语言学-名词解释

1. Language is a scientific system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

2. Minimal pairs are the word forms which differ from each other only by one sound. In other words, when two different forms re identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string; the two words are called minimal pairs.

3. A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semantic meaning.

4. IPA: A phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper, that is, a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way. The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), has been developing since 1888.

5. SLA: second language acquisition to refer to the process of acquiring or learning an additional language after the learner has acquired his or her mother tongue.

6. Linguistics is the science of language for all human societies, and is defined as the systematic study of language.

7. Diachronic study: the description of the historical development of a language. Linguistic study in the 19th century was primarily concerned with the diachronic description.

8. Synchronic study: the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time. The priority of synchronic description is a characteristic of most twentieth-century linguistic theories.

9. Syntagmatic relation: the relations between units which combine to form sequences

10. Paradigmatic relation: oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms

11. Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations. That is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.

12. Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.

13. A corpus refers to a collection of linguistic data, either complicated as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech.

14. A phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper, that is, a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.

15. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units. It is the basic unit in phonological analysis.

16. Sound patterns refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissible arrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting, or changing sounds.

17. Stress is the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.

18. Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech.

19. Inflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.

20. Proverbs are normally in the form of a sentence. A proverb is often a short sentence that people often quote and use to give advice and state some general human life experience and problem.

21. Synonymy: words or expressions with the same or similar meaning are said to be synonymy.

22. Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or morphological shape have different meanings.

23. a speech act：An action performed by the use of an utterance to communicate is called a speech act.

24. Dialect refers to any regional, social or ethnic variety of a language.

25. Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in context. Registers vary according to the three parameters of context: field, tenor and mode (Halliday, 1978).

26. Language planning refers to a deliberate attempt, usually at the level of the state or government administration, to affect language use in order to prevent or to solve some problems of communication.

27. Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific—general semantic relationship between lexical items.

1. What is the scope of linguistics? Answer: there are six branches of linguistics. 1)Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds.2)Phonology is the study of sound patterning.3)Morphology is the study of the internal structures of the form of words.4)Syntax is the study of sentence structure.5)Semantics is the study of meaning.6)Pragmatics studies how speakers use language in ways which can not be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone.

2. What are the differences between Langue and Parole? Please analysis the distinctions of Langue and Parole.

Answer: This distinction is proposed by Saussure in his Course in General Linguistics.

Langue: the abstract system; a collective body of knowledge; a kind of common reference manual; acquired by all members of a community of speakers; relatively stable and systematic.

Parole: the particular actualities of individual utterance; the contingent executive side of things; the relatively superficial behavioral reflexes of knowledge; the use of language in utterances; subject to personal or situational constraints.

3. Please describe the three kinds of Origin of Language?

Answer:1) Creation (Devine Origin) Almost every religion has stories about how man received language from god. The divine origin theorists propose that in the beginning there was one language from one source, which later became corrupted into many languages.2) Evolution:Men evolved from lower forms of life; language, too, evolved. 3) Invention:The invention theory believes that there is a natural connection between the forms of language and the essence of things.

4.Please describe the semantic relations briefly.Answer: (1) synonymy and antonymy:

Words or expressions with the same or similar meaning are said to be synonymous. Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning. (2) meronymy and hyponymy: Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific—general semantic relationship between lexical items. (3) polysemy and homonymy: When a single lexeme has several meanings, it is called polysemic.Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or morphological shape have different meanings.

5. In 1967, linguist Grice proposed the term of the cooperative principle and its maxims. Then please describe the cooperative principle and its maxims.Answer: According to cooperative principle, the participants in a conversation normally communicate in a maximally efficient, rational and cooperative way. They should speak sincerely, relevantly and clearly, while providing sufficient information.

Four maxims:(1)The maxim of qualityTry to make your contribution one that is true, especially: (i) do not say what you believe to be false and (ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(2)The maxim of quantity.Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange and (ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(3)The maxim of relevance.Make your contribution relevant.(4)The maxim of manner.Be perspicuous, and specifically: (i) Avoid obscurity of expression; (ii) Avoid ambiguity; (iii) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) and (iv) Be orderly.

6. What are the major differences between acquisition and language learning?

Acquisition is called as the spontaneous internalization of rules and formulas. First language acquisition is also called mother tongue acquisition. Acquisition takes place in the speech community where one’s first language or second language is spoken. It is often natural, without much focus on form. The learning of English by speakers of other languages in the United States is an example of second language acquisition.

Foreign language learning is usually takes place in the speech community where one’s first language is spoken. It is a conscious process through formal school-like settings and requires time for processing, for example, the learning of English in China.

7. Is the language arbitrary? Please analyze the concept of arbitrariness.

Answer: Language is Arbitrary Saussure regards the linguistic sign as a two-sided psychological entity. Concept and sound-image are replaced by signified所指and signifier能指respectively. Arbitrariness is the result of the need to express and code a wide range of meanings. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. For example, there is no connection between the word tree and the plant it signifies. It can equally be called shù in Chinese and arbre in French.

8. What is register? And please describe its three parameters.

Answer: Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in context. Registers vary according to the three parameters of context: field, tenor and mode.

(1) Field refers to the social action. It involves what is happening, the nature of the social action that is taking place and what the participants are engaged in. Field is the linguistic reflection of the role of the language use with a definite purpose in the situation in which a text has occurred. (2) Tenor refers the role structure. It involves: who is taking part, the nature of the participants, their status and roles, and the type of role relationship between the participants.

(3) Mode refers to the linguistic channel and the rhetorical mode. Mode reflects the relationship of the language use to the medium of transmission. (Halliday, 1978)

9. What are the Politeness Principle and its maxims?

Answer: Leech (1983:132) develops the face theory further and formulates the politeness principle.

a) Tact maxim：Minimize cost to other; Maximize cost of self

b) Generosity maxim：Minimize benefit to self; Maximize praise of other

c) Approbation maxim：Minimize dispraise of other; Maximize dispraise of self

d) Modesty maxim：Minimize disagreement between self and other; Maximize sympathy between self and other

e) Agreement maxim：Minimize disagreement between self and other; Maximize agreement between self and other

f) Sympathy maxim: Minimize antipathy between self and other; Maximize sympathy between self and other.

10. Please analyze the distinctions between Free and bound morphemes.

Answer: If a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme, like room, bottle, stand, large. If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound, like un- in unlucky, and the plural –s in bags.

A bound morpheme is also called an affix in the sense that it is always added to another morpheme. Affixes can be further divided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes. e.g. dis- in disorder; mini- in minibus; en- in ensure;-ful, in useful; -less in careless; -e- in men and women; -i- in mice and lice; -ee- in feet and teeth.

11. Specifically, what do the inflectional morphemes include in modern English, and what do these inflectional morphemes indicate? Answer: Inflectional morphemes include in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs. Specially, modern English inflectional morphemes include:

-’s, indicating the possessive case of nouns;

-(e)s, indicating the plural form of noun;

-(e)s, indicating the simple present tense of verbs sgreeing with a third person sigular subject;

-ed, indicationg the past tense of verbs;

-ing, indicating the progressive aspect of verbs;

-er, indicating the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs;

-est, indicating the superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs.

12. Please explain the Nature of Language as clearly as you can.

Answer: The nature of language has 6 characteristics:

1) Language is Systematic; 2) Language is Symbolic; 3) Language is Arbitrary;4) Language is primarily vocal;

5) Language is Human Specific;6) Language is Used for Communication.

13. What are the major differences between Speech and Writing?

Answer: Linguists regard the spoken languages as primary, not the written.

1) Speech is prior to writing historically.2) Genetically, children always learn to speak before they learn to write.

This is not to deny the importance of writing:

1) With writing, messages can be carried through space.2) With writing, messages can be carried through time.

3) Oral messages are subject to misunderstanding distortion.

Everything considered, speech is believed to be more representative of human language than writing. Written language has a life of its own. Speech has the restriction of both time and space.

14. What are the major differences between Competence and Performance?

Answer: This distinction was proposed by American linguist Chomsky in the 1950s.

Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations. That is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.

Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.

A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors.

16. What may language varieties include? Describe them clearly.

Answer: Language varieties may include lingua franca, pidgin, and creole.

(1) Lingua franca通用语------ the general term that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers. It can be internationally used language like English, or the mother tongue of one of the groups.

(2) Pidgin洋泾浜------ a contact language that arises in situations where speakers of different languages can not understand each other’s first language or native language and, thus, need to develop a common means of communication. Linguistically, pidgins are characterized by a limited vocabulary, a greater use of paraphrase and metaphor, a simplified phonological system, and a reduced morphology and syntax.

(3) Creole 克里奥尔语------ creoles are former pidgins whose functional and grammatical limitations and simplification have been eliminated and which now function as full-fledged, standardized native languages.

17. What is dialect and its subdivisions of a language?

Answer: Dialect refers to any regional, social or ethnic variety of a language. All languages spoken by more than one small homogeneous community are found to consist of two or more dialects.

Dialects are subdivisions of a language.

1) Regional Dialects --- the language variety used in a geographical region. When people are separated from each other geographically, dialectal diversity develops.

2) Social Dialects --- is used to describe differences in speech associated with various social groups or classes. Whereas regional dialects are geographically based, social dialects originate among social groups and are related to a variety of factors. Social dialect could be further distinguished by gender, age, ethnic group, religion, and class.

3) Standard Dialect--- refers to a special variety of language that has no connection with a particular region or social class.

18. What are register and the three parameters?

Answer: Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in context. Registers vary according to the three parameters of context: field, tenor and mode (Halliday, 1978).

(1) Field refers to the social action. It involves what is happening, the nature of the social action that is taking place and what the participants are engaged in. Field is the linguistic reflection of the role of the language use with a definite purpose in the situation in which a text has occurred. (2) Tenor refers the role structure. It involves: who is taking part, the nature of the participants, their status and roles, and the type of role relationship between the participants.

(3) Mode refers to the linguistic channel and the rhetorical mode. Mode reflects the relationship of the language use to the medium of transmission.

15. What are the Leech’s Seven Types of Meaning? Describe them clearly.

Answer: According to Leech (1981), there exist seven types of meaning, five of which are included in the associative meaning.

(1) Conceptual meaning: 概念意义it is called “denotative”or “cognitive”meaning. This refers to the definition given in the dictionary. For example, man can be defined by the contrastive features [+Human], [+Male], [+Adult], as distinct from girl, which can be defined as [+Human], [-Male], [-Adult].

(2) Associative meaning:联想意义it refers to the meaning associated with the conceptual meaning, which can be further divided into following five types.

(i) Connotative meaning. 内涵意义This is the communicative value attributed to an expression over and above is purely conceptual meaning. For example, woman with unappreciable properties such as frail, prone to tears, cowardly, irrational, inconstant, as well as virtues like gentle, compassionate, hardworking, sensitive.

(ii) Social meaning: it is refers o what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use, including variations like dialect, time, topic, and style.

(iii) Affective meaning:情感意义it is what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/ writer towards the listener/reader/and /or what he or she is talking about. E.g. idiot conveys one’s despise or describes sth. as “marvelous”to express o ne’s positive evaluation.

(iv) Reflected meaning: it is the meaning when we associate one sense of an expression with another. For example, the word dear in certain context is used in the sense ―expensive‖ but also alludes to the sense of ―beloved‖.

(v) Collocative meaning搭配意义: This refers to what is communicated though association with words which tends to occur in the environment of another words. Both pretty and handsome can be used to mean “good-looking”but differ in the range of nouns with which they can co-occur or collocate. For example, pretty can go with girl, woman, flower, garden, color, village, etc. while handsome can collocate with boy, man, car, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.

(3) Thematic meaning 主题意义This is what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

语言学名词解释整理

Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法

语言学的名词解释

序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发

语言学名词解释

Illocutionary act: The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. Cooperative principle: This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and manner maxims. Conversational implicature: This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese. Entailment: This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second. For example, when “I saw a boy” is true, “I saw a child” is necessarily true;and if “I saw a child” is not true, “I saw a boy” will not be true either. Ostensive communication: “Ostensive communication”, or “inferential communication”, is a shorthand for “ostensive-inferential communication”. That is, communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference on the part of the hearer and ostension (making clear of one?s intention to express something) on the part of the speaker. Speech act theory: speech act theory is the first major in theory in the study of language in use which originated with J.L. Austin. In his opinion, to say something is to do something. He classified speech act into three kinds: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. Image Schema意向图式: is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. Sociolinguistics: is the linguistic study of society or the social study of language. Transformation-generative grammar (TG)转换生成语法TG refers to any grammar in which different syntactic structures are related by transformations. Hend commonly, from the 1960s, of the theories of Chomsky, or of Chomsky?s school, in general. In a transformational grammar as Chomsky first proposed it, the main role of transformations was to relate the sentences of a language as a whole to a small set of kernel sentences. Functional sentence perspective (FSP)功能句子观is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that Stimulus-response: A learning theory associated particularly with the American psychologist Skinner, which describes learning as the formation of association between responses. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus-response reinforcement”, and the adult?s use of language is also a process of stimulus-response. A stimulus is the behavior

语言学名词解释汇总

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语言学名词解释

1、Descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. 2、Arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer. 3、Duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units(e.g. words) and meaningless segments(e.g. sounds, letters). 4、Displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker's immediate situation. 5、Phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact. 6、Langue: the language system shared by a "speech community". 7、allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. 8、morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 9、inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached. 10、endocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group. 11、recursiveness: it mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within(i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. 12、cohesion: cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesion devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. 13、conceptual meaning: this is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech also used "sense" as a briefer term for this conceptual meaning. As a result, Leech's conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.

语言学考研术语 名词解释 带解释

语言学考研术语-名词解释 1.赵元任 赵元任，字宣仲，又字宜重，江苏武进（今常州）人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。赵元任成功了，中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批优秀学者的共同努力下，终于逐步而又缓慢地走向了现代化。 2.哥本哈根学派 哥本哈根学派是受到索绪尔语言学思想影响而出现的世界三个结构主义语言学的主要流派之一。它以1931年哥本哈根语言学会的成立为标志，主要创始人和理论家是丹麦哥本哈根大学的语言学教授L.叶尔姆斯列夫。哥本哈根学派的理论叫做“语符学”。 叶尔姆斯列夫认为，语言的内在结构是各级要素共同构成的关系网络。为了确定语言的基本要素，他把语言成分分为“内容”和“表达”两个平面。这两个平面又各分为“形式”和“实质”两层，“形式”是结构关系，“实质”是体现形式的语言的实体（一方面是声音，另一方面是意义）。另一方面，叶尔姆斯列夫在语言中区分“序列”和“系统”。“序列”是词、短语、句子等形式结构。符号的序列包括内容平面和表达平面，两者都由系统中的要素构成。 3.描写语言学 描写语言学是结构语言学的一个分支，是20世纪美国的一些学者在对美洲印第安语调查和研究的基础上逐步形成和发展起来的，它以面向语言材料、注重语言结构的形式描写而著称。它的主要特点如下：注重口语的描写和共时的研究；注重形式的分析，回避意义问题；在结构分析中主要运用分布和替换的方法，以便从一堆语言素材中切分出独立的单位并加以分类；对句法结构进行层次分析；建立语素音位这个新的单位，这是在语法和语音结合的基础上建立的一个新的单位；强调验证。 4.语言学 语言学是以语言为专门研究对象的一门独立学科。其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来揭示语言存在和发展的规律。 5.应用语言学 应用语言学是研究语言学的应用的一门学科。事实上是一种交叉学科，是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究而产生的新的学科。如社会语言学、心理语言学等。 6.理论语言学，应用语言学 理论语言学是从理论上研究语言的性质、功能和结构的语言学，以研究对象的不同又分为个别语言学和普通语言学。 应用语言学是研究语言学的应用的一门学科。事实上是一种交叉学科，是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究而产生的新的学科可以分为狭义和广义两种。狭义的指研究语言教学中的理论和方法，广义上有社会语言学、神经语言学、计算语言学、数理语言学和心理语言学等多种分支学科。 7.发音语言学，声学语言学 研究发音语音学的语言学家希望能翔实记载人类发出语音的过程，以了解发音孔道中各个器官（称为发音器官，包括舌头、嘴唇、牙齿、下颚、硬腭、软腭）是如何协调运作以发出某个语音。声学语言学研究和描述携带口耳之间言语声波的声学特性、韵律和嗓音音质，不但与发音语音学和语音感知直接有关，而且对信号处理和语音技术的应用也是非常重要的。

语言学名词解释

Define the following terms: 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. . 4. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 9. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 10. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 11. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 12. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 13. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 14. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 15. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 16. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 17. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 18. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 19. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 20. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But