担。 –2、由于征税改变了商品的相对价格，对纳税人的消费和生产行为产生不良影响，则发生经济运行方面的超额负担。 马歇尔-哈伯格超额负担理论： 税收超额负担是由哈伯格运用马歇尔的基数效用理论作为基础理论提出的，使用了消费者剩余和生产者剩余概念，并以消费者剩余的大小作为衡量消费者在消费某种商品是获得净福利的多少，如图示： 税收中性和超额负担。 答：税收效率涉及税收中性问题。所谓税收中性是指政府课税不扭曲市场机制的正常运行，或者说，不影响私人部门原有的资源配置状况；如果政府课税改变了消费者以获取最大效用为目的的消费行为，或改变了生产者以获取最大利润为目的的市场行为，就会改变私人部门原来（税前）的资源配置状况，这种改变就被视为税收的非中性。税收中性包含两种含义：一是国家征税使社会所付出的代价以税款为限，尽可能不给纳税人或社会带来其他的额外损失或负担；二是国家征税应避免对市场经济正常运行的干扰，特别是不能使税收超越市场机制而成为资源配置的决定因素。只要国家征税就必然会对商品购买、劳动投入以及储蓄和投资等诸多方面产生不同程度的影响，在现实生活中保持完全税收中性是不可能的。因此，提出税收中性原则的实践意义，在于尽量减少税收对市场经济正常运行的干扰，使市场机制在资源配置中发挥基础性作用。在这个前提下，掌握好税收超额负担的量和度，有效地发挥税收的调节作用，使税收机制与市场机制两者取得最优的结合。 应当指出，体现税收的中性原则，并不意味着取消或忽视税收对经济的调节作用。一般是将增值税视为一种中性税收，我国1994年税制改革也体现了税收中性原则。 税收中性和税收超额负担相关，或者说，税收中性就是针对税收超额负担而提出的。税收超额负担是指政府通过征税将社会资源从纳税人转向政府部门的转移过程中，给纳税人造成了相当于纳税税款以外的负担。超额负担主要表现为两个方面：一是国家征税一方面减少了纳税人支出，同时增加了政府部门支出，若因征税而导致纳税人的经济利益损失大于因征税而增加的社会经济效益，则发生资源配置方面的超额负担；二是由于征税改变了商品的相对价，对纳税人的消费和生产行为产生不良影响，则发生经济运行方面的超额负担。税收理

中级微观经济学考试试题复习资料完整版

一．简答题 1.机会成本相关 答：是指为了得到某种东西而所要放弃另一些东西的最大价值。 在稀缺性的世界中选择一种东西意味着放弃其他东西。一项选择的机会成本，也就是所放弃的物品或劳务的价值。机会成本是指在资源有限条件下，当把一定资源用于某种产品生产时所放弃的用于其他可能得到的最大收益。 2.劣等品和低档品的逻辑推导（P78） 答：低档品或劣等品（inferior goods）：指消费量随收入的上升而下降的物品。 对于正常商品，替代效应与价格呈反方向变动，收入效应也与价格成反方向变动，所以总效应与价格成反方向变动，因此正常商品的需求曲线向右下方倾斜。对于低档品来说，替代效应与价格成反方向变动，收入效应与价格同向变动，但替代效应大于收入效应的作用，总效应与价格反方向变动，需求曲线向右下方倾斜。吉芬商品，替代效应与价格反方向变动，收入效应与价格通向变动，收入效应极大地大于替代效应，使总效应与价格同向变动，其需求线向右上方倾斜。 二．计算题 1.生产理论：已知企业的生产函数要素价格需求函数企业生产量 求：市场长期均衡的产品价格和企业数量 EG A: 已知生产函数为Q=KL-0.5L2—0.32K2，其中Q表示产量，K表示资本，L表示劳动，若 K=10，求： （1）写出劳动的平均产量函数和边际产量函数。 （2）分别计算出当总产量、平均产量和边际产量达到极大值时，厂商雇佣的劳动量。

（3）证明当APL 达到最大值时，APL=MPL=2 AN A: （1）TP=Q=10L-0.5L^2-30 把K=10带进去 边际产量（MPL ）函数 就是上式对L 求导。MPL=10-L 平均产量（APL ）函数 就是总产量除以投入的劳动。APL=TP/L=10-0.5L-30/L （2）当TP 最大时，MPL=0。令MPL=10-L=0 ，解得L=10，所以当劳动投入量L=10时，劳动的总产量TP 达到极大值。 当APL 最大时，是APL 与MPL 相交的时候。令APL 的导数=0，解得L=2倍根号15（负值舍去），所以当劳动投入量L=2倍根号15 时，劳动的平均产量达到极大值。 当MPL 最大时，是TP 以递减的速度增加。由MPL=10-L 可知，边际产量曲线是一条斜率为负的直线。考虑到劳动投入量总是非负的，所以劳动投入量L=0时，劳动的边际产量达到极大值。 （3）当劳动的平均产量APL 达到极大值时，一定有APL=MPL 。由（2）可知，当L=2倍根号15 时，劳动的平均产量APL 达到极大值， 即相应的极大值为 APLmax=10-0.5 * 2倍根号15-30/2倍根号15 =10-2倍根号15 又因为APL 达到极大值，有APL=MPL 所以 边际产量函数MPL=10-2倍根号15 很显然，当APL 一定有极大值时，APL=MPL=10-2倍根号15 EN B: 5.某完全竞争行业中每个厂商的长期成本函数为 。假设市场需求函数是。试求市场的均衡价格，数量和厂商数目. 解：已知LTC q q q =-+3248，则LAC q q =-+248，欲求LAC 的最小值，只要令d d LAC q =0，即 q -=240，q=2。 当每个厂商的产量为q=2时，长期平均成本最低，其长期平均成本为：224284LAC =-?+=。当价格p 等于长期平均成本4时，厂商既不进入，也不退出，即整个行业处于均衡状态。故行业长期供给函数即供给曲线是水平的，行业的长期供给函数为p=4。 需求曲线为d Q p =-2000100，而行业的供给函数为p=4。 所以行业需求量d Q =-?=200010041600 。 由于每个厂商长期均衡产量为2，若有n 个厂商，则供给量QS=2n 。行业均衡时，Qd=QS ，即 1600=2n ，n=800。故整业行个均衡价格为4，均衡产量为1600，厂商有800家。 EN C . 某竞争 行业所有厂商的规模都相等，都是在产量达到500单位时达到长期平均成本的最低点4元，当用最优的企业规模生产600单位产量时，每一个企业的短期平均成本为4.5元，市场需求函数为 ，供给函数为Q =40000+2500P ，求解下列问题： （1）市场均衡价格是多少？该行业处于短期均衡还是长期均衡？ （2）当处于长期均衡时，该行业有多少厂商？

财政学重点整理

财政学重点整理

名词解释 财政政策是指国家根据一定时期政治、经济、社会发展的任务而规定的财政工作的指导原则，通过财政支出与税收政策来调节总需求。增加政府支出，可以刺激总需求，从而增加国民收入，反之则压抑总需求，减少国民收入。税收对国民收入是一种收缩性力量，因此，增加政府税收，可以抑制总需求从而减少国民收入，反之，则刺激总需求增加国民收入。财政政策是国家整个经济政策的组成部分。 财政补贴是指国家财政为了实现特定的政治经济和社会目标，向企业或个人提供的一种补偿。主要是在一定时期内对生产或经营某些销售价格低于成本的企业或因提高商品销售价格而给予企业和消费者的经济补偿。 财政投融资是指政府为实现一定的产业政策和财政政策目标，通过国家信用方式把各种闲散资金，特别是民间的闲散资金集中起来，统一由财政部门掌握管理，根据经济和社会发展计划，在不以盈利为直接目的的前提下，采用直接或间接贷款方式，支持企业或事业单位发展生产和事业的一种资金活动。

外部效应：指在实际经济活动中，生产者或者消费者的活动对其他生产者或消费者带来的非市场性影响。这种影响可能是有益的，也可能是有害的，有益的影响被称为外部效益,外部经济性，或正外部性；有害的影响被称为外部成本外部不经济性，或负的外部性。外部效应也可解释某个个经济主体的活动所产生的影响不表现在他自身的成本和收益上，而是会给其他的经济主体带来好处或者坏处。 起征点，又称“征税起点”或“起税点”，是指税法规定对征税对象开始征税的起点数额。征税对象的数额达到起征点的就全部数额征税，未达到起征点的不征税。 免税额是指对税法规定的课税对象全部数额中免予征税的数额。 税收支出：以特殊的法律条款规定的、给予特定类型的活动或纳税人以各种税收优惠待遇而形成的收入损失或放弃的收入。这是一种间接性支出，慎于财政补贴性支出。 平衡预算乘数：平衡预算指政府增加开支的同时,相应增加同量的税收。即政府税收增加量等于政府购买增加量时叫预算平衡。平衡预算乘数指政

财政学重点知识总结

财政 学 简述社会公共需要的基本特征。社会公共需要涵盖的范围颇广，包括政府执行其职能以及执行某些社会职能的需要。特征：(l)社会公共需要是社会公众在生产、生活和工作中的共同的需要，它不是普通意义上的人人有份的个人需要或个别需要的数学加总。(2)为了满足社会公共需要而提供的公共物品，可以无差别地由应当享受的每一社会成员共同享用，并不排斥其他社会成员享用。(3)社会成员享用满足社会需要的公共物品，无须付出任何代价，或只支付与提供这些公共物品的所费不对称的少量费用。(4)在市场机制不能解决外部效应产生的结果时，需要由政府通过财政渠道来解决，因而为满足社会公共需要提供的公共物品一般带有外部效应的特征。 (5)满足社会公共需要的物质手段只能来自社会产品的剩余部分，如果剩余产品表现为价值形态，就只 能是对“M”部分的抽取。 简述政府干预市场的主要手 段。在市场机制失灵的情况下，政 府可以采取以下三种手段干预市 场运行：(1)行政法律手段，即制 定市场法规，制定发展战略和中长 期规划，制定经济政策，引导和调 节经济运行。(2)组织公共生产， 即由政府出资(即由预算拨款)兴 办的所有权归政府的工商企业和 单位。(3)财政手段，即以税收、 收费、国债等形式筹集收入，又通 过转移性支出、购买性支出以及财 政政策等手段调节经济的运行。 试论社会主义市场经济条件 下的财政职能 下的财政职能。 。(l)资源配置职能。 ①确定社会公共需要的基本范围， 确定财政收支占GDP的合理比例， 从而符合高效的资源配置原则。② 优化财政支出结构，合理确定生产 性支出与非生产性支出的比例，购 买性支出与转移性支出的比例。③ 合理安排政府投资的规模、结构， 保证国家的重点建设。④通过政府 投资、税收和补贴，调节社会投资 方向，提高社会投资的整体效率。 ⑤提高财政配置本身的效率。 (2)收入分配职能。①划清市 场分配与财政分配的界限和范围， 原则上属于市场分配的范围财政 不能越俎代庖，凡属于财政分配的 范围，财政应尽其职。②规范由国 家预算拨款的公务员的工资制度 以及相类似的事业单位职工的工 资制度。③加强税收调节，通过间 接税调节各类商品的相对价格，从 而调节各经济主体的要素分配；通 过企业所得税调节公司的利润水 平；通过个人所得税调节个人的劳 动收入和非劳动收入，使之维持在 一个合理的差距范围内；通过资源 税调节由于资源条件和地理条件 而形成的级差收入；通过遗产税、 赠予税调节个人财产分布。④通过 转移性支出，如社会保障支出、救 济支出、补贴等，使每个社会成员 得以维持起码的生活水平和福利 水平。 (3)经济稳定与发展职能。① 财政政策，紧松交替。②通过一种 制度性安排，发挥某种“自动”稳 定作用，③通过投资、补贴和税收 等多方面安排，加快农业、能源、

上海财经大学中级微观经济学试卷二复习课程

上海财经大学中级微观经济学试卷二

诚实考试吾心不虚 ，公平竞争方显实力， 考试失败尚有机会 ，考试舞弊前功尽弃。 上海财经大学《中级微观经济学》课程考试卷（B ）闭卷 课程代码 101560 课程序号 0996 / 1065 2013 ——2014 学年第 2 学期 姓名 学号 班级 请仔细阅读以下内容，并签名承诺。一旦您签名，将作为诚信承诺的依据，若您在考试过程中出现舞弊行为，将按照学校有关规定严肃处理；若您拒绝进行诚信承诺，将取消考试资格。 考试结束后，考卷必须与答题纸同时上交。未上交考卷，或没有诚信签字的考卷将计以零分。 诚信承诺书 我谨以至诚承诺，在此次考试过程中，我绝无任何舞弊行为，也绝不帮助他人舞弊。 学生签名： 年 月 日 I. 选择题 (每个2分) 1. 一个企业的生产函数是f(x; y) = 20x 3/5y 2/5.该企业的等产量线在点(x; y) = (80; 10)的斜率是（选择最接近 的一个）： a. -8. b. -1.50. c. -0.67. d. -0.19. 2. 一个竞争性，利润最大化的企业使用两种生产要A 和B 。它的生产函数是F(A; B) = A 1/2+B 1/2。生产的产品价格为每单位$5。生产要素A 的价格是每单位$1，当产品价格上升到每单位$6，但是要素价格保持不变时： a. 它将会增加购买生产要素A 11/4单位。. b. 它将会增加购买生产要素A 9/4单位。. c. 它将会增加购买生产要素A 3/4单位。 ……………………………………………………………装 订 线…………………………………………………

(完整版)公共财政学重点整理

1.为什么市场会存在缺陷和失灵? 1)市场缺陷:现实中市场充分竞争所需要的四个基本假设条件都是不充分的,或难以具 备,因而,在实际的资源配置过程中,市场本身出现低效率状态. 2)市场失灵:由于每个人只追求自我利益,那些满足社会公共需要的产品和服务却无人 提供,由此必然使社会处于难以运转的状态. 2.为什么要有政府?政府存在的合理性依据是什么? 由于市场失灵的存在,必须矫正其固有的缺陷和弥补市场失灵,这就需要某种不同于自利主体的公共主体执行这一社会职能.这种公共主体就是国家及其政府. 3.为什么把市场失灵作为一种方法?主要运用在哪些方面? 1)通过市场实验或试错来验证市场机制失灵的领域,由此确定政府和公共部门进入领 域的合理范围. 2)通过市场失灵方法,证明某些具有经营性质的事业单位可以推向市场,政府应从该” 越位”领域退出,而某些服务则不能简单推向市场,否则,其公益性就会丧失.例如,医 疗体制改革. 4.财政模式与财政体制有怎样的关系? 财政模式是财政体制的上位概念,财政模式是抽象存在的,而我们在认识某一国家的财政时,所看到的是具体的财政体制,可以根据财政体制的本质特征和属性指出其属于哪种财 政模式. 5.你怎样理解公共财政模式及其特征? 公共财政模式是与市场经济社会相对应的财政模式.该模式要求从市场与政府关系界定财政职能. 公共财政模式的基本特征: 1)公共财政是纳税人的财政 2)公共财政以弥补市场失灵,提供公共产品和公共服务为基本职能 3)公共财政应向社会提供一视同仁的服务 4)公共财政是民主财政 5)公共财政是法制财政 6.什么是财政伦理?应怎样认识公共财政的伦理价值标准? 1)财政伦理即关于财政在整个社会关系体系中进行活动应遵循的一系列价值标准或 道德标准. 2)公共财政的伦理从总原则上说,就是在市场经济中,全体纳税人将全部税收委托给政 府以用来弥补市场失灵,换言之,凡是用于弥补市场失灵的财政支出活动都是符合公 共财政的伦理的. 1.简析制约财政职能的因素 1)财政本质对财政职能的制约 职能是事物固有的功能,这种功能系事物本身的质所决定的.从这一角度看,财政本 质是决定财政职能最重要的因素.

(完整版)生理学试题及答案第五章-呼吸

第五章呼吸 参考答案在后面！ 一、名词解释 1、呼吸 2、肺通气 3、呼吸运动 4、肺内压 5、胸内压 6、弹性阻力 7、肺泡表面活性物质 8、潮气量 9、肺活量 10、肺通气量 11、生理无效腔 12、肺泡通气量 13、通气/血流 14、血氧饱和度 15、氧解离曲线 二、填空题 1、呼吸的全过程包括、和三个基本环节，其中第一个环节又包括和。 2、肺通气的原动力是，肺通气的直接动力是。 3、肺通气的阻力有和两种。弹性阻力用来度量，它与弹性阻力成关系。 4、肺的弹性阻力来自和，尤以为主。 5、肺泡表面活性物质是由分泌的，其主要成分是，它以单分子层覆盖在肺泡液体分子层上，具有作用。

6、肺的非弹性阻力主要来自，它受气流速度、气流形式和气道口径的影响，其中是影响其阻力大小的最主要因素。 7、肺总量等于四种基本肺容积：、、与之和。 8、功能残气量等于与之和。 9、生理无效腔等于和之和，其中正常人接近于零，因此生理无效腔等于或接近，后者正常成人约为 mL。 10、影响肺换气的因素主要有、和。 11、正常成人的通气/血流比值为。若通气/血流比值明显增大，相当于；若通气/血流比值明显减小，则相当于产生。这两种情况都可能导致机体缺氧。 12、O2和CO2都以和两种形式存在于血液中运输，以为主。 13、O2主要以形式运输，CO2的化学结合形式主要是形成和。 14、影响氧解离曲线的因素主要有、、、和血红蛋白自身性质。 15、氧合血红蛋白呈色，去氧血红蛋白呈色。若毛细血管中去氧血红蛋白含量超过，黏膜、甲床或皮肤将呈紫色，称为。 16、调节呼吸运动的外周化学感受器是和，可感受动脉血中的变化。中枢化学感受器位于，可感受的变化。 17、当动脉血中CO2浓度，H+浓度升高或O2分压时，均可使呼吸加深加快。 三、选择题 第五章呼吸 第一节肺通气 一、肺通气的动力 1、推进气体进出肺的直接动力是：A A、肺内压与大气压之间的压力差 B、肺内压与胸膜腔内压之间的压力差 C、胸膜腔内压与大气压之间的压力差 D、肺内压与跨壁压之间的压力差 E、胸膜腔内压的周期性变化 2、肺通气的原动力来自：D

财政学知识点总结

一、私人物品：排他性竞争性公共物品：非排他性非竞争性政府通过无偿征税提供公共物品财政分配目的：弥补市场缺陷分配主体：政府部门公共企业部门分配对象：剩余产品 二、市场失灵：自然垄断公共产品问题混合产品和外溢性问题市场的不完全信息的不完全失业、通货膨胀及经济失衡偏好不合理分配不公平 政府经济活动范围：市场失灵领域几个方面：提供司法制度商品与服务行政管理调节经济运行管理金融市场调节收入分配 政府失灵：公共选择的困惑公关经济政策的失效政府行为职能作用失效 政府与市场的分工：资源配置作用范围作用层次(宏观微观) 公共与效率准则的实现(政府致力于公平，市场于效率) 三、公共财政的职能：资源配置公平分配经济稳定与发展 资源配置职能含义：通过各种财政手段对一定的人力、物力、财力进行分配，直接或间接引导资源流量、流向，从而引起资源最优分配的功能。内容：涉及社会总资源的划分比例（一定时期内，财政收入占国民生产总值的比重比较合理，则政府分配资源的份额也就比较合理）涉及政府内部资源配置（提高政府部门内部资源配置效率，在于优化财政支出结构尤其是财政投资结构）涉及非政府部门内部的资源配置（运用间接方式如税收、补贴）手段：支出和税收 分配职能含义：运用各种财政手段调节收入和财富的分配，使之符合社会公认分配状态的功能。手段：制定公平的财富制度合理运用累进的个人所得税通过转移支付对低收入者进行补贴对低收入者能够获益的项目提供资金或进行补贴 经济稳定含义：以财政政策为手段，以保持高就业率、合理程度的物价稳定、适当的经济增长率和国际收支平衡的功能。手段：既定的预算杠杆影响总需求预算政策上的变化影响总需求财政制度的内在适应性影响总需求(收入和支出水平对经济发展变化的内在适应性) 四、公共支出：1按用途分：经济建设支出社会文教支出国防费行政管理费国债利息支出其他2按经济性质：购买性支出（直接影响商品或劳务流通资源配置，挤出效应，拉动效用）转移性支出（实质在国民收入分配基础上再次分配，收入效应，替代效应） 西方关于公增摸增长：1，瓦格纳：政府扩张法则2，皮考克和魏斯曼：公共收入增长引致3，马斯格雷夫：公支增长发展模型4，鲍莫尔：非均衡增长模型 公共支出结构：1，正确界定支出范围2，优化公共支出结构：保证国家实现基本职能需要确保社会实现公共性开支需要（科技教育卫生社会保障环境保护）重视基础产业领域投资（工业社会公共建设基础，农业）支持国有经济的改革和发展 成本效益分析方法：当资源量一定时，要完成某个项目在多种方案中，根据一定方法计算出各种方案的成本和收益，比较后选择方案。 费用最低选择法公共劳务定价法 五、科教文卫支出性质：静：属于非生产性支出，不能对当年物质生产发挥作用动：具有部分生产性支出性质，提高劳动者素质，技术革新，生产率提高处理好当前利益与长远利益关系，所占比例会增高 分析发展科教文卫管理：明确指出范围，完善财务制度，改革财务管理方式，推行定额管理改进资金分配方式，多方式发展，筹集资金 六、政府投资：政府为实现职能，满足社会发展需要，投入资金转化为实物资产的行为和过程。特点：微观上可以是不赢利和低利项目，资金来源无常，可投资于大型项目和长期项目，可投资于具有外溢性的项目，具有开发性和战略性 原则：弥补市场失效原则，维持市场配置功能，调节国民经济运行原则 领域：（竞争性，基础性，公益性）1，社会公共性公益性领域2，基础性投资领域

《生理学》试卷第12章

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