生物医学工程专业英语及其翻译

1 Unit 1 Biomedical Engineering Lesson 1

A History of Biomedical Engineering

In its broadest sense, biomedical engineering has been with us for centuries, perhaps even thousands of years. In 2000, German archeologists uncover a 3,000-year-old mummy from Thebes with a wooden prosthetic tied to its foot to serve as a big toe. Researchers said the wear on the bottom surface suggests that it could be the oldest known limb prosthesis. Egyptians also used hollow reeds to look and listen to the internal goings on of the human anatomy. In 1816, modesty prevented French physician Rene Laennec from placing his ear next to a young woman’s bare chest, so he rolled up a newspaper and listened through it, triggering the idea for his invention that led to today’s ubiquitous stethoscope.

广义上来说,生物医学工程与我们已经几个世纪以来,甚至数千年。2000年,德国考古学家发现一个3000岁高龄的木乃伊从底比斯木制假肢与作为大脚趾的脚。研究人员说,穿底部表面上表明它可能是最古老的下肢义肢。埃及人也用空心的芦苇外观和听人类解剖学的内部行为。1816年,谦虚阻止法国医生雷奈克把他的耳朵旁边一个年轻女人的裸胸,所以他卷起报纸和听它,引发他的发明的想法,导致今天无处不在的听诊器。

No matter what the date, biomedical engineering has provided advances in medical technology to improve human health. Biomedical engineering achievements range from early devices, such as crutches, platform shoes, wooden teeth, and the ever-changing cache of instruments in a doctor’s black bag, to more modern marvels, including pacemakers, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, diagnostic equipment, imaging technologies of every kind, and artificial organs, implants and advanced prosthetics. The National Academy of Engineering estimates that there are currently about 32,000 bioengineers working in various areas of health technology.

无论什么日期,生物医学工程提供了先进的医疗技术来改善人类健康。生物医学工程成就范围从早期设备,如拐杖,松糕鞋,木制的牙齿,和不断变化的缓存工具在医生的黑包,更现代的奇迹,包括心脏起搏器、人工心肺机,透析机器,诊断设备,各种成像技术,和人造器官,移植和先进的假肢。美国国家工程学院的估计,目前大约有32000生物各领域工作的卫生技术。

As an academic endeavor, the roots of biomedical engineering reach back to early developments in electrophysiology, which originated about 200 years ago. An early landmark in electrophysiology occurred in 1848 when DuBois Reymond published the widely recognized Ueber die tierische Elektrizitaet. Raymond’s contemporary, Hermann von Helmholtz, is credited with applying engineering principles to a problem in physiology and dentifying the resistance of muscle and nervous tissues to direct current.

作为一个学术努力,生物医学工程的根源及早期电生理学的发展,起源于约200年前。电生理学的早期具有里程碑意义的发生在1848年当杜布瓦Reymond发表了公认Ueber死tierische Elektrizitaet。赫尔曼·冯·雷蒙德?当代亥姆霍兹因应用工程原则问题在生理学和dentifying电阻直流的肌肉和神经组织。

In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered that a cathode-ray tube could make a sheet of paper coated with barium platinocyanide glow, even when the tube and the paper were in separate rooms. Roentgen decided the tube must be emitting some kind of penetrating rays, which he called “X”rays for unknown. This set off a flurry of research into the tissue-penetrating and tissue-destroying properties of X-rays, a line of research that ultimately produced the modern array of medical imaging technologies and virtually eliminated the need for exploratory surgery.

1895年,威廉伦琴偶然发现,阴极射线管可以与氰亚铂酸盐钡一张纸涂布发光,即使管和纸是在单独的房间。伦琴决定管必须发出某种穿透光线,他称为“X”光线不明。这引发了一系列tissue-penetrating和专治属性的研究x射线,一系列的研究,最终得出了现代医学影像技术和几乎消除了探索性手术的必要性。

Biomedical engineering’s unique mix of engineering, medicine and science emerged 2 alongside biophysics and medical physics early this century. At the outset, the three were virtually indistinguishable and none had formal training programs.

生物医学工程的独特工程、医学和科学出现2与生物物理学和医学物理学在本世纪初。开始的时候,三人几乎无法区分,没有正式的培训计划。

Between World War I and World War II a number of laboratories undertook research in biophysics and biomedical engineering. Only one offered formal training: the Oswalt Institute for Physics in Medicine, established in 1921 in Frankfurt, Germany, forerunner of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysics.

在第一次世界大战和第二次世界大战的实验室进行了生物物理学和生物医学工程的研究。只有一个提供正式的培训:Oswalt物理医学研究所,成立于1921年在法兰克福,德国马克斯普朗克生物物理学的先驱。

The Institute’s founder, Friedrich Dessauer, pioneered research into the biological effects of ionizing radiation. The Oswalt Institute and the University in Frankfurt soon established formal ties that led to a Ph.D. program in biophysics by 1940. Research topics included the effects of X-rays on tissues and the electrical properties of tissues. The staff of 20 included university lecturers, research fellows, assistants and technicians.

研究所的创始人,弗里德里希·德绍,率先研究电离辐射的生物效应。Oswalt研究所和大学在法兰克福很快建立了正式的关系,在1940年导致了生物物理学博士学位项目。研究主题包括x射线的影响在组织和组织的电特性。员工20包括大学教师、研究员、助理和技术人员。Following the Second World War, administrative committees began forming around the combined areas of engineering, medicine and biology. A biophysical society was formed in Germany in 1943. Five years later, the first conference of engineering in medicine and biology convened in the United States, under the auspices of the Institute of Radio Engineers (forerunner of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), the American Institute for Electrical Engineering, and the Instrument Society of America. It was a small meeting. About 20 papers were delivered to an audience of fewer than 100. The first 10 annual conferences paid most of their attention to ionizing radiation and its implications. As conference topics broadened, so did attendance. The topic of the 1958 conference, Computers in Medicine and Biology, drew 70 papers and more than 300 attendees. By 1961, conference attendance swelled to nearly 3,000.

第二次世界大战之后,行政委员会开始在工程领域相结合,形成医学和生物学。生物物理协会于1943年在德国成立。五年后,工程在医学和生物学的第一次会议召开,在美国的支持下的无线电工程师学会(电气和电子工程师协会的前身),美国电子工程研究所和美国社会工具。这是一个小型的会议。大约20个文件是少于100的传递给观众。前10年会大部分关注电离辐射及其影响。作为会议主题扩大,出席。1958会议的主题、计算机在医学和生物学,吸引了70篇论文和70多名与会者。参加会议,到1961年增加到近3000人。

The 1951 IRE convention generated enough interest in medical electronics that the IRE formed a Professional Group on Medical Electronics. An early action of this group was to collaborate on the Annual Conference on Electronic Instrumentation and Nucleonics in Medicine, which the AIEE[1] began about 1948. In 1954, the AIEE, the IRE and the ISA formed the Joint Executive

Committee on Medicine and Biology, which began organizing the annual conferences.

1951愤怒的约定产生足够的兴趣,医疗电子产品的愤怒形成一个专业小组医疗电子产品。本集团的早期行动是合作的年度会议上电子仪器和原子核物理学在医学、AIEE[1]大约始于1948年。1954年,AIEE,愤怒和ISA形成联合执行委员会医学和生物学,开始组织的年度会议。

In 1963, the AIEE and the IRE merged to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Contributing forces for the merger were the members of the AIEE and IRE technical committees for biomedical engineering. Most members favored it and had been collaborating with their counterparts in the other society for years.

1963年,AIEE和愤怒合并形成了电气与电子工程学院。贡献力量的合并是成员AIEE和愤怒为生物医学工程技术委员会。大多数成员支持,在其他社会和同行合作多年。

At the merger it was decided to carry over to the IRE system of Professional Groups. The IRE Professional Group on Medical Electronics became the IEEE Professional Group on 3 Bio-Medical Engineering (PGBME), the name change reflecting the fact that many members, particularly former AIEE members, were concerned with non-electronic topics.

Also in the early 1960s the NIH[2] took three significant steps to support biomedical engineering. First, it created a program-project committee under the General Medical Sciences Institute to evaluate program-project applications, many of which served biophysics and biomedical engineering. Then it set up a biomedical engineering training study section to evaluate training-grant applications, and it established two biophysics study sections. A special “floating”study section processed applications in bioacoustics and biomedical engineering. Many applications did not make it to the biomedical engineering study section and ended up in radiology, physiology or other panels.

The diversity of work in biomedical engineering and the diversity of background of the people contributing to this field made it difficult for a single organization to represent everyone[3]. In the 1960s there were efforts by some leaders of the PGBME, which became the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, to achieve greater autonomy within the IEEE in order to accommodate a more diverse membership. Because there were quite a few professional groups, several umbrella organizations were established to facilitate cooperation. In the late 1960s the Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology was formed. In 1968, the Biomedical Engineering Society was formed to give "equal status to representatives of both biomedical and engineering interests and promote the increase of biomedical engineering knowledge and its utilization". Initially, the membership of the society consisted of 171 founding members and 89 charter members. Membership now numbers nearly 1,200 professional biomedical engineers, with another 1,600 student members.

在合并决定继续愤怒系统的专业团体。医疗电子产品成为了IEEE愤怒专业小组3生物医学工程专业小组(PGBME),许多成员名称更改反映了事实,尤其是前AIEE成员关心非电子的话题。

也在1960年代初美国国立卫生研究院[2]花了三个重要的步骤来支持生物医学工程。首先,它创建了一个项目委员会一般医学科学研究所评估项目应用程序,其中很多生物物理学和生物医学工程。然后建立了一个生物医学工程训练研究部分,评估培训应用,和它建立了两个生物物理学研究部分。一个特殊的“漂浮”在生物声学研究部分加工应用和生物医学工程。许多应用程序没有生物医学工程研究部分,最终在放射学,生理学或其他面板。

在生物医学工程工作的多样性和背景的多样性导致这一领域使一个组织难以代表每个人[3]。在1960年代有PGBME的一些领导人,努力成为IEEE工程在医学和生物学的社会,为了实现更大的自治权在IEEE为了适应更多元化的会员。因为有不少专业团体,建立了几个伞组织促进合作。在1960年代后期工程在医学和生物学联盟成立。1968年,生物医学工程学会成立给“地位平等的代表生物医学和工程利益和促进生物医学工程知识的增加,其利用率”。最初,社会的成员包括171创始成员和89宪章》的成员。现在会员数量近1200专业生物医学工程师,1600年与另一个学生成员。

The society awarded the Alza Distinguished Lectureship from 1971 to 1993 to encourage the theory and practice of biomedical engineering. The BMES Distinguished Lectureship Award was founded in 1991 to recognize outstanding achievements in biomedical engineering. Other honors include a young investigator award, the BMES Distinguished Service Award, and the Presidential Award, established in 1999 to enable BMES presidents to recognize extraordinary leadership within the society.

In addition to the professional societies, the field of biomedical engineering received a large ally when The Whitaker Foundation was created in 1975, upon the death of U.A. Whitaker. As an engineer and philanthropist, Whitaker recognized that major contributions to improving human health would come from the merging of medicine and engineering. Since its inception, the foundation has primarily supported interdisciplinary medical research and 4 education, with the principal focus being on biomedical engineering. The foundation has become the nation’s largest private benefactor of biomedical engineering. By 2002, it had contributed more than $615 million to universities and medical schools to support faculty research, graduate students, program development, and construction of facilities.

In 1990 the National Science Foundation and The Whitaker Foundation observed that in spite of the numerous academic programs calling themselves "bioengineering" or "biomedical engineering", there was no structure for this widely diversified field. Because many advances in biomedical engineering were generated through the collaboration of engineers and clinical scientists in a number of different fields, the evolution of biomedical engineering as a profession in the 1970s and 1980s was characterized by the emergence of separate professional societies with a focus on applications within their own field.

协会授予Alza杰出讲师职务从1971年到1993年,鼓励生物医学工程的理论和实践。博雅杰出讲师职务奖表彰杰出成就的成立于1991年在生物医学工程。其他荣誉还包括一个年轻调查员奖,bme杰出服务奖,和总统奖,成立于1999年,使bme总统认识到非凡的领导在社会。除了专业的社会,生物医学工程领域时收到一大笔盟友惠特克基金会成立于1975年,在U.A.惠特克的死亡。作为一个工程师和慈善家,惠特克承认,改善人类健康主要贡献来自医学和工程学的合并。自成立以来,该基金会主要支持跨学科医学研究和教育,主要集中在生物医学工程上。基金会已成为美国最大的私人捐助者生物医学工程。到2002年,它已经贡献了超过6.15亿美元的大学和医学院支持教师研究,研究生,项目开发和建设的设施。

1990年,美国国家科学基金会和惠特克基金会指出,尽管许多学术项目自称“生物工程”或“生物医学工程”,没有结构广泛多样化的领域。因为许多生物医学工程的进步通过协作生成工程师和临床科学家在许多不同的领域,生物医学工程的发展作为一个行业在1970年代和1980年代的独立的专业协会,专注于应用程序的出现在自己的领域。

As a step toward unification, the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering was created in 1992. AIMBE was born from the realization that an umbrella organization was needed to address the issues of public policy and public and professional education that comprise these engineering sciences. Ten societies saw the virtue of this approach and formed the original members of AIMBE. Today, its 17 society members work to "establish a clear and comprehensive identity for the field of medical and biological engineering, and improve intersociety relations and cooperation within the field of medical and biological engineering".

The earliest academic programs began to take shape in the 1950s. Their establishment was aided by Sam Talbot of Johns Hopkins University, who petitioned the National Institutes of Health for funding to support a group discussion of approaches to teaching biomedical engineering. Ultimately three universities were represented in these discussions: The Johns Hopkins University, the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Rochester. These three institutions, along with Drexel University, were among the first to win important training grants for biomedical engineering from the National Institutes of Health.

In 1973, discussions started about broadening the base of Pennsylvania’s graduate Department of Biomedical Electronic Engineering by including other activities and adopting and undergraduate curriculum. Its present graduate program is an extension of the earlier one.

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, development at other institutions followed similar paths, but occurred more rapidly in most cases due to the growing opportunities of the field and in response to the important NIH initiative to support the development of the field. The earlier institutions were soon followed by a second generation of biomedical engineering programs and departments. These included: Boston University in 1966; Case Western 5 Reserve University in 1968; Northwestern University in 1969; Carnegie Mellon, Duke University, Renssselaer and a joint program between Harvard and MIT[4] in 1970; Ohio State University and University of Texas, Austin, in 1971; Louisiana Tech, Texas A&M and the Milwaukee School of Engineering in 1972; and the University of Illinois, Chicago in 1973.

一步统一,美国医学和生物工程研究所成立于1992年。AIMBE诞生于意识到伞组织需要解决问题的公共政策和公共和专业教育,包括这些工程科学。十个社会看到这种方法的优点,形成了原始AIMBE的成员。今天,17个社会成员努力”建立一个清晰的和全面的医学和生物工程领域的身份,并改善intersociety合作关系在医学和生物工程领域”。

最早的学术项目在1950年代开始成型。他们的建立是在约翰霍普金斯大学的萨姆·塔尔博特的帮助下,他请求美国国立卫生研究院的资金支持生物医学工程教学方法的小组讨论。最终三所大学在这些讨论代表:约翰霍普金斯大学,宾夕法尼亚大学和罗彻斯特大学的。这三个机构,随着德雷塞尔大学,是首批获得重要的培训基金从美国国立卫生研究院生物医学工程。1973年,开始讨论扩大宾夕法尼亚的基础生物医学电子工程系毕业的包括其他活动,采用和本科课程。目前的研究生课程是早期的一种扩展。

在1960年代末和1970年代初,发展其他机构沿着这条路走下去,但发生更快在大多数情况下,由于日益增长的机会,为了应对重要NIH行动来支持这一领域的发展。早些时候机构很快就接着第二代生物医学工程项目和部门。包括:波士顿大学;1966年5凯斯西储大学;1968年西北大学;1969年卡内基梅隆大学,杜克大学,Renssselaer和哈佛和麻省理工学院联合项目[4];1970年俄亥俄州立大学和德克萨斯大学奥斯汀;1971年路易斯安那理工大学,德克萨斯A&M大学和密尔沃基工程学院;1972年1973年芝加哥和伊利诺斯州大学的。

The number of departments and programs continued to rise slowly but steadily in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1992, The Whitaker Foundation initiated large grant programs designed to help institutions establish or develop biomedical engineering departments or programs. Since then, the numbers of departments and programs have risen to more than 90. Some of the largest and most prominent engineering institutions in the country, such as the Georgia Institute of Technology, have established programs and emerged as leaders in the field. Many other new and existing programs have benefited from the foundation’s support.

A major development took place in late 2000 when President Clinton signed a bill creating the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering at the NIH. According to NIBIB’s website, its mission is to "improve health by promoting fundamental discoveries, design and development, and translation and assessment of technological capabilities". The Institute coordinates with biomedical imaging and bioengineering programs of other agencies and NIH institutes to support imaging and engineering research with potential medical applications and facilitates the transfer of such technologies to medical applications.

The newest of the NIH institutes, NIBIB spent much of 2001 building program and administrative staff, preparing a budget request, setting up office space, determining funding and grant identification codes and procedures, and identifying program (research, training, and communication) focus areas and opportunities. NIBIB assumed administration of the NIH's Bioengineering Consortium (BECON) in September 2001, and awarded its first research grant in April 2002.

部门和项目的数量继续增长缓慢但稳步在1980年代和1980年代初。1992年,惠特克基金会发起大型格兰特计划旨在帮助机构建立或发展生物医学工程部门或项目。从那时起,部门和项目的数量已经上升到超过90人。一些最大和最著名的工程机构,如美国乔治亚理工学院(Georgia Institute of Technology),建立了项目和领域成为领导者。许多其他新的和现有项目受益于基金会的支持。

一个主要的发展发生在2000年晚些时候,克林顿总统签署了一项法案创建国家生物医学成像和生物工程研究所美国国立卫生研究院。根据NIBIB的网站,它的使命是“改善健康通过促进基本发现,设计和开发,和翻译和技术能力评估”。生物医学成像和生物工程研究所坐标与项目的其他机构和国家卫生研究院机构支持成像和工程研究与潜在的医学应用和促进这些技术在医学应用上的转移。

最新的美国国立卫生研究院的机构,NIBIB 2001建设项目和行政人员,大部分时间都在准备预算要求,建立办公空间,确定资金和格兰特识别代码和程序,并确定项目(研究、培训和交流)重点领域和机会。NIBIB认为政府的美国国立卫生研究院生物工程协会(BECON)2001年9月和2002年4月首次获得科研资助。

Lesson 2 What is a Biomedical Engineer?

A Biomedical Engineer uses traditional engineering expertise to analyze and solve problems in biology and medicine, providing an overall enhancement of health care. Students choose the biomedical engineering field to be of service to people, to partake of the excitement of working with living systems, and to apply advanced technology to the complex problems of medical care. The biomedical engineer works with other health care professionals including physicians, nurses, therapists and technicians. Biomedical engineers may be called upon in a wide range of capacities:

to design instruments, devices, and software, to bring together knowledge from many technical sources to develop new procedures, or to conduct research needed to solve clinical problems.

生物医学工程师使用传统的工程技术在生物学和医学分析问题和解决问题,提供一个卫生保健的整体提高。学生选择生物医学工程领域服务的人来说,参加工作与生活系统的兴奋,并将先进的技术应用到医疗保健的复杂问题。生物医学工程师的工作与其他卫生保健专业人员包括医生、护士、理疗师和技术人员。生物医学工程师可能要求在范围广泛的能力:设计工具,设备和软件,汇集知识外,还可以从许多技术资源开发新程序,或进行研究需要解决的临床问题。

What are Some of the Specialty Areas?

In this field there is continual change and creation of new areas due to rapid advancement in technology; however, some of the well established specialty areas within the field of biomedical engineering are: bioinstrumentation; biomaterials; biomechanics; cellular, tissue and genetic engineering; clinical engineering; medical imaging; orthopaedic surgery; rehabilitation engineering; and systems physiology.

Bioinstrumentation is the application of electronics and measurement techniques to develop devices used in diagnosis and treatment of disease. Computers are an essential part of bioinstrumentation, from the microprocessor in a single-purpose instrument used to do a variety of small tasks to the microcomputer needed to process the large amount of information in a medical imaging system.

Biomaterials include both living tissue and artificial materials used for implantation. Understanding the properties and behavior of living material is vital in the design of implant materials. The selection of an appropriate material to place in the human body may be one of the most difficult tasks faced by the biomedical engineer. Certain metal alloys, ceramics, polymers, and composites have been used as implantable materials. Biomaterials must be nontoxic, non-carcinogenic, chemically inert, stable, and mechanically strong enough to withstand the repeated forces of a lifetime. Newer biomaterials even incorporate living cells in order to provide a true biological and mechanical match for the living tissue.

在这个领域有持续的变化和创造新领域由于技术的快速进步,然而,一些良好的生物医学工程领域内的专业领域是:生物仪器;生物材料;生物力学;细胞,组织和基因工程;临床工程;医学成像;骨科手术;改造工程、系统生理学。

生物仪器是电子测量技术的应用开发设备用于疾病的诊断和治疗。计算机是生物仪器的重要组成部分,从微处理器专用仪器用来做各种小任务所需的微机处理大量的信息在医学成像系统中。

生物材料包括活组织和人工材料植入。理解生活的属性和行为材料植入材料的设计是至关重要的。选择一个合适的材料放置在人体可能面临的最困难的任务之一,生物医学工程师。某些金属合金、陶瓷、聚合物和复合材料作为植入材料。生物材料必须无毒,non-carcinogenic、惰性、稳定,机械强大到足以承受一生的重复的力量。新的生物材料甚至把活细胞提供一个真正的生物活组织和机械匹配。

Biomechanics applies classical mechanics (statics, dynamics, fluids, solids, thermodynamics, and continuum mechanics) to biological or medical problems. It includes the study of motion, material deformation, flow within the body and in devices, and transport of chemical constituents across biological and synthetic media and membranes. Progress in biomechanics has led to the

development of the artificial heart and heart valves, artificial joint replacements, as well as a better understanding of the function of the heart and lung, blood vessels and capillaries, and bone, cartilage, intervertebral discs, ligaments and tendons of the musculoskeletal systems.

Cellular, Tissue and Genetic Engineering involve more recent attempts to attack biomedical problems at the microscopic level. These areas utilize the anatomy, biochemistry and mechanics of cellular and sub-cellular structures in order to understand disease processes and to be able to intervene at very specific sites. With these capabilities, miniature devices deliver compounds that can stimulate or inhibit cellular processes at precise target locations to promote healing or inhibit disease formation and progression.

Clinical Engineering is the application of technology to health care in hospitals. The clinical engineer is a member of the health care team along with physicians, nurses and other hospital staff[1]. Clinical engineers are responsible for developing and maintaining computer databases of medical instrumentation and equipment records and for the purchase and use of sophisticated medical instruments. They may also work with physicians to adapt instrumentation to the specific needs of the physician and the hospital. This often involves the interface of instruments with computer systems and customized software for instrument control and data acquisition and analysis[2]. Clinical engineers are involved with the application of the latest technology to health care.

生物力学应用经典力学(静力学、动力学、液体、固体、热力学和连续介质力学)生物或医学问题。它包括运动的研究,材料变形、流在身体和设备,和运输的化学成分在生物和合成媒体和膜。生物力学的进展已经导致人工心脏和心脏瓣膜的发展,人工关节置换,以及更好地了解心脏和肺的功能,血管和毛细血管、骨、软骨、椎间盘、韧带和肌腱的肌肉骨骼系统。

细胞、组织和基因工程涉及最近试图攻击生物医学在微观层面的问题。这些地区利用解剖学,生物化学和细胞和亚细胞结构的力学为了了解疾病过程和能够干预非常具体的地点。这些功能,小型设备提供化合物可以刺激或抑制细胞过程精确的目标位置,促进愈合或抑制疾病的形成和发展。

临床工程技术医疗在医院的应用。临床工程师是健康护理小组的成员以及医生、护士和其他医护人员[1]。临床工程师负责开发和维护计算机的数据库记录和医疗仪器、设备的购买和使用复杂的医疗器械。他们也可能与医生合作,使仪器适应特定需求的医生和医院。这通常涉及仪器与计算机系统的接口和定制软件仪器控制和数据采集和分析[2]。临床工程师参与卫生保健的最新技术的应用。

Medical Imaging combines knowledge of a unique physical phenomenon (sound, radiation, magnetism, etc.) with high speed electronic data processing, analysis and display to generate an image. Often, these images can be obtained with minimal or completely noninvasive procedures, making them less painful and more readily repeatable than invasive techniques.

Orthopaedic Bioengineering is the specialty where methods of engineering and computational mechanics have been applied for the understanding of the function of bones, 9 joints and muscles, and for the design of artificial joint replacements. Orthopaedic bioengineers analyze the friction, lubrication and wear characteristics of natural and artificial joints; they perform stress analysis of the musculoskeletal system; and they develop artificial biomaterials (biologic and synthetic) for replacement of bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, meniscus and intervertebral discs. They often perform gait and motion analyses for sports performance and patient outcome

following surgical procedures. Orthopaedic bioengineers also pursue fundamental studies on cellular function, and mechano-signal transduction.

Rehabilitation Engineering is a growing specialty area of biomedical engineering. Rehabilitation engineers enhance the capabilities and improve the quality of life for individuals with physical and cognitive impairments. They are involved in prosthetics, the development of home, workplace and transportation modifications and the design of assistive technology that enhance seating and positioning, mobility, and communication. Rehabilitation engineers are also developing hardware and software computer adaptations and cognitive aids to assist people with cognitive difficulties.

医学成像结合知识的独特的物理现象(声音、辐射、磁场等)与高速电子数据处理、分析和显示生成一个图像。通常,这些图像可以获得最小的或完全非侵入性程序,让他们不那么痛苦并且更容易重复的非侵入性技术。

骨科生物工程的专业工程和计算力学方法已经申请了骨骼的功能的理解,9关节和肌肉,人工关节置换的设计。骨科生物分析的摩擦、润滑和磨损特征的自然和人工关节;他们执行肌肉骨骼系统的应力分析;他们发展人工生物材料(生物和合成)替代骨骼、软骨、韧带、肌腱、半月板和椎间盘。他们经常对体育进行步态和运动分析性能和病人手术后的结果。骨科生物也追求基本细胞功能研究,和mechano-signal转导。

康复工程是一个日益增长的生物医学工程专业。康复工程师提高能力,提高个人的生活质量与物理和认知障碍。它们参与假肢,家乡的发展,工作场所和交通的设计修改和辅助技术,提高座位和定位,移动和通信。康复工程师也在开发硬件和软件计算机适应性和认知艾滋病协助人们认知的困难。

Systems Physiology is the term used to describe that aspect of biomedical engineering in which engineering strategies, techniques and tools are used to gain a comprehensive and integrated understanding of the function of living organisms ranging from bacteria to humans[3]. Computer modeling is used in the analysis of experimental data and in formulating mathematical descriptions of physiological events. In research, predictor models are used in designing new experiments to refine our knowledge. Living systems have highly regulated feedback control systems that can be examined with state-of-the-art techniques. Examples are the biochemistry of metabolism and the control of limb movements.

These specialty areas frequently depend on each other. Often, the biomedical engineer who works in an applied field will use knowledge gathered by biomedical engineers working in other areas. For example, the design of an artificial hip is greatly aided by studies on anatomy, bone biomechanics, gait analysis, and biomaterial compatibility. The forces that are applied to the hip can be considered in the design and material selection for the prosthesis. Similarly, the design of systems to electrically stimulate paralyzed muscle to move in a controlled way uses knowledge of the behavior of the human musculoskeletal system. The selection of appropriate materials used in these devices falls within the realm of the 10 biomaterials engineer.

系统生理学方面的术语用来描述生物医学工程的工程策略,技术和工具被用来获得全面、综合的了解生物体的功能从细菌到人类[3]。使用计算机模拟实验数据的分析和制定生理事件的数学描述。在研究中,预测模型用于设计新的实验来完善我们的知识。生命系统高度监管的反馈控制系统,可以与最先进的检测技术。的例子是代谢的生化和肢体动作的控制。

这些专业领域经常互相依赖。通常,一个应用领域的生物医学工程师工作将使用在其他领域知识收集的生物医学工程师的工作。例如,人工髋关节的设计极好地研究解剖学、骨生物力学、步态分析、生物兼容性。应用到臀部的力量可以被认为是在假体的设计和材料的选择。同样,系统的设计电刺激瘫痪肌肉控制的方式移动使用的知识人体肌肉骨骼系统的行为。选择适当的材料用于这些设备属于10生物材料领域的工程师。

Examples of Specific Activities

Work done by biomedical engineers may include a wide range of activities such as:

Artificial organs (hearing aids, cardiac pacemakers, artificial kidneys and hearts, blood oxygenators, synthetic blood vessels, joints, arms, and legs).

Automated patient monitoring (during surgery or in intensive care, healthy persons in unusual environments, such as astronauts in space or underwater divers at great depth).

Blood chemistry sensors (potassium, sodium, O2, CO2, and pH). Advanced therapeutic and surgical devices (laser system for eye surgery, automated delivery of insulin, etc.).

Application of expert systems and artificial intelligence to clinical decision making (computer-based systems for diagnosing diseases).

Design of optimal clinical laboratories (computerized analyzer for blood samples, cardiac catheterization laboratory, etc.).

Medical imaging systems (ultrasound, computer assisted tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, etc.).

Computer modeling of physiologic systems (blood pressure control, renal function, visual and auditory nervous circuits, etc.).

Biomaterials design (mechanical, transport and biocompatibility properties of implantable artificial materials).

Biomechanics of injury and wound healing (gait analysis, application of growth factors, etc.). Sports medicine (rehabilitation, external support devices, etc.).

由生物医学工程师的工作可能包括范围广泛的活动,如:

人工器官(助听器、心脏起搏器、人工肾脏和心脏,血液氧合器、人造血管、关节,武器,和腿)。自动病人监护(在手术或重症监护,健康的人在不寻常的环境中,如宇航员在太空或水下潜水员在伟大的深度)。

血液化学传感器(钾、钠、O2、CO2和pH值)。先进的治疗和手术设备(激光眼科手术系统,自动化的胰岛素,等等)。

专家系统和人工智能应用于临床决策诊断疾病(计算机系统)。

设计最优的临床实验室(电脑分析仪对血液样本,心导管实验室,等等)。

医学成像系统(超声波、计算机辅助断层扫描、核磁共振成像正电子发射断层扫描,等等)。计算机模拟的生理系统(控制血压、肾功能、视觉和听觉神经电路,等等)。

生物材料设计(机械、运输和生物相容性植入式人工材料的属性)。

生物力学的损伤和伤口愈合(步态分析、应用生长因子等)。运动医学(康复、外部支持设备等)。

Where do Biomedical Engineers Work?

Biomedical engineers are employed in universities, in industry, in hospitals, in research facilities

of educational and medical institutions, in teaching, and in government regulatory agencies. They often serve a coordinating or interfacing function, using their background in both the engineering and medical fields. In industry, they may create designs where an in-depth understanding of living systems and of technology is essential. They may be involved in performance testing of new or proposed products. Government positions often 11involve product testing and safety, as well as establishing safety standards for devices. In the hospital, the biomedical engineer may provide advice on the selection and use of medical equipment, as well as supervising its performance testing and maintenance. They may also build customized devices for special health care or research needs. In research institutions, biomedical engineers supervise laboratories and equipment, and participate in or direct research activities in collaboration with other researchers with such backgrounds as medicine, physiology, and nursing. Some biomedical engineers are technical advisors for marketing departments of companies and some are in management positions.

Some biomedical engineers also have advanced training in other fields. For example, many biomedical engineers also have an M.D. degree, thereby combining an understanding of advanced technology with direct patient care or clinical research.

生物医学工程师受雇于大学,在工业,在医院、在教育和医疗机构研究设施,教学,和政府监管机构。他们经常为协调或接口函数,使用他们的背景在工程和医学领域。在工业上,他们可能创建设计,深入理解生命系统和技术是至关重要的。他们可能参与提出新的或产品的性能测试。政府职位11通常涉及到产品测试和安全,以及建立设备安全标准。在医院里,生物医学工程师可以提供建议的选择和使用医疗设备,以及监督其性能测试和维护。他们也可能构建定制的特殊医疗设备或研究的需要。在研究机构,生物医学工程师监督实验室和设备,并参与或直接研究活动与其他研究人员合作等背景医学、生理学、和护理。一些生物医学工程师是技术顾问公司和一些营销部门的管理职位。

一些生物医学工程师也有其他领域的高级培训。例如,许多生物医学工程师也有一个医学博士学位,从而了解先进技术结合直接病人护理或临床研究。

How Should I Prepare for a Career in Biomedical Engineering?

The biomedical engineering student should first plan to become a good engineer who then acquires a working understanding of the life sciences and technology. Good communication skills are also important, because the biomedical engineer provides a vital link with professionals having medical, technical, and other backgrounds.

High school preparation for biomedical engineering is the same as that for any other engineering discipline, except that life science course work should also be included. If possible, Advanced Placement courses in these areas would be helpful. At the college level, the student usually selects engineering as a field of study, then chooses a discipline concentration within engineering. Some students will major in biomedical engineering, while others may major in chemical, electrical, or mechanical engineering with a specialty in biomedical engineering. As career plans develop, the student should seek advice on the degree of specialization and the educational levels appropriate to his or her goals and interests. Information on sources of financial aid for education and training should also be sought. Many students continue their education in graduate school where they obtain valuable biomedical research experience at the Masters or Doctoral level. When entering the job market, the graduate should be able to point to well defined engineering skills for application to the biomedical field, with some project or in-the-field

experience in biomedical engineering.

生物医学工程的学生应该首先计划成为一个好的工程师,然后获得一个工作对生命科学和技术的理解。良好的沟通能力也很重要,因为生物医学工程师提供了一个至关重要的与专业人员在医疗、技术和其他背景。

高中生物医学工程做准备一样,对于其他工程学科,除了生命科学课程也应包括在内。如果可能的话,这些领域的进阶先修课程将是有益的。在学院层面,学生通常选择工程的研究领域,然后选择一门学科集中在工程。一些学生将生物医学工程专业,而其他人可能主修化工、电气、生物医学工程或机械工程专业。作为职业规划发展,学生应该咨询的专业化程度和教育水平适合他或她的目标和利益。信息来源的金融教育和培训也应该寻求援助。许多学生在研究生院继续深造,获得宝贵的生物医学研究经验的硕士或博士水平。当进入就业市场,毕业生应该能够指向定义良好的工程技术应用到生物医学领域,有一些项目或在生物医学工程领域的经验。

How do I become a Biomedical Engineer?

If you want to become a biomedical engineer, there are several paths that you can follow. All involve a college education.

You can study biomedical engineering in a wide variety of formats at the undergraduate level. In some universities, students major in biomedical engineering in a department that typically offers a broad-based program of study in engineering and science. At other universities, students major in a traditional engineering department, such as electrical or mechanical engineering, and study biomedical engineering as a technical specialty.

Many universities offer a graduate program in biomedical engineering for those who have completed any of a number of undergraduate engineering or science degree programs.

如果你想成为一个生物医学工程师,有几个路径,您可以遵循。所有涉及大学教育。

你可以研究生物医学工程在各种格式在本科水平。在一些大学,学生主要在生物医学工程部门,通常提供了一个广泛的研究在工程和科学的计划。在其他大学,学生主要在传统的工程部门,如电子或机械工程和研究生物医学工程技术专业。

许多大学提供生物医学工程的研究生课程对于那些已经完成的本科工程或科学学位项目。

Unit 2 Biomedical Instrumentation

Lesson 3 Basic Instrumentation Systems

The term "instrumentation" has a multitude of different meanings to scientists in various fields of endeavor. To the physician, instruments are the tools of his trade; therefore, anything from an ear speculum, which is placed in the external ear to help visualize the eardrum, to a surgical retractor[1], which holds back the edges of an incision, is considered to be an instrument. The engineer is more specific in his or her use of the term "instrumentation". We refer to instrumentation as those pieces of equipment that may be used to supply information concerning some physical quantity (usually referred to as a variable). This variable may be fixed and thus have the same value for a long time for a given physiological system, or it may be a quantity, that can change with time.

In considering biomedical instrumentation, we will, out of necessity, have to limit ourselves to instruments that fit the engineering definition. We will be concerned with those instruments that directly obtain physiologic information from organisms. While the examples of the ear speculum

and the surgical retractor can be considered instruments because they make it possible for the physician to visually observe parts of the body that could not be normally seen, we will not consider these, since indeed the observation is made by the physician rather than by the devices described. On the other hand, we do not want our definition of instrumentation to be too limiting, for indeed when fiber optic image conduits for visualization within the body are considered, we will certainly want to classify them as biomedical instruments, although their function is only a small extension of that of the speculum or retractor described above.

“仪器”一词有许多不同的含义各领域科学家的努力。医生,仪器贸易的工具,因此,任何东西,从一只耳朵窥器,这是放置在外耳帮助可视化耳膜,一个手术牵开器[1],该基金持有的边缘一个切口,被认为是一种乐器。工程师在他或她的具体使用术语“仪表”。我们将仪器与设备,可用于提供信息关于一些物理量(通常被称为一个变量)。这个变量可能是固定的,因此具有相同的价值很长一段时间对于一个给定的生理系统,或者它可能是一个数量,可以改变随着时间的推移。

我们将在考虑生物医学仪器,出于必要,不得不限制自己仪器符合工程的定义。我们将关注那些直接从生物获得生理信息的工具。而耳窥器的例子和手术牵开器可以被认为是工具,因为他们让医生来直观地观察身体部位通常无法看到的,我们不会考虑这些,因为实际上所做的观察是医生而不是描述的设备。另一方面,我们不希望我们的仪器的定义太限制,确实当光纤图像在身体被认为是渠道可视化,我们肯定会希望将其分类为生物医学仪器,虽然其功能仅仅是一个小的扩展上述镜或牵开器。

Instruments, therefore, are used to provide information about physiologic systems. In providing such information the instrument is carrying out an indicating function. This function may be achieved by a moving pointer on a meter, an aural or visual alarm, or by flashing numbers or words on a screen to describe the variable being measured. Many instruments not only indicate the value of a variable at a particular instant in time, but can also make a permanent record of this quality as time progresses, thus carrying out a recording function as well as an indicating function. Instruments that present the measured variable on a graphic chart, a computer screen, a magnetic or compact disk, or a printed page carry out the recording function. Today computers perform these functions by storing data in digital form on media such as semiconductor memory and magnetic or optical discs.

A third function that some instruments perform is that of control. Controlling instruments can, after indicating a particular variable, exert an influence upon the source of the variable to cause it to change. A simple example of a controlling instrument is an ordinary room thermostat. If the room is too cold, the thermostat measures the temperature and senses that it is too cold; then it sends a signal to the room heating system, encouraging it to supply more heat to the room to increase the temperature. If, on the other hand, the thermostat determines that the room is too hot, it turns off the source of heat, and in some cases supplies cooling to the room to bring the temperature back to the desired point. In our discussion of temperature control later on, we will look more closely at this controlling function of instruments, however, for the most part, we will be concerned with instruments that only indicate and record.

仪器,因此,用于提供信息的生理系统。在提供此类信息仪器正在开展一个指示函数。这个函数可以通过一个移动的指针仪表,听觉或视觉报警,或在屏幕上闪烁的数字或文字来描述被测变量。许多仪器不仅表示一个变量的值在一个特定的时刻,但这也可以做永久的记录质量随着时间的推移,因此进行录音功能和指示功能。仪器测量变量在一个图形图表,电脑屏幕上,

磁光盘或一个打印页面进行录音功能。今天电脑上执行这些功能在数字形式存储数据媒体如半导体存储器和磁或光盘。

第三个功能,一些工具执行的控制。表明一个特定的变量后,控制仪器可以施加影响的变量导致其改变。控制仪器的一个简单的例子是一个普通的房间温控器。如果房间太冷,温度测量温度和感觉它太冷,那么它将一个信号发送给房间供暖系统,鼓励它在房间里提供更多的热量增加温度。另一方面,如果温控器确定房间太热,它关闭热的来源,在某些情况下供应冷却房间温度回所需的点。以后温度控制在我们的讨论中,我们将更多地关注这个控制功能的工具,然而,在大多数情况下,我们只会关心仪器显示和记录。

In engineering we often find it necessary to carry out rather complex operations. These can be done by a group of connected component parts, each of which carries out a single relatively simple function. This connected group of components is known as a system. Therefore, in engineering we can take a group of simple, single-function blocks and put them together in such a way that we have a system that can perform operations far more complex than those of the individual blocks. This block concept will be very useful in the description of biomedical instrumentation systems. Often we find that a system can be graphically described by drawing a diagram of these blocks showing how they are connected together to achieve the desired function. Such a diagram is known as a block diagram[2], and it is a good way to show the interrelationship of the system components.

All instrumentation systems can be generally described by the block diagram of Figure 1.1. Here the system consists of three different parts: the sensor, the processor and the display and/or storage. Let us examine each block separately to determine its function in the overall system

在工程中,我们经常发现有必要开展而复杂的操作。这些可以通过一组连接的组成部分,每一个都进行一个相对简单的功能。这种连接的组件被称为一个系统。因此,在工程我们可以一组简单,单功能的块,再将它们组合在一起,这样我们有一个系统,可以执行操作更复杂的比单独的块。这个块的概念将是非常有用的生物医学仪器系统的描述。我们经常发现系统可以通过画一个图以图形方式描述这些块展示它们是如何连接在一起来实现所需的功能。这种图称为方框图[2],它是一个很好的方式显示系统组件的相互关系。

所有仪表系统一般可以描述的框图如图1.1。系统由三个不同的部分组成:传感器、处理器和显示和/或存储。让我们检查每个块分别确定整个系统的功能

. Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a general instrumentation system

The sensor converts energy from one form to another, the second being related to the original energy in some predetermined way. As an example, let us consider a microphone. Sound energy in the air surrounding the microphone interacts with this sensor, and some of 17 the energy is used to generate an electrical signal. This electrical signal is related to the sound entering the microphone in such a way that it can be used to produce a similar sound at a loud speaker when appropriately processed. Thus, the microphone has acted as a transducer. The loud speaker has also acted as a transducer since it converted the electrical energy back to sound. The terms sensor and transducer are often used interchangeably. We will distinguish them by considering a sensor as a very low energy device that performs an energy conversion for the purpose of making a measurement.

There are many other possibilities than the above example for energy conversion by a

transducer. There are represented by the diagram in Figure 1.2. As we move around the periphery of the figure we find the various forms of energy that are encountered by the instrumentation specialist. Mechanical energy refers to the potential and kinetic energies of a mass of any material. Although acoustic, hydraulic and thermal energies would all fit into this classification, these other quantities are encountered sufficiently by instrumentation specialists that they are considered separately. Acoustic energy refers to the energy of sound waves, either in air or some other conducting medium such as biologic tissue. Hydraulic energy refers to the energy contained in a fluid (liquid or gas). This energy can be in the form of kinetic energy of a flowing fluid, or it can be the potential energy of a fluid under pressure. Thermal energy refers to the energy available in a material as a result of its temperature.

传感器将能量从一种形式转换为另一种格式,第二个是相关的原始能量以某种预定的方式。例如,让我们考虑一个麦克风。声能在麦克风与周围的空气传感器,和一些17能量被用来产生一个电信号。这个电信号与麦克风的声音进入这样一种方式,它可以被用来制造类似的扬声器,声音适当处理。因此,麦克风作为传感器。扬声器也充当了传感器,因为它的电能转换回的声音。传感器和传感器往往交替使用。我们将区分考虑传感器作为一个非常低的能源装置,执行一个能量转换为目的的测量。

有许多其他的可能性比上面的例子中换能器的能量转换。有代表的关系图如图1.2所示。当我们移动的边缘图我们发现各种形式的能量所遇到的仪器专家。机械能是指潜力和动能的任何材料的质量。尽管声、液压和热能量都适合这种分类,这些其他数量遇到仪器专家,他们分别被认为是足够的。声能指声波的能量,在空气中或其他导电介质,如生物组织。液压能源指的是能源包含在流体(液体或气体)。这种能量可以以动能的形式流动的液体,也可以是流体在压力下的势能。热能是指可用的能源材料由于其温度。

Another form of energy that is of particular interest to the biomedical instrumentation specialist is electrical energy. This is the energy that can be imparted to an electric charge and is a useful means of conveying information in instrumentation systems. Optical energy refers to energy in the form of light or electromagnetic radiation very similar to light such as infrared and ultraviolet radiation. With the advent of the laser, this has become important in medical instrumentation systems. Finally, chemical energy refers to the energy associated with the formation and reaction of various chemical compounds.

It is theoretically possible for a transducer to convert some energy in any one of the forms mentioned above to any other of the forms. Therefore, we can represent the transducers by the lines drawn between the different energy forms on the diagram. For the microphone example described above, this transducer would be located on the line connecting acoustic and electrical energies. Since, in the microphone, acoustic energy is converted to electrical energy; we would represent this on the line with an arrow pointing from acoustic to electrical energy. If, on the other hand, we consider the loud speaker; here electrical energy is converted into sound waves. We would represent this transducer on the same line, but the arrow would point from electrical to acoustic energy.

另一种形式的能量,是特别感兴趣的生物医学仪器专家电能。这是可以传授一个电荷和能量,是一个有用的仪器系统中传达信息的手段。光能量指的是能量以光的形式或电磁辐射非常相似的红外线和紫外线辐射等。随着激光的出现,这已经成为重要的医疗仪器系统。最后,化学能是指能源相关的各种化合物的形成和反应。

从理论上讲,一个传感器转换能量形式,任何一个在上面提到的任何其他形式。因此,我们可以代表换能器之间的线画在图上不同的能量形式。上面描述的麦克风的例子,这个传感器位于线连接声学和电能量。以来,麦克风,声能转化为电能,我们将代表这从声与上面的箭头指向的电能。另一方面,如果我们考虑扬声器;这里电能转换成声波。我们将代表这个传感器在同一行,但箭头将从电声学能量点。

Figure 1.2 Chart of different possible types of transducers

There are many other examples of transducers that could be placed on this chart. Some of these transducers are reversible; i.e., the arrow on the line could be drawn in either direction. An example of a reversible system might be the storage battery used in an automobile. When it is used to supply electrical energy to start your automobile, it is a chemical to electrical transducer and so the arrow would point towards electrical energy. However, when your car is running, electrical energy is supplied back to the battery to replace the charge depleted by starting the car. In this case, the battery is serving as an electrical to chemical transducer. Since the battery is the same in both cases, it is said to be reversible type of transducer. There are some types of transducers that are not reversible. For example, consider a light bulb. This is an electrical to optical energy transducer, since when we supply an electric current, it lights up producing optical energy. However, with common light bulbs we cannot shine a light on it and expect to find any electrical energy produced at its terminals; therefore, this device cannot be used as an optical to electrical transducer. Thus, it is said to be an irreversible transducer.

Although there are many kinds of devices that convert one form of energy to another as 19 illustrated in Figure 1.2, we usually only refer to those that are used for purposes of gathering information as sensors. Thus devices such as electric motors, electric heaters, steam boilers, etc. would not be considered as sensors although they carry out the same function but at much higher energy levels.

There are three general requirements for transducers used in instrumentation systems.

These are:

1. Accuracy

2.Stability

3.3. Lack of interference with the physiological variable being measured[3].

It is obvious why an instrumentation sensor must be accurate. It is essential to know how the output signal from the sensor is related to the input quantity. In most applications it is desirable that this relationship be linear, however as we see below, this is not essential, and with today’s ready access to computers and microprocessors, nonlinear characteristics can be “linearized”with little effort provided the non-linear characteristic is reproducible. This means that the output signal is directly proportional to the input quantity. In some cases, nonlinear relationships are desirable. For example, let us consider the microphone used as a sensor in an instrument for measuring the intensity of sound in a room. Since the human ear responds to sound intensities logarithmically rather than linearly, in many applications it would be desirable for the sound intensity meter to operate in the same way. One way of achieving this would be to use a microphone that had a logarithmic relationship between the sound energy input and the electrical output. Another approach would be to use a linear microphone and a logarithmic amplifier to process the signal.

还有许多其他的例子,传感器,可以放在这个图表。这些传感器是可逆的,也就是说。,上的箭头线可以在任何方向。可逆系统的一个例子可能是一辆汽车中使用的蓄电池。当它用于供应电能开始你的汽车,这是一个化学电传感器,所以箭头指向电能。然而,当你的车正在运行,电能供应回电池更换费用减少了启动汽车。在这种情况下,电池是一个电气化学传感器。因为电池是相同的在这两种情况下,据说是可逆的类型的传感器。有一些类型的传感器是不可逆的。例如,考虑一个灯泡。这是一个电子光学能量转换器,因为当我们供应电流,它照亮生产光学能量。然而,常见的灯泡我们不能一束光照耀,期望找到任何电能生产的终端,因此,该设备不能用作光学电子传感器。因此,它被认为是一个不可逆转的传感器。

虽然有各种各样的设备,将能量的一种形式转换为另一种19如图1.2所示,我们通常只指那些用于收集信息的传感器。因此设备如电动机、电加热器、蒸汽锅炉等不会被认为是传感器虽然他们执行相同的功能,但在更高的能量水平。

有三个传感器用于检测系统一般要求。

这些都是:

1。精度

2.稳定

3.3。缺乏生理干扰被测变量[3]。

很明显,为什么一个仪表传感器必须是准确的。有必要知道传感器的输出信号与输入量。在大多数应用程序中是可取的,这种关系是线性的,然而当我们看到下面,这不是必要的,和今天的准备访问计算机和微处理器,非线性特性可以用一些努力“线性化”提供了非线性特征是可再生的。这意味着输出信号直接输入量成正比。在某些情况下,非线性关系是可取的。例如,让我们考虑一下麦克风在乐器用作传感器测量声音的强度在一个房间里。由于人耳对声音强度对数线性,而是在许多应用程序中是可取的声音强度计以同样的方式来运作。实现这一目标的方法之一是使用一个麦克风,一个对数关系声音能量输入和输出电。另一种方法是使用一个线性麦克风和一个对数放大器来处理信号。

Although linearity of a sensor's calibration characteristic is often a desired feature, sensors with non-linear calibration characteristics are also very useful when computers are a part of the instrumentation system. It has always been possible to use the computer processing of the sensor output signal to "linearize" a non-linear characteristic. There are also situations, as illustrated in the previous paragraph, when it may be desirable for a particular application to have a special functional relationship between the variable being sensed and an instrument's output, and a computer can make this possible as well. One of the roles of a computer in an instrument's processing block is to convert the sensor's actual calibration characteristic to the calibration characteristic that is desired for the instrument. The important feature of the sensor in this case is no longer linearity but stability and reproducibility as described in the next paragraph. As long as the sensor's calibration characteristic is known and does not change, processing by a computer can convert this to the characteristic that is desired.

A sensor must be stable if it is to be able to provide reproducible data time and time again. Changing of the sensor's properties with time, temperature, humidity, gravitational pull, etc. means that it cannot be used as the first stage of a reliable instrumentation system unless it is periodically used to measure known quantities considered to be calibration standards as a means of calibration. Finally, the presence of the sensor must not disturb the system being measured in any way if it

is to provide accurate data. In many measurements this cannot be achieved, and so the sensor is made to provide a minimum of disturbance to the system being measured. Since the sensor converts some of the energy of the variable being measured into a new form, it takes this energy away from the system being measured. If this is a substantial amount of energy, it can indeed result in an error in the measurement. For example, to measure the temperature of a body, we introduce a thermometer into the body and it is allowed to stay until its temperature is the same as that of the body. Thus, if we submerge a thermometer into a very small test tube of warm water, the thermal energy of the water is used to heat the thermometer. But we could also look at it this way: the cold thermometer is used to cool the warm water. If the thermometer is not very small compared to the amount of water present, this cooling effect cannot be neglected and will indeed change the temperature of the water. Thus this will give an erroneous reading as far as the original temperature of the water is concerned. It is, therefore, important to consider the effects of a given sensor on a measurement when selecting the sensor to make that particular measurement.

虽然线性传感器的校准通常所需的功能特点,传感器非线性校正特色也非常有用当计算机仪器系统的一部分。它一直可以使用计算机处理传感器输出信号的非线性特征“线性化”。也有一些情况下,如在前面的段落中,当它可能是可取的特定应用程序有一个特别的功能正在感觉到的变量之间的关系和仪器的输出,和一台电脑也可以使这一切成为可能。计算机的角色之一,乐器的处理块将传感器的实际校准特性的校准特性所需的仪器。传感器的重要特性在这种情况下不再是线性的,但稳定性和再现性描述在接下来的段落。只要传感器的校准特性是已知的和不会改变,处理由计算机可以转换所需的特性。

传感器必须保持稳定,如果它是能够提供可再生的数据一次又一次。改变传感器的性能随着时间的推移,温度、湿度、引力等意味着它不能作为一个可靠的仪器系统的第一阶段,除非它是周期性地用来测量已知的数量被认为是校准的校准标准。

最后,传感器的存在必须不以任何方式干扰被测系统是否提供准确数据。在许多测量这无法实现,所以传感器是由提供最少的干扰被测系统。由于传感器转换的一些变量被测量到一个新形式的能量,这种能量需要远离被测系统。如果这是一个大量的能源,它确实可以导致一个错误的测量。例如,测量身体的温度,我们引入一个温度计的身体和它可以保持,直到身体的温度是一样的。因此,如果我们淹没温度计到一个非常小的试管的温水,水的热能用于热温度计。但是我们也可以这样看:寒冷的温度计用于热水降温。如果没有温度计相比非常小的水量,这种冷却效应不容忽视,确实会改变水的温度。因此这将给一个错误的阅读就水的初始温度。因此,重要的是要考虑给定传感器对测量的影响在选择传感器时,特定的测量。

The electrical signal produced by most sensors is generally very small and must be modified to be useful in instrumentation systems. This modification of the sensor's signal is carried out by the second block in the instrumentation system (Figure 1.1), the processor. The processor operates on the sensor output signal to modify it to a form that can be used to suitably present or store data on the variable measured by the sensor. To do this, there are several different functions that can be performed by the processor. These are defined below and will be described in greater detail later on.

1. Amplification - the process of increasing the amplitude or strength of the sensor output signal without varying it in any other way.

2. Modulation and Demodulation - the process of imposing or removing a signal (the information) upon another signal (the carrier) that is used to convey the original information.

Modulation puts the information on the carrier, and demodulation recovers the original information from the carrier.

3. Frequency Selection - the process whereby a signal containing a group of different frequencies is filtered, allowing only certain desired frequencies to pass, while blocking all other frequencies.

4. Transmission - the process of taking a signal from one point in space and conveying it, undistorted, to another point.

5. Wave Shaping - the process of purposely distorting a signal to give it certain desired characteristics.

6. Isolation - the process of maintaining a signal so that it cannot be easily modified by interfering signals or random noise.

7. Logic - the processes whereby certain signals interact with one another according to preset rules that allow elementary decisions to be made.

8. Conversion - the process of transferring a signal from analog to digital format or vice-versa. 大多数传感器产生的电信号通常是非常小的,必须修改仪表系统是有用的。这一修改传感器的信号是由第二个块仪表系统(图1.1),处理器。传感器输出信号的处理器操作来修改它的形式可以用于适当的礼物或存储数据的变量测量的传感器。要做到这一点,有几种不同的功能,可以执行的处理器。这些定义如下,以后将更详细地描述。

1。放大的过程,增加传感器输出信号的振幅或强度没有任何其他方式不同。

2。调制和解调的过程实施或删除一个信号(信息)对另一个信号(承运人)是用来传达原来的信息。调制载波上的信息,从承运人和解调恢复原始信息。

3。频率选择的过程包含一组不同频率的信号过滤,只允许某些所需的频率通过,而阻止所有其他频率。

4。传输的过程,把一个信号从一个点在空间和输送,不失真,到另一个点。

5。波形成的过程——故意扭曲一个信号给它一定的期望的特征。

6。隔离——保持信号的过程,不能轻易修改或随机噪声干扰信号。

7。逻辑- - -即某些信号相互作用的过程根据预设规则,允许基本决策。

8。转换的过程,传输一个信号从模拟到数字格式或亦然。

These definitions, by necessity of their simplicity, are extremely vague. It is only through specific application and examples of these processor types that we will get a good feeling as to their meaning[4]. It is hoped that through the analysis of the examples that follow, a working understanding of these terms will be obtained.

Similar to the sensor, the processor has several requirements that must be met if it is to be used in an instrumentation system. These are as follows:

1.Accuracy

2. Stability

3. Reliability

4. Does not "load" the sensor

5. Provides sufficient output signal

The first three items on the list are very similar to those already described for the sensor. Without an accurately known relationship between the input and the output of the processor, the

information contained in the sensor output signal would be meaningless after it passed through the processor. For the processor to be accurate it must also be stable, its input-output relationship must remain constant, and it must be reliable so it can be depended upon to carry out its function. Since the processor is connected to the output of the sensor, this process of connection must not distort the signal produced by the sensor in any way. When distortion occurs from the connection, it is due to loading, and it results in additional inaccuracies being introduced into the measurement. Therefore, the processor in an instrumentation system must provide a minimum of loading to the sensor.

Finally, the processor must be capable of providing the signal required by the next block in the instrumentation system, the display and/or storage. If the output signal of the sensor is known and the required signal to drive the storage or display is known, the processor must be designed so that it can effect the modification of the sensor output signal to provide the display or storage input signal.

这些定义,通过简单的必要性,非常模糊。只有通过特定的应用程序,这些处理器类型的例子,我们将得到一个好的感觉和意义[4]。希望通过分析的例子,这些条款将会获得一个工作的理解。

类似于传感器、处理器有几个必须满足要求,如果它是用于一个仪器系统。这些都是如下: 1.精度

2。稳定

3。可靠性

4。不“负载”传感器

5。提供足够的输出信号

名单上的前三个项目非常类似于那些已经描述的传感器。没有一个准确的已知的输入和输出之间的关系处理器,传感器输出信号中包含的信息将通过处理器后,毫无意义。处理器是准确的,也必须是稳定的,其投入产出关系必须保持不变,必须是可靠的,它可以是取决于执行其功能。

由于处理器连接到传感器的输出,这个连接的过程不能扭曲产生的信号传感器以任何方式。失真发生时从连接,它是由于加载,它导致额外的错误被引入到测量。因此,处理器在一个仪器系统必须提供一个最小装载的传感器。

最后,处理器必须能够提供所需的信号下一块仪表系统,显示和/或存储。如果传感器的输出信号是已知的和所需的信号来驱动存储或显示,处理器必须设计的修改,这样就可以影响传感器输出信号为输入信号的显示或存储。

The final block of the generalized instrumentation system is the display and/or storage portion of the system. The function of this block is to present and, in some cases, record data on the variable or variables being measured by the instrument system in such a way that it can be read and analyzed by a human operator or a computer. A display device presents instantaneous data so that it can be read from the instrument by a human, but it does not remember any of the data. Thus, a display must be continuously watched if the data is to be carefully observed. There are several types of display devices that are useful in the biomedical instrumentation. These are listed as follows:

(完整版)医学专业英语翻译及答案

Chapter 1 Passage 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: 1. Classification of organ systems 2. Structure and function of each organ system 3. Associated medical terms To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc. 了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article. 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。 Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、

《土木工程专业英语》段兵延第二版全书文章翻译精编版

第一课 土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。

土木工程专业英语正文课文翻译

第一课土木工程学 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。

土木工程专业英语翻译

a common way to construct steel truss and prestressed concrete cantilever spans is to counterbalance each cantilever arm with another cantilever arm projecting the opposite direction,forming a balanced cantilever. they attach to a solid foundation ,the counterbalancing arms are called anchor arms /thus,in a bridge built on two foundation piers,there are four cantilever arms ,two which span the obstacle,and two anchor arms which extend away from the obstacle,because of the need for more strength at the balanced cantilever's supports ,the bridge superstructure often takes the form of towers above the foundation piers .the commodore barry bridge is an example of this type of cantilever bridge 一种常见的方法构造钢桁架和预应力混凝土悬臂跨度是每一个悬臂抗衡预测相反的方向臂悬臂，形成一个平衡的悬臂。他们重视了坚实的基础，制约武器被称为锚武器/因此，在两个基础上建一座桥桥墩，有四个悬臂式武器，这两者之间跨越的障碍，和两个锚武器哪个延长距离的障碍，因为为更多的在平衡悬臂的支持力量的需要，桥梁上部结构往往表现为塔墩基础之上形成的准将巴里大桥是这种类型的例子悬臂桥 steel truss cantilever support loads by tension of the upper members and compression of the lower ones .commonly ,the structure distributes teh tension via teh anchor arms to the outermost supports ,while the compression is carried to the foundation beneath teh central towers .many truss cantilever bridges use pinned joints and are therefore statically determinate with no members carrying mixed loads 钢桁架悬臂由上层成员和下层的紧张压缩支持负载。通常，结构分布通过锚武器的最外层的支持紧张，而压缩抬到下方的中央塔的基础。桁架悬臂许多桥梁使用固定的关节，是静定，没有携带混合负载的成员，因此 prestressed concrete balanced cantilever bridges are often built using segmental construction .some steel arch bridges are built using pure cantilever spans from each sides,with neither falsework below nor temporary supporting towers and cables above ,these are then joined with a pin,usually after forcing the union point apart ,and when jacks are removed and the bridge decking is added the bridge becomes a truss arch bridge .such unsupported construction is only possible where appropriate rock is available to support the tension in teh upper chord of the span during construction ,usually limiting this method to the spanning of narrow canyons 预应力混凝土平衡悬臂桥梁往往建立使用段施工。一些钢拱桥是使用各方面的纯悬臂跨度既无假工作下面也临时支撑塔和电缆上面，这些都是再加入了一根针，通常在迫使工会点外，当插孔删除，并添加桥梁甲板桥成为桁架拱桥，这种不支持的建设，才可能在适当情况下的岩石可用于支持在施工期间的跨度弦上的张力，通常限制这狭隘的峡谷跨越方法 an arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch .arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side .a viaduct may be made from a series of arches ,although other more economical structures are typically used today 在拱桥桥台的桥梁，是一个在一个弧形拱状，每年年底。拱桥通过转移到由部分在两边的桥台水平推

土木工程专业英语词汇(整理版)

第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握 第一部分： 1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法 2 专业英语Specialty English 3 水利工程Hydraulic Engineering 4 土木工程Civil Engineering 5 地下工程Underground Engineering 6 岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering 7 道路工程Road (Highway) Engineering 8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering 9 隧道工程Tunnel Engineering 10 工程力学Engineering Mechanics 11 交通工程Traffic Engineering 12 港口工程Port Engineering 13 安全性safety 17木结构timber structure 18 砌体结构masonry structure 19 混凝土结构concrete structure 20 钢结构steelstructure 21 钢-混凝土复合结构steel and concrete composite structure 22 素混凝土plain concrete 23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete 24 钢筋rebar 25 预应力混凝土pre-stressed concrete 26 静定结构statically determinate structure 27 超静定结构statically indeterminate structure 28 桁架结构truss structure 29 空间网架结构spatial grid structure 30 近海工程offshore engineering 31 静力学statics 32运动学kinematics 33 动力学dynamics 34 简支梁simply supported beam 35 固定支座fixed bearing 36弹性力学elasticity 37 塑性力学plasticity 38 弹塑性力学elaso-plasticity 39 断裂力学fracture Mechanics 40 土力学soil mechanics 41 水力学hydraulics 42 流体力学fluid mechanics 43 固体力学solid mechanics 44 集中力concentrated force 45 压力pressure 46 静水压力hydrostatic pressure 47 均布压力uniform pressure 48 体力body force 49 重力gravity 50 线荷载line load 51 弯矩bending moment 52 torque 扭矩53 应力stress 54 应变stain 55 正应力normal stress 56 剪应力shearing stress 57 主应力principal stress 58 变形deformation 59 内力internal force 60 偏移量挠度deflection 61 settlement 沉降 62 屈曲失稳buckle 63 轴力axial force 64 允许应力allowable stress 65 疲劳分析fatigue analysis 66 梁beam 67 壳shell 68 板plate 69 桥bridge 70 桩pile 71 主动土压力active earth pressure 72 被动土压力passive earth pressure 73 承载力load-bearing capacity 74 水位water Height 75 位移displacement 76 结构力学structural mechanics 77 材料力学material mechanics 78 经纬仪altometer 79 水准仪level 80 学科discipline 81 子学科sub-discipline 82 期刊journal ,periodical 83文献literature 84 ISSN International Standard Serial Number 国际标准刊号 85 ISBN International Standard Book Number 国际标准书号 86 卷volume 87 期number 88 专着monograph 89 会议论文集Proceeding 90 学位论文thesis, dissertation 91 专利patent 92 档案档案室archive 93 国际学术会议conference 94 导师advisor 95 学位论文答辩defense of thesis 96 博士研究生doctorate student 97 研究生postgraduate 98 EI Engineering Index 工程索引 99 SCI Science Citation Index 科学引文索引 100ISTP Index to Science and Technology Proceedings 科学技术会议论文集索引 101 题目title 102 摘要abstract 103 全文full-text 104 参考文献reference 105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation 106 主题词Subject 107 关键字keyword 108 ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers 美国土木工程师协会 109 FHWA Federal Highway Administration 联邦公路总署

医学专业英语翻译

医学专业英语翻译 医学专业英语翻译如下： portable electric dental engine 轻便电动钻牙机，轻便牙钻portable hearing aid 袖珍助听器 portable microtome 手提式切片机 portable monitor 手提式监护仪 portable obstetric table 轻便产床 portable operating table 轻便手术台 portable photoelectric colorimeter 便携式光电比色计 portable suction unit 便携式吸引器 portable testing set 便携式测试仪器 portable typewriter 手提式打字机 portable X-ray machine 手提式X 光机 portacid 移酸滴管，滴酸器 portal 门，入门 portal venography 门静脉造影术 port B/L 港口提单 portcaustic 腐蚀药把持器 porte 柄 porte-acid 移酸滴管，滴酸器

porte-aiguille 持针器 porte-caustique 腐蚀药把持器 porte-ligature 深部结扎器，缚线把持器porte-meche 填塞条器 porte-noeud 瘤蒂结扎器 porte-polisher 握柄磨光器 porterage 搬运费 portial impression trays 局部牙托portion 部分，段，份 portligature 深部结扎器，缚线把线器port of arrival 到达港 port of delivery 交货港 port of departure 出发港 port of destination 到达港目的港 port of discharge 卸货港 portogram 门静脉造影片 portoraphy 门静脉造影术portovenogram 门静脉造影片 posion 阴离子，阳向离子 position 位置，状态 positioner 定位器（牙），位置控制器

土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译

土木工程专业英语课文原 文及对照翻译 Newly compiled on November 23, 2020

Civil Engineering Civil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities. 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities. 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 Scope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement—water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and

土木工程专业英语翻译

(1)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including Canada and the United States, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. (1)混凝土和钢筋混凝土在每个国家都被用作建筑材料。在许多国家，包括加拿大和美国，钢筋混凝土是一种主要的工程结构材料。 (2)The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction. (2) 钢筋混凝土建筑的广泛存在是由于钢筋和制造混凝土的材料，包括石子，沙，水泥等，可以通过多种途径方便的得到，同时兴建混凝土建筑时所需要的技术也相对简单。 (3)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, building of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships. (3)混凝土和钢筋混凝土被应用于桥梁，各种形式的建筑，地下结构，蓄水池，电视塔，海上石油平台，以及工业建筑，大坝，甚至船舶等。 (4)Reinforce concrete structures consist of a series of individual members that interact to support the loads placed on the structure. The floor of concrete buildings is often built of concrete joist-slab construction. (4)钢筋混凝土结构由一系列单独构件组成，这些构件通过相互作用共同抵抗施加在结构上的荷载。混凝土建筑的楼层通常采用肋梁楼盖的形式。 (5)A series of parallel ribs or joists support the load from the top slab. The reactions supporting the joists apply load to the beams, which in turn are supported by the columns. (5)一系列的平行梁肋或次梁抵抗其上楼板传来的荷载，次梁的反力作为荷载施加在主粱上，主粱则支承在柱上。 (6)The slab transfers load laterally to the joists, and serves as the top flange of the joists, which act as T-shaped beams that transmit the load to the beams running at right angles to the joists. (6)楼板将荷载垂直传递给次梁，并且作为上翼缘和次梁一起形成T形截面梁，将荷载传递给与次梁正交的主粱。 (7)Some floors of have a slab-and-beam design in which the slab spans between beams, which in turn apply loads to the columns. (7)一些楼层被设计成梁板结构，即楼板直接支承在相邻的主粱上，主粱再将荷载传递到柱上。 (8)Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage or temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. (8)混凝土的抗压能力很强但抗拉能力很弱。因此，当荷载、受约束的收缩或温度变化所引起的拉应力超过其抗拉强度时，混凝土中的裂缝就会开展。 (9)The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a form or mould in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete. (9)钢筋混凝土构件的制作需要一个与构件形状相同的模子，其必须具有足够的强度以抵抗湿混凝土的重量和流动压力。 (10)The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in place during the concreting

土木工程专业英语

non-destructive test 非破损检验 non-load—bearingwall 非承重墙 non—uniform cross—section beam 变截面粱 non—uniformly distributed strain coefficient of longitudinal tensile reinforcement 纵向受拉钢筋应变不均匀系数 normal concrete 普通混凝土 normal section 正截面 notch and tooth joint 齿连接 number of sampling 抽样数量 O obligue section 斜截面 oblique—angle fillet weld 斜角角焊缝 one—way reinforced(or prestressed)concrete slab “单向板” open web roof truss 空腹屋架， ordinary concrete 普通混凝土(28) ordinary steel bar 普通钢筋(29) orthogonal fillet weld 直角角焊缝(61) outstanding width of flange 翼缘板外伸宽度(57) outstanding width of stiffener 加劲肋外伸宽度(57) over-all stability reduction coefficient of steel beam·钢梁整体稳定系数(58) overlap 焊瘤(62) overturning or slip resistance analysis 抗倾覆、滑移验算(10) P padding plate 垫板(52) partial penetrated butt weld 不焊透对接焊缝(61) partition 非承重墙(7) penetrated butt weld 透焊对接焊缝(60) percentage of reinforcement 配筋率(34) perforated brick 多孔砖(43) pilastered wall 带壁柱墙(42) pit·凹坑(62) pith 髓心(?o) plain concrete structure 素混凝土结构(24) plane hypothesis 平截面假定(32) plane structure 平面结构(11) plane trussed lattice grids 平面桁架系网架(5) plank 板材(65) plastic adaption coefficient of cross—section 截面塑性发展系数(58) plastic design of steel structure 钢结构塑性设计(56) plastic hinge·塑性铰(13) plastlcity coefficient of reinforced concrete member in tensile zone 受拉区混凝土塑性影响系数

(完整版)医学专业英语

cardiovascular diseases; 脑垂体的功能the function of pituitary; 泌尿道urinary tract; 分子molecule; 动脉artery; 内分泌学endocrinology; 呼吸困难dyspnea; 唾液saliva; 组织学histology; 血液循环blood circulation; 血液学hematology; 生理学physiology; 解剖学anatomy; 女性生殖系统femal reproductive system; 神经细胞nerve cell; 免疫学immunology; 消化不良dyspepsia; 随意肌voluntary muscle; 胚胎学embryology; 心理学psychology; 细胞学cytology; 原生质protoplasm; 细胞膜cell membrane; 细胞核nucleus; 细胞质(浆)cytoplasm; 脱氧核糖核酸deoxyribonucleic acid; 能半渗透的semipermeable; 分子生物学molecular biology; 碳水化合物carbohydrate; 有区别性的differentially; 使…完整intact; 根据according to; 遗传特性hereditary trait; 渗滤diffusion; 转换transaction; 蓝图blueprint; 染色体chromosome; 色素pigment; 排出废液excrete waste fluid; 散开disperse; 脉冲信号impulse; 核糖核酸ribonucleic acid; 损害正常功能impair the normal function; 污染环境pollute environment; 功能失调malfunction; 致病因子causative agents; 易受侵害的人群vulnerable groups; 局部化的感染localized infection; 花柳病venereal disease; 抗原与抗体antigen&antibody; 肌电图electromyogram; 多发性硬化multiple sclerosis; 心电图electrocardiograph; 疾病的后遗症sequelea of disease; 光纤技术fiber optic technology; 造血系统hematopoietic system; 致命的疾病fatal disease; 体液body fluid; 无副作用的治疗hazard-free treatment; 无侵犯的实验检查non-invasive laboratory test; 核磁共振nuclear magnetic resonance; 葡萄糖耐糖实验the glucose-tolerance test; 乐观的预后optimistic prognosis; 超声波检测法ultrasonography; 病史medical history; 随访活动follow-up visit; 营养不良nutritional deficiency; 使细节显著highlight detail; 脑电图electroencephalogram; 缺血的组织blood-starved tissue; 肌纤维muscle fiber; 随意肌voluntary muscle; 消化道alimentary canal; 肌腹fleshy belly of muscle; 横纹肌striated muscle; 肌肉痉挛cramps of muscle; 肌肉收缩muscle contraction; 肌肉附着点attachment of the muscle; 肌肉放松relaxation of muscle; 动脉出血arterial hemorrhage; 止端insertion;起端origion;供血blood supply; 屈肌flexor; 蛋白分子protein molecule; 纤维结缔组织fibrous connective tissue; 伸肌extensor; 意志力willpower; 横切面transverse section; 起搏器pacemaker; 肌萎缩muscle atrophy; 重症肌无力myasthenia gravis; 弥散性局部缺血diffuse ischemia; 常染色体隐性autosomal recessive; 全身性感染systemic infection; 受累的肌肉muscle involved; 显著相关性significant correlation; 神经末梢nerve terminal; 自体免疫反应autoimmune reaction; 神经支配innervation; 肌营养不良muscular dystrophy; 慢性营养不良chronic mulnutrition; 先天性肌病congenital myopathy; 预期寿命life expectancy; 免疫紊乱immunologic derangemant; 发病高峰年龄the peak age of onset; 胸腺肿瘤thymoma; 呼吸肌受累the involvement of respiratory muscle; 感染性肌炎inflammatory myositic; 去神经支配denervation; 矿物质吸收mineral absorption; 机械应力mechanical stress; 骨基质有机部分the organic parts of bone matrix; 青春期早熟premature puberty; 蛋白溶解酶protein-digesting enzyme; 破骨细胞osteoclast; 松质骨spongy bone; 骨折fracture; 不规则骨irregular bone; 骨骼系统skeletal system; 维生素吸收vitamin absorption; 骨钙丧失the loss of calcium from bone; 生长激素growth hormone;