Effect of oxygen on-active Al concentration in ZnO Al-thin films made by PLD

Applied Surface Science 320(2014)756–763

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Effect of oxygen on active Al concentration in ZnO:Al thin ?lms made by PLD

M.Kodu ?,T.Arroval,T.Avarmaa,R.Jaaniso,I.Kink,S.Leinberg,K.Savi,M.Timusk

Institute of Physics,University of Tartu,Ravila 14c,50411Tartu,Estonia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:

Received 5March 2014

Received in revised form 20July 2014Accepted 25August 2014

Available online 16September 2014

Keywords:

Pulsed laser deposition ZnO AZO ZnO:Al

Thin oxide ?lms Resistivity

a b s t r a c t

Al doped ZnO is used as a material for transparent conductive electrodes in solar energy and display screen applications,as well as semiconducting material in electronic and photonic devices.For effective use it is essential to control the electrical and optical properties of ZnO:Al thin ?lms.In order to investigate the in?uence of oxygen environment on effective Al solubility and intrinsic defects introduced at high doping levels during the ?lm growth,ZnO:Al thin ?lms were deposited in vacuum and oxygen background by pulsed laser deposition method.Films were doped with varying Al concentrations by using targets with Al doping levels of 1–10at%.In vacuum,substantially increased free electron concentrations were observed for all Al doping levels,which indicates that the formation of acceptor-type defects,acting as electron killer centers,was largely suppressed during the growth in oxygen-poor conditions.The dependence of carrier mobility from Al concentration was also greatly in?uenced by oxygen conditions during the ?lm growth,suggesting that ionized impurity concentrations in the ?lms deposited in vacuum and oxygen background were signi?cantly different.The results were interpreted in the context of intrinsic acceptor-type defects V Zn (zinc vacancy),which concentration is strongly modi?ed by the presence of oxygen during the ?lm deposition.These vacancies are assumed to in?uence free electron concentration and electron mobility by acting as deep electron acceptors and charged electron scattering centers (V Zn 2?).

?2014Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

Transparent conductive oxides (TCOs)are important class of materials among transparent conductors.These are essential materials in energy applications and optoelectronic devices.For example,TCOs are used as transparent electrodes in light emitting diodes and organic light emitting diodes,?at panel displays,solar cells and other opto-electronic devices [1,2].In addition,TCOs are used as antistatic coatings,transparent heating elements,and heat re?ecting ?lters on architectural and automotive glazing [1,2].The most well-known and widely used TCO is indium tin oxide (ITO)but other doped oxides,such as In 2O 3:X,SnO 2:X,ZnO:X,TiO 2:X,are actively investigated and developed as well [1].As indium reserves are limited in the world and not all indium used in different devices is being recycled,there is need for other,more abundant and cheaper material to replace the In-based TCOs.For electrode applications,promising materials with properties comparable to those of ITO are ZnO based doped oxides.Among these,ZnO doped

?Corresponding author.Tel.:+3727374711;fax:+3727383033.E-mail address:Margus.Kodu@ut.ee (M.Kodu).

with Ga or Al has shown high conductivity together with high opti-cal transparency in the visible spectral range [3].

So far,ZnO:Al (AZO)thin ?lms have been grown by several meth-ods whereas molecular beam epitaxy,sputtering and pulsed laser deposition (PLD)methods have provided the ?lms with the highest quality [3].

Previously,some studies on optimization of process parame-ters for PLD of AZO thin ?lms have been carried out.For instance,the in?uence of growth temperature [4–8]and oxygen pressure [4–6,9,10]on structural,electrical,and optical properties of AZO ?lms has been studied.Typically,optimal substrate temperature and oxygen pressure for obtaining AZO ?lms with low electrical resistance and high optical transmittance have been found to be ～300?C and 5×10?4–5×10?3mbar,respectively.

There are reports about optimization of Al doping level of laser deposited AZO ?lms [11–13].Regarding the electrical resistivity,optimal Al doping level was found to be 1.3at%by Kim et al.[11]and 2at%by Shukla et al.[13].In these two reports,the investi-gated AZO ?lms were deposited in oxygen ambient using ceramic ZnO:Al target.Liu and Lian [12]deposited AZO ?lms from metallic Zn-Al targets at relatively high oxygen pressure (1.1×10?1mbar)and found the minimal resistivity at the Al doping level of 3.16at%.

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0169-4332/?2014Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.

M.Kodu et al./Applied Surface Science320(2014)756–763757

Therefore,there are quite a few experimental works about the in?uence of oxygen ambient during deposition on electrical proper-ties of AZO?lms with speci?c Al doping concentrations[4–6,9,10]. In those papers,the variation of electron concentration in the?lms is usually explained by modi?cation of the concentration of oxy-gen vacancies.However,it is highly questionable whether oxygen vacancies can play such a role in ZnO as these are deep rather than shallow donor defects[14–16].In addition,experiments on optimization of Al doping concentration are typically conducted under?xed oxygen conditions[11–13,17]and do not account for the possible effect of oxygen partial pressure on effective Al solubil-ity in ZnO.It is plausible that instead of intrinsic donor-type defects intrinsic acceptor-type defects,like zinc-vacancies[15,18,19],are more relevant in determining the electrical properties of synthe-sized AZO?lms.

This work investigates the in?uence of oxygen ambient on active Al doping concentration and on electrical and optical properties of the?lms grown by PLD.For that purpose,AZO thin?lms were deposited onto amorphous SiO2substrates using PLD targets with different Al doping concentrations(1–10at%).In addition to electri-cal properties and optical properties in the visible spectral region, the transmittance and re?ectance in the near-IR spectral region were measured.Structural characterization methods were used in order to identify possible in?uence of deposition atmosphere on the?lm structure.

2.Experimental details

AZO?lms with～100nm thickness were deposited by PLD method on10×10×1mm fused quartz substrates.Prior to depo-sition the substrates were cleaned by(a)removing the organic impurities in a H2O:H2SO4:H2O2solution,(b)processing the sub-strates in ultrasonic bath in acetone,and?nally(c)rinsing the substrates in methanol.For preparation of1–10at%Al AZO targets, appropriate quantities of ZnO(Alfa Aesar,Puratronic,99.9995% purity)and Al2O3(Aldrich,99.997%purity)powders were thor-oughly mixed,pressed into pellets,and sintered in ambient air for8h at1000?C and then for15h at1200?C.A KrF excimer laser(COMPexPro205,Coherent;wavelength248nm,pulse width 25ns)was used for ablation.The AZO?lms were deposited using a laser pulse energy density of1.5J/cm2on the target,repetition rate of10Hz,substrate temperature of300?C,and the distance between the substrate and the target of7.5cm.Two different environments were used for deposition:vacuum(pressure under10?6mbar)and oxygen gas with a pressure of10?3mbar.Other details of the depo-sition process are described elsewhere[20].

Film thickness was measured with spectroscopic ellipsometer Woollam M-2000x,structural characterization of the?lms was performed with X-ray diffractometer Rigaku SmartLab,and chem-ical composition of the deposited?lms was analyzed with X-ray ?uorescence(XRF)device Rigaku ZSX400.A four-point probe con-nected to the Keithley2400SourceMeter was used to measure the sheet resistance of the?lms.Charge carrier concentration and mobility were obtained with Hall effect device.Optical transmit-tance and re?ectance of the?lms were measured with UV–Vis-NIR spectrophotometer Jasco V-570.

3.Results and discussion

3.1.Structural properties

Fig.1depicts XRD patterns of the?lms synthesized in oxygen atmosphere and vacuum using the PLD targets with Al doping levels of1at%and8at%.In all XRD patterns,there is a strong re?ection peak located at～34.5?and also a weak peak at～72.8?,which

can Fig.1.XRD graphs of AZO?lms prepared from1and8at%doped targets in oxygen atmosphere and vacuum.

be assigned to the hexagonal ZnO structure.The?lms are strongly c-axis oriented.

Re?ection angles of the(0002)peaks and,consequently,the c-axis lengths of the unit cell are in?uenced by deposition envi-ronment and also by Al doping level.The c-axis lattice parameter decreased from0.521to0.519nm for the?lms deposited from1at% target and from0.520to0.518nm for the?lms deposited from8at% target when growth environment was changed from vacuum to 1×10?3mbar oxygen(Fig.2).Al doping level had analogous but lower in?uence on the lattice parameter–increase of Al concen-tration in the target from1to8at%resulted in decrease of c-axis lattice constant from0.521to0.520nm and from0.519to0.518nm for vacuum and oxygen-deposited?lms,accordingly(Fig.2).

For comparison,c-axis lattice constant of ZnO powder has a value of0.5206nm[21].When comparing the measured values to this reference,one has to take into account that the materials synthesized by deposition methods have often signi?cant level of residual stress[22].Smaller lattice constant compared to the refer-ence value indicates the presence of net compressive stress in the ?lm.The stresses in the?lm have several possible causes:(i)stress may be generated by impurity atoms occupying substitutional or interstitial sites,(ii)it can be caused by intrinsic point defects and by other crystal imperfections like dislocations or grain boundaries, (iii)thermal residual stresses may be generated by the mismatch of thermal expansion coef?cient between?lm and substrate,

and

Fig.2.c-Axis lattice parameter and grain size of AZO?lms deposited from1and 8at%doped targets in oxygen atmosphere and vacuum.The estimated errors of measured data are also shown.For comparison,c-axis lattice parameter of ZnO[21] is indicated by the dashed line.

758M.Kodu et al./Applied Surface Science320(2014)756–763

(iv)the compressive stresses may be caused by atomistic peening effect[17,22].In Fig.2one can notice two trends regarding c-axis parameter:(1)parameter decreases when Al concentration in the target rises from1to8at%regardless of the growth atmosphere, and(2)parameter is smaller for the?lms deposited in O2as com-pared to the?lms deposited in vacuum.Typically,the reduction of c-axis lattice parameter with increasing Al doping is attributed to the replacement of Zn2+ion in the lattice by Al3+ion,which has a smaller radius(53.5pm)than Zn2+(74pm)[9,17,23,24].Therefore, the?rst trend can be attributed to the rising concentration of Al Zn centers in the?lms when Al concentration in the target is raised from1to8at%.The second trend,the shortening of lattice constant in O2,can possibly be caused by intrinsic defect,which formation energy,and hence also its concentration in growing?lm depends on oxygen environment.According to previous studies[15,18,19,25], the most likely candidate for this defect is zinc vacancy(V Zn)as its formation energy depends strongly on oxygen activity and is low at oxygen-rich conditions.Thus,high concentration of V Zn can be the cause for c-parameter shortening in case of?lms deposited in oxygen environment.

It has been found that Al doping level affects also the crys-talline quality of the?lms[11–13].The intensity of XRD peaks decreased and the full-width at half-maxima(FWHM)increased monotonically when Al doping level was raised.Thus,the grain size,calculated using XRD peak widths from Debye-Scherrer equa-tion,decreased consistently with rising Al percentage in the?lm [11–13].However,XRD peak intensities and FWHMs of our?lms deposited in vacuum and oxygen environment using1and8at% targets did not show considerable dependence on Al doping level or oxygen environment.The grain sizes,calculated using Debye-Scherrer equation were～25nm in all cases.

Most of the XRD peak broadening is caused by the sample and arises from two main sources:crystallite size and strain.Debye-Scherrer equation accounts only for the effect of crystallite size on the XRD peak broadening.To be more speci?c,only the inhomo-geneous strain in the crystal contributes to the peak broadening. Homogeneous strain means that all the crystallites in the sample are strained by the same amount,which results in XRD peak shif-ting.In Fig.2it can be seen that XRD peak shifting of our AZO?lms is mainly in?uenced by O2deposition pressure and,in lesser amount, by Al concentration in the?lms.This means that the compressive stresses in our samples are governed mainly by oxygen conditions. Lu et al.[17]linked the homogeneous compressive stress,observed in the sputtered AZO?lms,with the crystallite size of their samples –they observed that XRD peak shifting was inversely proportional to the crystallite size obtained using the Debye-Scherrer equation. In our case,as can be seen in Fig.2,such one-to-one relation is not observable.Crystallite size of PLD?lms is largely in?uenced by substrate temperature[7,26].In addition,there is a strong depend-ence of grain size on?lm thickness[7,27].AZO?lm thicknesses in references[11,13,17],where the authors observed the reduction of crystallite size with increasing Al doping concentration,are in range of250–400nm,which are considerably thicker than?lms investi-gated in this work(～100nm).It is feasible that the crystallite sizes of our?lms are mostly determined by the combination of substrate temperature and?lm thickness,especially when considering that the thicknesses of our?lms are much smaller and closer to the size of the crystallites.

3.2.Film composition

As can be seen in Fig.3,the Al concentration was somewhat lower in the?lms than nominal doping percentage in correspond-ing targets.In addition,in the case of?lms deposited from the same target,there was less Al in the?lms grown in oxygen environment as compared to the?lms grown in vacuum.The average ratios

of Fig.3.XRF analysis results of AZO?lms deposited from targets with Al doping levels of1–10at%.

the Al concentrations in the?lm and in the target were～0.6for oxygen-deposited?lms and～0.7for vacuum-deposited?lms.

The primary advantage of the PLD method is its ability to trans-fer the material stoichiometrically from a target to a?lm.However, as discussed in the comprehensive paper of Schou[28],there are several physical aspects that in?uence the material transfer pro-cesses during PLD growth and can considerably alter the chemical composition of growing?lm.Non-stoichiometric transfer of tar-get’s composition to the?lm can be typically attributed to four causes[26,28]:

(1)Non-uniformities in the source angular distribution.

(2)Re-sputtering effects or re-evaporation effects.

(3)Species dependent background gas scattering effects.

(4)Selective backscattering of plasma species to the target.

If different components of the PLD plasma plume have differ-ent angular distributions(1),then the growing?lm has different elemental composition than the target.Different angular distribu-tions of component plume species can be attributed to differences in charge or mass of the species[26,28].Effect(1)depends mainly on laser energy density used for ablation but may depend also on other parameters.Also,on-axis enrichment of light or heavy species has been found[26].For example,Urbassek and Sibold[29]demon-strated in their theoretical work that at low laser?uence there is a strong increase in concentration of the heavy element along the normal of the target.According to Leuchtner[30],the abla-tion threshold of ZnO is at the laser?uence～0.7J/cm2and there is a rapid increase in the concentration of Zn ions in addition to Zn neutrals above the threshold?uence.In addition,the kinetic energy distribution of Zn ions was different from the energy distri-bution of neutral Zn atoms.Energy density used in the present work (1.5J/cm2)is well above the threshold for ablation and therefore it is possible that non-congruent transfer is induced by different dis-tribution of neutrals and charged species of Zn and Al in the plasma. Re-sputtering(2)of atoms from the surface of growing?lm by arriv-ing particles has been identi?ed as a concern,especially at higher ?uences(>4J/cm2)and when deposition is carried out in vacuum [28,31].For multi-elemental targets it has been found that sputter-ing mainly occurred for the component with the lowest mass and with the highest volatility.Zn has2.5times higher mass than Al and in that regard Al should be more prone to re-sputtering from the ?lm surface.However,Zn is known as one of the high-volatile ele-ments[32]and Al probably has much lower volatility.In addition,

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Fig.4.Dependence of resistivity on Al concentration in PLD?lms:(a)AZO?lms deposited in1×10?3mbar oxygen,(b)AZO?lms deposited in vacuum.

the actual?uence1.5J/cm2is well below4J/cm2and therefore it cannot be concluded that re-sputtering of atoms has any signi?cant role in the reduction of Al concentration.

Scattering in background gas(3)can be also eliminated as the main mechanism behind the reduced Al concentration in the?lms because,as it can be seen in Fig.3,there is a large deviation from nominal Al concentration already in the?lms deposited in vacuum. Note that collisional broadening effect is shown to be signi?cant at background gas pressures at least two orders of magnitude larger [26]than the O2pressure(10?3mbar)used in the present work.

Finally,the selective backscattering of PLD plasma species(4) may induce non-congruent Al/Zn transfer from target to substrate. This process occurs during the initial stage of plasma plume for-mation and before its expansion[26].For instance,authors of reference[33]found that enrichment of Ge in their?lms made from germanium-silicon alloy was the result of enhanced backscattering of Si atoms in the plasma plume.Also,Claeyssens et al.[34]stud-ied the plasma plume of ZnO target ablated using193nm pulsed excimer laser and concluded that the enrichment of target surface by Zn is caused by material backscattering within the initial dense plasma.

3.3.Electrical properties

As can be seen in Fig.4,AZO?lms deposited in vacuum have distinctively lower resistivities than the?lms deposited in oxygen atmosphere.Also the variation of resistivity with doping concen-tration is higher for the?lms deposited in vacuum–the resistivities of the?lms deposited in oxygen steadily increase from9.7×10?4 to2.3×10?3 cm with doping concentration growing from0.6to 5.2at%,while the resistivities of the?lms grown in vacuum show minimum value of2.0×10?4 cm at around3–4at%doping con-centration.

For the?lms deposited in oxygen environment,similar depend-ence on doping concentration has been reported in earlier studies [11,13]–the minimum resistivities were obtained using PLD tar-gets with1–2at%Al concentration and resistivities of the?lms increased quickly with increasing Al doping level.

There are some reports on investigation of AZO thin?lms with?xed Al percentage deposited under vacuum.In refer-ences[7,27,35],vacuum-deposited ZnO?lms that were made using targets with2.0,3.2and3.4at%of Al,respectively,were investigated.The minimal resistivities(～2×10?4 cm)of

our Fig.5.Dependence of carrier concentration(n e)and Hall mobility( )on Al con-centration in PLD?lms:O2–AZO?lms deposited in1×10?3mbar oxygen,vac–AZO ?lms deposited in vacuum.

vacuum-deposited AZO?lms approximately coincide with the results reported in these references[7,27,35].

The results obtained from Hall effect measurements(Fig.5)also show signi?cant in?uence of deposition environment on electri-cal properties of thin?lms.For the?lms deposited in oxygen,the carrier concentration is relatively insensitive to Al doping concen-tration and varies from1.7×1021to2.9×1021cm?3.At the same time,the Hall mobility decreases from37.1to13.7cm2×V?1×s?1 with the increase of Al concentration from0.6to5.2%in the?lms, whereas there is quite drastic decrease of Hall mobility between Al concentrations from0.6to2.3at%.For the?lms grown in vac-uum,these dependences are substantially different.As one can see in Fig.5,the carrier concentration in these?lms increases steadily from3.4×1020to1.1×1021cm?3with Al concentration increasing from0.9to4.3%,and falls again with the increase of Al concentration to7.2%.Hall mobility has now the highest value (33.7cm2×V?1×s?1)at Al concentration of2.8at%.

The carrier concentration is generally limited by the solid sol-ubility of the dopant[3,36].When attempting to achieve doping levels exceeding this limit,the concentration of free carriers may even decrease due to formation of secondary phases(like Al2O3or ZnAl2O4)or other defects that act as a carrier traps[11–13].

The carrier concentration maximum is at Al concentration of 3–4at%for vacuum-deposited?lms.These values are higher than the solubility limit of1–2at%obtained for Al doped ZnO ceramic samples annealed at high temperatures[37,38].However,for thin ?lms deposited at lower temperatures at nonequilibrium condi-tions,Ellmer[36]has proposed dopant solubility limit of about 4at%Al for AZO thin?lms,though the impurity concentration may be even signi?cantly higher[39].

The observed dependences of electrical properties on Al doping level of oxygen-deposited?lms are in agreement with previ-ous results for AZO?lms laser deposited in oxygen environment [11–13].In these earlier studies,the Hall mobility was found to decrease steadily with increasing Al content.The carrier concen-tration increased abruptly when Al impurities were added to pure ZnO,achieved maximum value at around2at%of Al in the target, and decreased slowly when Al doping level was further increased [11–13].

In references[11–13],the decreasing carrier mobility at higher doping levels is attributed to the deterioration of crystal quality of the?lms that is caused by increasing Al impurity concentration in ZnO crystal lattice.However,XRD analysis of our AZO?lms did not show any signi?cant deterioration of crystal quality with the increase in Al doping level(Fig.1).

760M.Kodu et al./Applied Surface Science320(2014)756–763

Among different scattering mechanisms in?uencing the charge carrier mobility in doped semiconductor TCOs,the most rele-vant are the ionized impurity scattering and the grain boundary scattering[40,41].Typically,at carrier concentrations above 1–3×1020cm?3the mobility is dominated by ionized impu-rity scattering mechanism and below that value,grain boundary scattering dominates.However,at extremely high dopant concen-trations the assumption of statistically homogeneous distribution of dopants is no longer valid and the effect of dopant clustering has to be taken into account.Clusters of impurities act as scattering centers with higher charge as compared to Al Zn1+and this results in higher scattering ef?ciency because of ii～Z?2dependence of the mobility on the charge of the scattering center[40,42].The mobility maximum at an Al concentration of2.8at%or at a carrier concentra-tion of8.9×1020cm?3in the case of our vacuum-deposited?lms can,therefore,be assigned to the switching of prevailing scatter-ing mechanism.In the region where the mobility increases with the carrier concentration(at n e values up to～9×1020cm?3),scattering at grain boundaries is dominant and,in the region where the mobil-ity decreases with increasing carrier concentration,scattering at ionized impurities contributes more signi?cantly to the mobility (Fig.5).Segregation effects due to formation of impurity phases like Al2O3and ZnAlO4are also possible at high doping concentra-tions[43].These effects probably in?uence electrical properties of vacuum-deposited?lms with Al over4.2at%where n e decreases with increasing Al concentration(Fig.5).In addition,the role of compensating native defects has to be acknowledged.Walukiewich [44]explained strong reduction of mobility in heavily doped n-type GaAs by formation of compensating native defects V Ga acting as electron scattering centers.Also,the decreased concentration of electrically active donors in n-type GaAs has been attributed to the formation of compensating native defects.Walukiewich[45]found that in GaAs,V Ga compensates intentionally introduced donors and the concentration of free electrons is much lower than dopant con-centration.This effect was attributed to the strong dependence of V Ga defect formation energy on the Fermi level position and,hence, the concentration of compensating acceptor defects increases sig-ni?cantly at high donor doping levels.The possible in?uence of intrinsic defects on electron mobility and concentration of AZO ?lms deposited in this work is discussed in the following section.

3.4.Discussion of electrical properties

ZnO may contain several intrinsic defects,either of donor type, i.e.O vacancy(V O),Zn interstitial(Zn i)and Zn antisite(Zn O),or of acceptor type,i.e.Zn vacancy(V Zn)and O interstitial(O i).According to the model calculations,the acceptor type centers V Zn and O i have relatively high formation energies in zinc-rich conditions and low formation energies in oxygen-rich conditions[25].In oxygen-rich conditions,the formation of zinc vacancies(V Zn)is more favored than of oxygen interstitials among acceptor type defects,whereas V Zn is regarded as the dominant compensating center and electron acceptor in n-type ZnO[15,25,46,47].As a result,n-type conductiv-ity is theoretically predicted to be favored in Zn-rich(oxygen-poor) conditions due to low concentration of electron-killer centers[27].

Ryoken et al.[46]have found that the electron concentration decreases considerably in AZO(0.5at%Al)?lms when oxygen radi-cals(O*)instead of O2gas are used during the deposition.This effect has been attributed to the shift in the defect equilibrium by the oxygen chemical potential.In the presence of more active oxy-gen species(or at higher oxygen pressure)the defect equilibrium is shifted towards the higher level of defects(such as V Zn–zinc vacancy)compensating Al Zn donors and as a result the electron concentration is limited in spite of high Al-doping level.On the contrary,under conditions where the oxygen chemical potential is lower(or in vacuum)the defect equilibrium is closer to the state where the formation of V Zn acceptor centers is inhibited.These results and arguments are in agreement with the data shown in Fig.5,where it can be seen that for all doping levels the elec-tron concentration is higher for the?lms deposited in oxygen-poor conditions(in vacuum).

The most relevant defect reactions taking place during AZO?lm growth and in?uencing free electron concentration can be formu-lated in Kr?ger-Vink notations as follows[46]:

Al2O3→2Al Zn++2O O+2e +1/2O2(1) Al2O3→2Al Zn++3O O+V Zn (2) 2Al Zn++2O O+2e +1/2O2→Al2O3(3) Equation(1)describes the increase of free electron concentra-tion in Al doped ZnO and equation(2)accounts for the formation of compensating defects to inhibit the electron concentration.Equa-tion(3)represents the situation where Al concentration is over solubility limit.The defect equilibrium is likely to be in some intermediate state.According to the theoretical predictions,zinc vacancy V Zn has the lowest formation energy from the native point defects and its value depends strongly on oxygen activity [15,25].Therefore,under oxygen-poor conditions the processes(1) is dominating and in oxygen-rich conditions the process(2)is more effective.High concentrations of zinc vacancies can have consider-able effect on AZO electrical properties as they may in?uence the(a) mobility–acting as a charged scattering center,and(b)free elec-tron concentration–acting as an electron killer center.Thus,the substantial differences in electron concentrations and in behavior of n e vs.Al concentration dependence for vacuum-and oxygen-deposited?lms observed in this work(Fig.5)can be explained as follows:

(1)The?lms deposited in O2:at high concentration of V Zn these

defects passivate additional Al donors and hinder n e from ris-ing with increasing Al concentration in the?lms.In addition, the decreasing mobility with increasing Al concentration is explainable by increasing concentration of charged V Zn vacan-cies acting as effective scattering centers(Eq.(2)).

(2)The?lms deposited in vacuum:n e increases with rising Al

doping level until the solubility limit is reached at around4at% of Al(thereafter Eq.(1)→Eq.(3)).Mobility increases with Al concentration until～3at%according to the grain barrier limited scattering mechanism and after that level,ionized impurity scattering mechanism prevails,including the enhanced scat-tering due to effect of cluster formation at higher Al doping levels.

The outcome of this work endorse the fact that,during AZO PLD process,O2deposition pressure strongly in?uences defect equilib-ria and this,in turn,controls the electrical conductivity of AZO?lms. However,according to recent theoretical works[14–16],the dom-inating active defects are probably not O vacancies,which role is almost always emphasized in the experimental investigations of AZO thin?lms[4–6,9,10],but the Zn vacancy acceptor centers, which concentration is readily in?uenced by oxygen activity during deposition process.Our study demonstrates that the effective solu-bility of Al dopants is greatly in?uenced by O2deposition pressure. The interpretation of our results is compatible with the concept of zinc vacancies being most relevant intrinsic acceptor-type defects that affect the electrical properties of Al doped ZnO.

3.5.Optical properties

Transmittance and re?ectance spectra of AZO?lms deposited in oxygen and vacuum are shown in Fig.6.There is a distinctive

M.Kodu et al./Applied Surface Science320(2014)756–763

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Fig.6.Transmittance and re?ectance spectra of AZO thin?lms deposited from targets with different Al concentrations in oxygen atmosphere(a)and in vacuum(b).

difference in the in?uence of the Al doping level on the optical properties of the?lms grown in two different atmospheres.Trans-mittance spectra of the?lms deposited in oxygen are all similar and depend little on Al concentration in the target.The same is valid for the re?ectance spectra.All?lms deposited in oxygen have good transmittance(>80%)over the visible and near-IR range.Also the oscillation of the transmittance and re?ectance,coming from thin ?lm interference,is clearly seen.All these?lms have re?ectance in near-IR spectral region below10%.

The spectra of AZO?lms deposited in vacuum show stronger dependence on the Al doping level.The transmittances of all the ?lms in this set are over80%in the visible spectral region.How-ever,transmittance values in the near-IR spectral region depend strongly on Al concentration and are clearly lower for higher doping concentrations.For instance,at a wavelength of2500nm,the?lm with0.9at%of Al has the highest transmittance value of81%and the ?lm with4.3at%of Al has the lowest transmittance value of28%.The Al concentration has also a marked effect on the re?ectance spectra of vacuum-deposited?lms.The?lms with higher doping concen-tration have relatively higher re?ectance in the near-IR region. Comparing the spectra in the near-IR region of vacuum-deposited ?lms it can be concluded that the re?ectances and transmittances are closely related,i.e.low transmittance in the IR region means that there is high re?ectance in that region.

Strong absorption in the UV region is due to excitations across the fundamental band gap[2].Absorption coef?cients of the AZO ?lms were calculated from transmittance and re?ectance data using the relation T=(1?R)2exp(??t),where T is transmittance,R is re?ectance,t is?lm thickness,and?is absorption coef?cient. Optical band gaps(E g)were obtained by plotting?2vs.photon energy and extrapolating linear part of the graph to the energy axis.Determined E g values for vacuum-and oxygen-deposited?lms are shown in Fig.7.As can be seen in?gure,the band gaps of Al doped ZnO?lms are higher than3.3eV,the value determined for undoped ZnO[47].Also,the values of E g are much larger for vacuum-deposited?lms than for oxygen-deposited?lms.The shift of optical band gap toward shorter wavelengths is probably caused by different occupation of states by free electrons at the bottom of conduction band of ZnO.This feature is usually described as a Burstein–Moss effect[2].The E g vs.Al%dependencies for the?lms deposited in O2and vacuum are,therefore,different because of different free electron concentrations in these?lms.However,it is also known that the residual lattice strains can in?uence the band gap value of semiconductor material.For instance,Ghosh et al.

[48]found that strain along c-axis modi?ed band gap values of ZnO thin?lms deposited on different substrates by sol-gel process. In Ref.[48],tensile lattice strain decreased optical band gap and compressive lattice strains increased band gap value.As was described earlier in Section3.1,high level of Al doping decreases the c-axis lattice parameter,which is an indication of compressive stresses in our AZO?lms.The effect of lattice strain on E g value described by Ghosh[48]may be an additional factor behind the monotonically rising E g with Al doping concentration as seen in Fig.7.

Screening of the ions by free electron plasma causes high re?ectance at the wavelengths beyond1000nm(Fig.6).The onset of this effect is characterized by the plasma frequencyωp?n1/2

e

or the plasma wavelength p?n1/2

e

,which are proportional or inversely proportional,respectively,to the square root of free elec-tron density n e[2,4].The rise of re?ectance in the IR-region starts at1100nm and is steeper for the?lms with higher carrier con-centrations.It can be seen from Figs.5and6that there is a direct correlation between the carrier concentration and the re?ectivity (transmittance)of the?lms in the near-IR region for the AZO?lms deposited in vacuum.Because of lower carrier concentrations,the re?ectance caused by free electron gas is negligible for oxygen-deposited?lms up to2500nm(Fig.6)and these?lms show high transmittances up to the end of the measured spectral range.

Figures of merit(FOM)were estimated for the best AZO?lms deposited in this work in order to compare their performance with AZO?lms deposited before using PLD and RF sputtering meth-ods.FOM characterizes TCO?lm electrical and optical performance. Typically FOM is de?ned as FOM=T10/R sheet[49],where T is

optical

Fig.7.Variation of optical band gap as a function of Al concentration in AZO?lms.

762M.Kodu et al./Applied Surface Science320(2014)756–763 Table1

Figures of merit(FOM)of AZO?lms.

Material Method T10R sheet

( /square)FOM

(×10?3)

Reference

AZO PLD0.28 3.190.3[8]

AZO PLD0.25 4.852.1[4]

AZO PLD0.08324 3.5[12]

AZO PLD0.3512.328.7[10]

AZO Sputtering0.431043.0[50]

AZO(oxygen)PLD0.4381.1 5.3This work AZO(vacuum)PLD0.5415.834.2This work

transmittance of the?lm and R sheet is its sheet resistance,and this de?nition of FOM is also used in this work.The comparison of our ?lms with the results obtained in the literature is summarized in Table1.

It can be seen from Table1that the performances reached in different papers can vary signi?cantly.The best?lms obtained in this work are at a comparable level with high quality AZO?lms deposited before.When comparing best AZO?lms made in this work,it can be seen that vacuum-deposited?lms clearly outper-form oxygen-deposited?lms since the optical transmittance in the visible range and the resistivity are both better for vacuum-grown ?lms.

4.Conclusions

In this work,ZnO:Al thin?lms were laser-deposited from ceramic ZnO targets that were doped with1–10at%Al.Deposi-tion was carried out in oxygen atmosphere(1×10?3mbar)and in vacuum conditions onto amorphous SiO2substrates at300?C.As a result,c-axis oriented polycrystalline AZO thin?lms were obtained. According to XRD analysis,the c-axis parameter of hexagonal crys-tal lattice was slightly in?uenced by the deposition atmosphere and Al doping level.However,the grain size of the AZO?lms did not show considerable dependence on the deposition conditions or Al concentration.

According to the XRF elemental analysis,the transfer of material from AZO targets to?lms was non-stoichiometric.On average,for AZO?lms deposited in vacuum the Al concentration(Al/(Al+Zn)) in the?lms was～70%of nominal Al concentration in the targets. The effective Al transfer from target to?lm was even lower(～60%) for the?lms deposited in oxygen.

Compared to the oxygen-deposited?lms,the resistivities of the vacuum-deposited?lms were lower for all Al concentrations and this difference increased with rising doping concentration.The low-est resistivity(2.0×10?4 cm)was obtained at around4at%Al doping level in the?lm.Oxygen environment during the deposi-tion in?uenced considerably the carrier concentrations(n e)and mobilities( )of AZO?lms.For the?lms deposited in oxygen,n e vs. Al%and vs.Al%showed similar dependencies as reported before. However,vacuum-deposited?lms were characterized by signi?-cantly higher carrier concentrations and also by higher mobilities at high Al doping levels.

Due to low carrier concentrations(～2×1020cm?3),oxygen-deposited?lms had high transmittances in visible and near-IR spectral region.Films grown in vacuum showed increased re?ectance in the near-IR spectral region as the result of increased carrier concentrations(up to1.1×1021cm?3).

The large difference between the carrier concentrations in oxygen-deposited and vacuum-deposited?lms can be attributed to higher effective solubility of Al in the?lms deposited in vac-uum.The detailed interpretation of this difference is in agreement with the results showing that under oxygen-rich conditions,the formation of the dominant compensating defect V Zn,that acts as a deep acceptor in ZnO,is promoted.High concentration of charged compensating defects(V Zn+2e1?→V Zn2?)in oxygen-deposited ?lms leads also to the reduction of carrier mobility with increasing Al concentration as a result of enhanced ionized impurity scatter-ing.

In previous works,the effect of oxygen atmosphere to the elec-trical properties of AZO?lms is usually explained by its in?uence on the concentrations of intrinsic donor defects(V O,Zn i,Zn O) [4–6,9,10].However,the experimental results of this work indicate that the O2atmosphere in?uences the active Al dopant concentra-tion in AZO?lms.The mechanism is probably related to the charge compensating intrinsic acceptor-type defects like V Zn,which con-centration is in?uenced by oxygen pressure during the deposition process.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the European Union through the European Regional Development Fund(projects3.2.1101.12-0014 and3.2.1101.12-0027).Authors wish to gratefully acknowledge Prof.Jaan Aarik for valuable remarks and Dr.Hugo M?ndar for help with the X-ray diffraction analysis.

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2017山香教育理论基础整理笔记(教育学、心理学、教育心理学)

第一章教育与教育学 1、《学记》——“教也者，长善而救其失者也” 2、战国时荀子——“以善人者谓之教” 3、许慎在《说文解字》中认为“教，上所施，下所效也。”“育，养子使作善也。” 4、最早将“教育”一词连用的则是战国时期的孟子：“得天下英才而教育之，三乐也。” 5、分析教育哲学的代表人物谢弗勒在《教育的语言》中把教育定义区分为三种： 规定性定义：作者自己认为的定义，即不管他人使用的“教育”的定义是什么，我认为“教育”就是这个意思。运用规定性定义虽然有一定的自由度，但是，要求作业在后面的论述和讨论中，前后一贯地遵守自己的规定。 描述性定义：回答“教育实际上是什么”的定义。尽量不夹杂自己的主观看法，适当地对术语或者使用该术语的方法进行界定。 纲领性定义：回答“教育应该是什么”的定义。即通过明确或隐含的方式告诉人们教育应该是什么或者教育应该怎么样。 6、教育是一种活动。“教育”是以一种“事”的状态存在，而不是以一种“物”的状态出现。因而。我们就把“活动”作为界定教育的起点。 7、教育活动是人类社会独有的活动。 8、“生物起源论”代表人物： 利托尔诺在《各人种的教育演变》中指出教育是超出人类社会以外的，在动物界中就存在的。 沛西·能在《教育原理》中也认为教育是一个生物学过程，扎根于本能的不可避免的行为。 9、“终身教育”概念的提出，指明人在生理成熟后仍继续接受教育。 10、社会性是人的教育活动与动物所谓“教育”活动的本质区别。 11、教育的本质：教育活动是培养人的社会实践活动。 12、教育是人类通过有意识地影响人的身心发展从而影响自身发展的社会实践活动。 13、学校教育是一种专门的培养人的社会实践活动。 14、学校教育自出现以来就一直处于教育活动的核心。 15、学校教育是由专业人员承担的，在专门机构——学校中进行的目的明确、组织严密、系统完善、计划性强的以影响学生身心发展为直接目标的社会实践活动。 16、学校教育的特征：①可控性②专门性③稳定性 17、教育概念的扩展——大教育观的形成 18、1965年，法国教育家保罗·朗格朗在《终身教育引论》中指出，教科文组织应赞同“终身教育”的原则。 19、1972年，埃德加·富尔在《学会生存》中对“终身教育”加以确定，并提出未来社会是“学习化社会”。 20、“终身教育”概念以“生活、终身、教育”三个基本术语为基础。 从时间上看，终身教育要求保证每个人“从摇篮到坟墓”的一生连续性的教育过程； 从空间上看，终身教育要求利用学校、家庭、社会机构等一切可用于教育和学习的场所； 从方式上看，终身教育要求灵活运用集体教育、个别教育、面授或远距离教育； 从教育性质上看，终身教育即要求有正规的教育与训练，也要求有非正规的学习和提高，既要求人人当先生，也要求人人当学生。 21、教育的形态，是指教育的存在特征或组织形式。 22、在教育发展史上，教育的形态经历了从非形式化到形式化，再到制度化教育的演变。

教育学教育心理学理论及代表人物

教育学有关理论、代表人物 1、神话起源说—— 2、生物起源说——利托尔诺（法国） 3、心理起源说——孟禄（美国） 4、劳动起源说——马克思（前苏联） 5、中国史上第一部教育文献——《学记》——乐正克 6、西方较早讨论教育问题的着作——《论演说家的培养》（《雄辩术原理》）——昆体良（古罗马） 7、非制度化教育思潮——库姆斯、伊里奇 8、雄辩与问答法——苏格拉底（古希腊） 9、《理想国》——柏拉图（古希腊） 10、《政治学》——亚里士多德（古希腊） 11、教育学作为一门独立学科的萌芽——《大教学论》——夸美纽斯（捷克） 班级授课制，泛智教育。 12、首次提出把教育学作为一门独立的学科——培根（英国） 13、自然主义教育——《爱弥儿》——卢梭（法国） 14、教育学进入大学讲坛——康德（德国）、《林哈德与葛笃德》——裴斯泰洛齐（瑞士）

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