27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology

Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学,词法学)

5.1 what is morphology？什么是形态学？

Morphology is one of subbranches of linguistics，and also a branch of grammar.形态学即使语言学的分支，也是语法的分支。

Morphology studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

可分为两个分支：inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology

屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学

5.2 morphemes (词素,语素)

最简单的定义Morpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit.语素是最小的有意义的语法单位。

Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.

语素是在语音的语法系统中最小的意义单位。

1 minimal: smallest,it can not further be divided.

2 meaningful: can not be further divided without destroying its meaning

3 grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like ,but also grammatical ones,

5.3 Classification of morphemes 语素的分类

Semantically：morphemes ：root morphemes and affixational morphemes

根据语义，语素可分为词根和词缀

Structurally：morphemes ：free morphemes and bound morphemes

根据结构，语素可分为自由语素和粘着语素

5.3.1 interrelations between free morphemes，bound morphemes，roots and affixes

自由语素、粘着语素、词根和词缀的相互关系

1）Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.eg.book，store.自由语素是那些独立存在的单词。再可深层分为两个分支：

1词义语素Lexical morphemes: nouns, adjectives, verbs which carry the content of the messages we conver.名词、形容词、动词携带内容信息的。

2功能语素Functional morphemes: prepositions, conjunctions, articles, pronouns.介词、连词、冠词、代词。

2）Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur alone as separate words.eg.de-，dis-. 粘着语素是那些不能单独作为单词的语素。

3)Roots:词根

The root is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meani ng.词根被定义为单词最重要的部分,携带一词的主要意义。

It is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of iden tity.它是一个单词的基本形式,在不损失意义的情况下无法再细分。

4）Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamen tal meaning of words.词缀是词汇方面依靠词根和不传达单词的根本意思的语素。

5）Interralation: all free morphemes(like bird) are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.

(like spect). All affixes are bound morphemes but not all bound morphemes are affixes (like ceive)

所有自由语素都是词根,但并不是所有的词根都是自由语素。

所有的词缀都是粘着语素但并非所有粘着语素都是词缀。

5.3.2 prefixes，suffixes and infixes前缀、后缀、中缀

Position: prefixes, suffixes and inffixes按位置分

Which are added to the beginning of roots are prefixes.加在词根前面的前缀。

The affixes which follow roots are suffixes.跟在词根后面的后缀。

The affixes which interrupt roots are infixes.打断词根的是中缀。

5.3.3 inflectional affixes and derivational affixes 屈折词缀和派生词缀

Function: affixes can be divided into inflectional affixes and derivational affixes 按功能分Inflectional affixes indicate grammatical relations, such as number，gender，tense，aspect，case and degree.屈折词缀表明语法关系,如数量、性别、时态、方面,情况和程度。

They never produce new words or cause a change in grammatical class.他们从不产生新单词或改变语法种类。

Derivational affixes can produce new words, some change grammatical classes of words. 派生词缀可以产生新单词,一些改变单词语法等级。

dis-,un-,re-,in-, -ly,-y, ful, -er, ment, tion, (P 61)

5.3.4 root，stem and base 词根，词干和词基

A root is the basic part of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.它是一个单词的基本形式,在不损失意义的情况下无法再细分。

A“root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.一个“词根”,是一个词的所有词缀都被移除后剩下的部分。（扒光了衣服剩下来的，哈哈）

base: the form that a derivational affix is attached, disagree+ment=disagreement 可加派生词缀的是词基。

stem: the form that an inflectional affix is attached: reopen+ing=reopening.

可加屈折词缀的是词干。

?eat+ing=eating(stem) eat+able=eatable(base) eat+er=eater

5.4 Morphemes, morphs, allomorphs 语素，语子和语素变体

5.4.1 Morphemes语素

Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in a grammatical system of a language.

语素是语法系统中最小的有意义的单位。

5.4.2Morphs 语子

Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.

语子是语素在语言中的具体体现，用来实现语素的具体形式。

5.4.3Allomorphs 语素变体

Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme. 语素变体是某一具体语素的体现形式。{d}:

/t/ after voiceless consonants except /t/; hoped, looked, stopped, finished

/d/ after vowels and voiced consonants except /d/; loved, lived, realized

/id/ after /t/ and /d/. Visited, stated, headed

Morphs are related to morphemes in general and allomorphs are related to a specific morpheme.

语子与一般语素相关而语素变体与一个特定的语素有关。

5.4.4 empty morph and zero morph 空语子和零语子

empty morph: a morph which has form but no meaning. children=child+r+en

有形却无义

zero morph: a morph which has meaning but no form. They work in Nanjing.

有义却无形

5.5 IC analysis 直接成分分析

Morphemic analysis: to analyse the relationships between the morphemes in a word .

语素分析：分析一个单词里语素之间的关系。

单词内的语素有两种排序：

①linear order of morphemes: the horizontal order or the sequential characteristics of the

morphemes .

线性排序：指词素的水平排序或顺序特征。

②hierarchical order: the internal structure of the morphemes.

层次排序：语素的内部结构。

Immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis) 直接成分分析

By IC Analysis，we mean that we divide the morphemes of a word into two groups and then divide them into sub-groups and so on, until we reach the irreducible constituents.通过直接成分分析,我们的意思是说,我们把一个单词的语素分成两组,然后把他们分成小组等等,直到我们到达不可消减的成分。Tree-branch diagrams，of which the forms at the bottom are called ultimate constituents.

The form which are branching from the same node are immediate constituents of the form on one level above. In each of the tree-branch diagrams，all the forms except the one at the top are the constituents of the word.

树型图,最底端的形式被称为最终成分。最上面的语素的每一次二分得到的语素就是直接成分。在每个树型图中,所有的形式除了一个顶部的都是这个词的构成成分。

IC analysis must conform to the morphological rules: the rules that determine how morphemes are combined into new words. 必须遵守语素规则，规定了语素如何形成新词。

5.6word-formation processes 构词法：构词过程

1. coining is the first-time creation of an unmotivated（non-complex and completely arbitrary connection between expression and content. ）铸词法是无动机最早制造出来的。

2 .borrowing means taking over words from other languages.借词法是指向其他语言借词。

（borrowed words, borrowings or loanwords）fall into 4 categories:分四种

①aliens(非同化词):are foreign loans that still keep their alien shapes.保持外来形状的外来词

elite(精英), coup d’etat(政变) coupe(汽车);

②denizens(同化词):have transformed their foreign appearance.改变了外来的表现

get, theater, socio(French)+logy(Greek).

③translation-loans(译借词):are words imported by way of translation.翻译后借过来

black humour(humour noir), mother tongue(lingua materna).

④semantic borrowings(借义词):have acquired new meanings under the influence of language

or languages other than the source tongue.获得了新的意义

gift( the price of wife in Old English)---”gift or present”from the Scandinavian term “gift”

3.word-formation processes: the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.用既存的单词有规则的构成新词。

总结：新造的方法productive ones: derivation(派生), conversion(转换) and compounding(复合); 删减造法less productive ones:blending(拼缀法), clipping(截短法), backformation(逆成法),acronymy(首字母法)

5.6.1Derivation 派生法

Derivation（affixation）is a process of word-formation，in which one or more affixes are attached to a root or a base to produce a new word known as derived words.

派生法（derivation）也称为词缀法，主要通过增加词缀产生新词。

Derivation will often change the part of speech or grammatical class of the root or base. happy—happily. 派生法经常会改变词根或词基的读音或语法功能。

It is the most common word-formation process, including prefixation and suffixation.

派生法是很常见的构词法，包括前缀法和后缀法。

In prefixation，we put a prefix before the root or base.加前缀的前缀法

In suffixation，we put a suffix after the base.加后缀的后缀法

5.6.2 compounding 复合法

Compounding refers to a process in which two or more free morphemes are combined to form a new word ，words formed in this way are called compound words or compounds.

Eg.sleepwalk, forget-me-not, water-bed.

复合法就是把两个或两个以上的自由语素组合起来产生一个新词汇的过程.。

3 types:分三种

1）phenated compounds（横线连接复合词）：linked by a hyphen. 如father-in-law,baby-faced 2）solid compound（固体复合词）: two words are written together: fingerprint, sunburn doorknob. 3）Open compound（开放性复合词）: the words are written separately: April Fool’s day, Boston terrier.

5.6.3 Conversion转化法:

Conversion refers to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of an affix. It is also called functional shift or zero-derivation.

在产生新词过程中没有在原单词上增加任何词缀，即词型不便但词性已变。也称为功能转换法或零派生法full conversion, partial conversion: the rich, the poor, the last

5.6.4 blending 拼缀法

Blending is a process of w-f in which new words are made by deleting parts of two words and combining the remaining parts of them together. 混合构词法就是把原来两个单词的部分去掉，把剩余的部分组合起来构成一个新的单词的过程。

breakfast+lunch=brunch

5.6.5 clipping 剪切法——缩略法（abbreviation）

Clipping refers to the process of w-f in which a word is shortened by deleting one or more syllables without any change in the meaning or in the part of speech. ominibus= bus

剪切法是这样一种构词过程，它通过删除原词的一个或更多音节来缩短原词（通常是名词）以产生新词，但不改变原词语的意义或词性。

back-clipping: automobile=auto

Front-clipping: airplane=plane

front and back clipping: influenza=flu

Phrase clipping: popular music=pop

5.6.6 back-formation 逆生法

back-formation is a very specialized type of reduction process by which a shorter word is created by the removal of a supposed suffix from a longer form already present in the language. baby-sit from babysitter

逆构词法（backformation）是一种特殊的单词缩短法，它通过删除原词中假定的所谓的后缀来产生新词。可以相当于后缀法的相反形式。

5.6.7 acronymy 首字母缩略法

Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of several words together. 首字母缩略法是通过把若干单词的首字母大写组合在一起产生新词的过程。

分两种类型：

Acronyms are the letters are pronounced as a single word. APEC, NASA

缩写词的字母发音是作为一个单独的词发音的。

Initialisms are the letters are pronounced one by one. UFO, VOA

缩略词是字母一个接一个发音的。

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标

英语语言学概论精选试题学生版

《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断

27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on

英语语言学概论复习

《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization

英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx

第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 （1）语言具有系统性（systematic） （2）语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 （3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation） （4）口头性 （5）语言是人类特有的 （6）语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification） 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation） 根据词的结构类型，可分为 （1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 （2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 （3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 （4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********

英语语言学概论复习考试

《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an

英语语言学概论--整理汇编

Chapter 1 Language语言 1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1. ★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2. ★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II. A dult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇

英语语言学概论-简答题

1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of