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A hybrid SAT-based decision procedure for separation logic with uninterpreted functions

A hybrid SAT-based decision procedure for separation logic with uninterpreted functions
A hybrid SAT-based decision procedure for separation logic with uninterpreted functions

A Hybrid SAT-Based Decision Procedure for Separation

Logic with Uninterpreted Functions?

Sanjit A.Seshia sanjit.seshia@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,

Shuvendu https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,hiri

shuvendu@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,

Randal E.Bryant

randy.bryant@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,

School of Computer Science&Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Carnegie Mellon University,Pittsburgh,P A15213

ABSTRACT

SAT-based decision procedures for quanti?er-free fragments of?rst-order logic have proved to be useful in formal veri?cation.These decision procedures are either based on encoding atomic subfor-mulas with Boolean variables,or by encoding integer variables as bit-vectors.Based on evaluating these two encoding methods on a diverse set of hardware and software benchmarks,we conclude that neither method is robust to variations in formula characteris-tics.We therefore propose a new hybrid technique that combines the two methods.We give experimental results showing that the hy-brid method can signi?cantly outperform either approach as well as other decision procedures.

Categories and Subject Descriptors

I.1[Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation]:Expressions and Their Representation,Algorithms;I.2.3[Deduction and Theorem Proving];F.4.1[Mathematical Logic]:Mechanical theorem prov-ing

General Terms

Algorithms,Experimentation,Measurement,Veri?cation

Keywords

Design veri?cation,Decision procedures,Boolean satis?ability,The-orem proving.

1.INTRODUCTION

Quanti?er-free fragments of?rst-order logic and decision proce-dures for them have become commonplace in many formal veri?-cation efforts.Decision procedures for the Logic of Equality with Uninterpreted Functions(EUF)have been successfully used in the automated veri?cation of pipelined processor designs[8,4].Pred-icate abstraction methods[9]based on decision procedures have ?This work was supported by ARO grant DAAD19-01-1-0485and SRC contract1029.001

Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for pro?t or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the?rst page.To copy otherwise,to republish,to post on servers or to redistribute to lists,requires prior speci?c permission and/or a fee.

DAC2003,June2–6,2003,Anaheim,California,USA.

Copyright2003ACM1-58113-688-9/03/0001...$5.00.been used to verify parameterized cache coherence protocols.The logic of Counter Arithmetic with Lambda Expressions and Unin-terpreted Functions[6](CLU),which generalizes EUF,is the basis for the UCLID veri?er which has been used for bounded model checking and inductive invariant checking of out-of-order micro-processors with unbounded resources[11].Decision procedures are an integral part of software veri?cation systems including the Code Validation tool[13]and the Blast veri?er[10].Hence the importance of having ef?cient decision procedures can hardly be overstated.

Many decision procedures leverage off the recent advances in Boolean satis?ability(SAT)solvers.These decision procedures differ in the Boolean encoding and the degree of the coupling with the SAT solver.One can classify these procedures as being either eager or lazy.In the eager approaches[4,6,12,14],the quanti?er-free?rst-order formula is converted in a single step to an equiva-lent Boolean formula which is checked using the SAT solver.The lazy approaches(e.g.,[3,1])iteratively re?ne the Boolean encod-ing based on satisfying assignments from the SAT solver that are inconsistent with the?rst order theory.The process is repeated until a consistent assignment is found or all assignments are explored. We consider the problem of deciding formulas in the logic of Sep-aration Predicates and Uninterpreted Functions(SUF),which can express properties of systems modeled in CLU logic.For deci-sion procedures using the eager approach,two Boolean encoding methods have been proposed:small-domain encoding(also called ?nite instantiation)[6],and per-constraint encoding[14].In small-domain encoding,each integer variable is interpreted over a?nite set of values that is determined by analyzing the formula.On the other hand,in per-constraint encoding,each atomic subformula is encoded as a Boolean variable.Constraints are then added to prune off the inconsistent assignments of the Boolean variables.

In this paper,we con?rm results of our previous experimental eval-uation[5]of these two encoding methods,concluding that neither of the approaches are robust to variations in formula characteris-tics.Hence,we propose a new hybrid method that combines the two methods,and show that it can be more robust than either ap-proach.Finally,we report empirical results comparing our hybrid method with other decision procedures for SUF logic.

2.BACKGROUND

Figure1summarizes the expression syntax for SUF logic.Expres-sions can be of two types:integer or Boolean.Boolean expressions are formed by combining equalities,inequalities,or applications of uninterpreted predicates using Boolean connectives.Integer ex-pressions are formed by applying an uninterpreted function to a list of integer expressions,by applying the unary arithmetic functions

27.1

succ(“+1”)and pred(“?1”),or by applying the ITE(“if-then-else”)operator.We will omit parentheses for function and pred-bool-expr::=true|false|?bool-expr|(bool-expr∧bool-expr)

|(int-expr=int-expr)|(int-expr

|predicate-symbol(int-expr,...,int-expr)

int-expr::=ITE(bool-expr,int-expr,int-expr)

|succ(int-expr)|pred(int-expr)

|function-symbol(int-expr,...,int-expr)

Figure1:SUF Syntax.

icate symbols with zero arguments,writing a instead of a().We

refer to function symbols of zero arity as symbolic constants,and to predicate symbols of zero arity as symbolic Boolean constants.

Uninterpreted functions and predicates are used in hardware de-

sign veri?cation to abstract word-level values of data and imple-

mentation details of functional blocks.These functions and pred-

icates satisfy no particular property other than functional consis-

tency,viz.,that they evaluate to the same value on the same argu-ments.Adding equalities,inequalities,and interpreted functions

succ and pred facilitates reasoning about ordering and equality of

data values,and modeling ordered data structures such as queues.

2.1Decision Procedure Overview

Assume we start with a well-formed formula F suf in SUF.The de-

cision procedure must determine whether it is valid,i.e.,true un-

der all possible interpretations of the function and predicate sym-

bols.Through a sequence of validity-preserving transformations,

we convert a SUF formula to a propositional formula F bool.Va-

lidity of F suf is then checked by checking the(un)satis?ability of ?F bool.

2.1.1Eliminating Function Applications

The?rst step is to eliminate applications of uninterpreted func-

tion and predicate symbols of arity greater than one.In doing so, we keep track of a property of function applications called posi-

tive equality.The general idea is to determine the polarity of each

equality in the formula,i.e.,whether it appears under an even(pos-

itive)or odd(negative)number of negations.Applications of un-

interpreted functions can then be classi?ed as either p-function ap-

plications,i.e.,used only under positive equalities,or g-function applications,i.e.,general function applications that appear under

other equalities or under inequalities.The p-function applications

can be encoded in propositional logic with fewer Boolean variables

than the g-function applications,thus greatly simplifying the result-

ing SAT problem.

To be able to exploit positive equality,Bryant et al.eliminate function applications using“ITE”expressions.As an example,if

function symbol f has two occurrences:f(a1)and f(a2),then we would generate2new symbolic constants vf1and vf2.We would

then replace all instances of f(a1)by vf1and all instances of f(a2) by ITE(a2=a1,vf1,vf2).Note that this encoding ensures func-tional consistency.Predicate applications are eliminated using a similar process.

2.1.2Deciding Separation Logic

Eliminating function and predicate applications leaves us with a

formula F sep containing only symbolic constants,ITEs,successors, predecessors,equations,inequalities,and Boolean connectives.We will refer to this logic as separation logic.In addition,we will refer to equalities or inequalities involving only symbolic constants, successors,and predecessors,as separation predicates.

The problem of deciding the satis?ability of a formula in separation logic is NP complete.It is NP-hard since Boolean satis?ability can be trivially reduced to it.In addition,it is in NP because the logic has a“small-model”property,viz.,if it is satis?able,there exists a satisfying assignment such that the values of the integer symbolic constants in the formula are polynomially bounded in the size of the formula.

As mentioned in Section1,there are two approaches to encoding a formula in separation logic as a Boolean formula:

1.Small-Domain Encoding(SD):For each symbolic constant

v i in F sep,we compute the bound b i on its value.The bounds

b i are then used to derive an encoding of each v i as a“sym-

bolic bit-vector”of Boolean variables.This results in a for-

mula with only Boolean variables,along with ITEs,succes-

sors,predecessors,equations,inequalities,and Boolean con-

nectives.Binary arithmetic is then used to transform this for-

mula into a Boolean formula F bool.

2.Per-Constraint Encoding(EIJ):In this method,we?rst

eliminate the ITE construct from the formula,to get a for-

mula that is a Boolean combination of separation predicates.

Each separation predicate is then encoded with a fresh Boolean variable to get a Boolean formula F bvar.To rule out as-

signments to these Boolean variables that do not correspond

to any assignment to the integer-valued symbolic constants

in F sep,we construct a Boolean formula F trans that imposes

“transitivity constraints”on the values of the fresh Boolean

variables.For example,if e=,0

x,y encodes x=y,and e

=,0

y,z en-

codes y=z,we would impose the constraint e=,0

x,y∧e

=,0

y,z=?

e=,0

x,z.This process might,in general,result in new Boolean

variables,such as e=,0

x,z,being generated.Let F trans denote the conjunction of all the imposed constraints.We?nally

construct F bool as F trans=?F bvar.

For example,if F sep is x≥y∧y≥z∧z≥succ(x),then using SD, F bool is the Boolean formula

[ 0x1x0 ≥ 0y1y0 ]∧[ 0y1y0 ≥ 0z1z0 ]∧[ 0z1z0 ≥ 0x1x0 +1] where2Boolean variables suf?ce to encode each symbolic con-stant,and the arithmetic and relational operators are re-interpreted over bit-vectors of https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,ing EIJ,F bool is

[(e≥,0x,y∧e≥,0y,z=?e≥,0x,z)∧(e≥,0x,z=??e≥,1z,x)]=?[e≥,0x,y∧e≥,0y,z∧e≥,1z,x] where the antecedent of the outermost implication is F trans and the consequent is F bvar.

Each of SD and EIJ has its drawbacks when used in isolation.We describe these drawbacks in the next section.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,PARISON OF SD AND EIJ

The method of encoding a SUF formula using SD usually results in a compact Boolean formula.As shown in[6],if there are N distinct nodes in the Directed Acyclic Graph(DAG)representation of a SUF formula F suf,then the size of the DAG for the resulting Boolean formula is roughly O(Nlg(N)).However,since numerical constants are encoded in unary(e.g.,x+k as succ k(x)),N can be very large if the formula has very large constants.However,in our experience,formulas rarely have very large constants.The EIJ method,on the other hand,can produce a Boolean formula whose

size is exponential in N.This is because there is a potential of gen-erating an exponential number of transitivity constraints using this method[14].Note,however,that for the subclass of logic involving only equalities without arithmetic,the number of transitivity con-straints grows only polynomially in the number of equalities in the original formula[7].

The SD and EIJ methods also differ in their impact on search in SAT solvers.As the SD method uses a vector of Boolean vari-ables to encode each symbolic constant,suf?cient number of these Boolean variables have to be assigned values before the search space of solutions is pruned.On the other hand,in the EIJ method, each separation predicate(e.g.,x≥y+c)is encoded using a sin-gle Boolean variable(e.g.,e≥,c

x,y).This encoding appears to assist the DPLL-based SAT solvers,as has been observed by Velev and Bryant[15]for deciding the restricted class of EUF logic.This is probably because,in many formulas,separation predicates con-trol the values sub-expressions of the formula evaluate to,and so assigning to the corresponding Boolean variables is more likely to lead to a con?ict or a satisfying assignment.

In previous work[5],we performed an experimental study compar-ing SD and EIJ along with other variants of a decision procedure for SUF.The results indicated that neither SD nor EIJ performed consistently well over all benchmarks used in the study.However, it was noted that they appear to complement each other,suggesting that they might perform well in combination.In the same paper,we presented a hybrid technique that encodes equalities without arith-metic using EIJ and the remaining separation predicates using SD; however,this combination met with limited success as the decision of whether to choose SD or EIJ is?xed,i.e.,it does not depend on features of the formula being checked.

In the rest of this section,we report on new experiments that con-?rm our previous?ndings comparing SD and EIJ and identify fea-tures of input formulas that affect the relative performance of SD and EIJ.

Benchmarks.For use in all the experiments reported in this pa-per,we collected a set of49valid SUF formulas to use as bench-marks,many of which were used in our previous study[5],and are described in detail in that paper.We drew these formulas from real problems encountered in both hardware and software design veri?cation.The hardware designs include the load-store unit of an industrial microprocessor,an out-of-order microprocessor de-sign[11],a cache coherence protocol,and a5-stage DLX pipeline. The software benchmarks are generated in the veri?cation of safety properties of device driver code[10],and in translation valida-tion[13].The sizes of the formulas,when measured in terms of the number of nodes in a DAG representation,range from100nodes to 7500nodes.

For the experiments described in this section,we selected a sam-ple of16formulas at random from the above benchmark set such that there was at least1formula from each problem domain.Ex-periments were run on a Pentium-IV2GHz machine with1GB of RAM.

Impact on SAT solver.We?rst performed an experiment to study how the encoding method affects the performance of the SAT solver. Figure2shows results on5of the larger benchmarks from the sample of size16.The numbers in the table support our conjec-ture that the EIJ encoding is more effective with SAT solvers.Al-though the original number of clauses are far more in the case of EIJ method(due to transitivity constraints),the number of con?ict clauses needed to span the entire search space is far less for EIJ en-coding.The lower number of con?ict clauses added for EIJ method suggests better pruning of the search space through case splitting on the Boolean variables encoding separation constraints.This di-rectly translates to signi?cant improvement in the run time of the SAT solver(zChaff).

Benchmark#of CNF#of Con?ict SAT Time

Clauses Clauses(sec)

SD EIJ SD EIJ SD EIJ 22s676991693871581115021.630.56

25s6752810494112304959.710.29

elf.r830556308891807770.890.06

ooo.t128544111648220364293731.83 5.49

dlx274693703311358745 5.060.43 Figure2:Effect of Encoding on zChaff performance.“Con?ict Clauses”denotes the con?ict clauses added by zChaff. Combining SD and EIJ based on Formula Features.From the preceding discussion and experimental results,it appears that EIJ would be a better encoding method except in cases where the num-ber of transitivity constraints grows too large,slowing down the translation procedure.Thus,a decision rule that chooses between the EIJ and SD methods of encoding would ideally be based on an estimate of the the number of transitivity constraints.Unfortu-nately,this number is hard to estimate in polynomial time,since it corresponds to the problem of estimating the number of cycles in a directed graph.We therefore performed a set of experiments to identify other formula features that are closely correlated with the run-time of the SD and EIJ methods.We started with a can-didate set of several features,including(1)the number of separa-tion predicates in the formula obtained after eliminating function applications,(2)the maximum over the sizes of the small-model required for each symbolic constant,(3)the fraction of function-applications that were p-function applications,and(4)the sum of the sizes of the small-models.The intuition was,for example,to use the number of separation predicates as an estimate of complex-ity of the EIJ method,and the small-model size as an estimate for the SD method.

For each of the16benchmarks,we measured CPU run-time,nor-malized by the size of the original SUF formula.The normalization allows us to study how each formula feature affects the run-time by removing the effect of formula size,yielding similar normalized run-times for formulas with similar features.The CPU run-times have two components:the time taken to translate the formula to a Boolean formula,and the time taken by the SAT solver to solve that resulting Boolean formula.

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Number of Separation Predicates

SD

EIJ

Figure3:Effect of number of separation predicates on EIJ. Notice that both axes are on a log scale.

We found that the only feature that showed any correlation with run-time was the number of separation predicates.Speci?cally,the run-times of the EIJ method show good correlation with the number of separation predicates,as shown in Figure 3.When the number of separation predicates is low,the EIJ method outperforms the SD method,due to faster SAT times.But as the number increases,its performance gets worse,until beyond a certain threshold,the EIJ method fails to go beyond the formula translation stage (and was timed out after an hour).In Figure 3,this occurs for the three benchmarks with the largest number of separation predicates.On the contrary,the small-domain method completes within 6minutes on all these three benchmarks.

The results shown in Figure 3indicate a natural heuristic for choos-ing between SD and EIJ,viz.,checking if the number of separation predicates is greater than a threshold value SEP THOLD .If the num-ber exceeds the threshold,we can use the SD encoding method,otherwise,we use EIJ.In the next section,we show how we can use this heuristic to develop a new hybrid method of encoding the separation logic formula as a Boolean formula.

4.HYBRID METHOD

A naive scheme based on the results of the previous section might use the number of separation predicates to select either SD or EIJ for encoding the entire formula F sep .However,we can exploit the formula structure to encode different parts of the formula using dif-ferent methods.The main idea is to group symbolic constants into classes,and use a different encoding method for each class.To do this,we de?ne two symbolic constants to be in the same class if they are compared to each other using an equality or an inequality.Symbolic constants appearing in F sep are thus partitioned into equiv-alence classes,where those in one equivalence class can be encoded completely independent of symbolic constants in other equivalence classes.For each class,the choice of encoding is based on the num-ber of separation predicates which involve two symbolic constants from that class.In the rest of this section,we describe the steps in the hybrid encoding method,viz.,how to compute the equiva-lence classes,estimate the number of separation predicates for each class,and then ?nally use the estimate to encode the formula using a combination of both schemes.

1.Generate Classes.We ?rst collect the set of symbolic constants occurring in F sep into two sets V p and V g .V p consists of those sym-bolic constants occurring in F suf that were classi?ed as p-function applications,as well as those constants vf i that were introduced when eliminating an application of some p-function symbol f .The remaining symbolic constants are in V g .

We start by assigning each symbolic constant in V g to its own class.We then compute the dependency set for each term in F sep ,denoting some subset of symbolic constants in V g to which this term could evaluate.While doing this,we merge some of the classes so that

each dependency set is a subset of some class.For term T .

=v ,

its dependency set is /0

if v ∈V p and is {v }if v ∈V g .For term T .

=succ (T 1),its dependency set is the same as that of T 1.Similarly

for T .=pred (T 1).For T .

=ITE (F ,T 1,T 2),its dependency set is the union of those of T 1and T 2.If the dependency sets of T 1and T 2are subsets of two distinct classes,then we merge those classes.For each equation T 1=T 2and each inequality T 1

ground terms by repeatedly applying the following rewrite rules until a ?xed point is reached.

succ (pred (T ))→T

pred (succ (T ))→T

succ (IT E (F ,T 1,T 2))→IT E (F ,succ (T 1),succ (T 2))pred (IT E (F ,T 1,T 2))→IT E (F ,pred (T 1),pred (T 2))

At this point,the terms at the leaves consist of only ground terms.For brevity,from now on we will simply write v +k (respectively v ?k )for succ k (v )(resp.pred k (v )).

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,pute Domain Sizes.For each symbolic constant v ,we compute u (v ),the maximum amount it can be incremented and l (v ),the maximum amount it can be decremented.u (v )represents the maximum offset of v in any of the ground terms present in the formula.Similarly,l (v )represents the minimum offset.For ex-ample,if {v ?4,v ?2,v ,v +3,v +7}is the set of ground terms in which v appears,then u (v )=7,and l (v )=?

4.For each class V i we compute its range as:

range (V i )

=

∑v ∈V i

(u (v )?l (v )+1).

This determines the size of the ?nite instantiation we need to con-sider for each symbolic constant in V i for SD encoding.Interpreting the symbolic constants over bit vectors of this size is suf?cient to determine the validity of the separation logic formula (due to the small-model property).

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/6d3290449.html,pute an upper bound on the number of separation pred-icates for each class.For each of the classes V i ,estimate SepCnt (V i ),the maximum number of separation predicates which would in-volve two symbolic constants from the class V i .This is done as follows.Initially,SepCnt (V i )=0,for each class V i .Then,for each equation T 1=T 2and each inequality T 1

At the end of the process SepCnt (V i )gives an upper bound on the number of separation predicates that would involve two symbolic constants from the class V i .1

5.Perform hybrid encoding.At this point,we have all the in-formation we need to encode the separation logic formula into a Boolean formula.As discussed in Section 3,we use the threshold value SEP THOLD to avoid encoding classes that have a very large number of separation predicates with the EIJ method.

The algorithm proceeds by recursing on the formula structure.A symbolic Boolean constant retains the same encoding.For a node f 1∧f 2,we recursively encode the subexpressions f 1,f 2and con-join the results.Similarly,?f 1is evaluated by encoding f 1and negating the result.The more interesting cases involve equation or inequalities.

For each equation T 1=T 2or an inequality T 1

If SepCnt (V T 1)>SEP THOLD ,then we encode T 1,T 2using SD method.The encodings of T 1and T 2are symbolic bit-vectors.Bit-wise equality or comparison is used to translate these bit-vectors to a Boolean expression.Each symbolic constant is encoded with 1SepCnt (V i

)

is an upper bound because we count predicates that

disappear after eliminating ITEs,e.g.,counting (v 1,v 2)at the node ITE (F ,v 1,v 2)=ITE (?F ,v 2,v 1).

a vector of symbolic Boolean constants.The size of the vector is determined by the domain size computed previously.Note that symbolic constants in V p are assigned distinct bit-string values.The arithmetic operations succ and pred are encoded using binary arith-metic,and IT E expressions are encoded as multiplexors.

Otherwise,we use the EIJ method to encode T 1and T 2,using the technique proposed by Bryant et al.[4].Suppose T 1evaluates to a ground term g i under the condition c 1i ,and T 2evaluates to g j under c 2j .For example,the term ITE (F ,v 1,v 2)evaluates to v 2under ?F .The encoding of the predicate T 1 T 2,where ∈{=,<},is given

by i ,j c 1i ∧c 2j ∧e g i ,g j ,where e g i ,g j is a symbolic Boolean constant

to encode the constraint g i g j .Note that if either of g i or g j

contains a symbolic constant from V p ,then e g i ,g j =false .

6.Generate F bool .Let F bvar denote the formula obtained by per-forming the hybrid encoding on F sep .We generate the conjunction F trans of all transitivity constraints for predicates in F sep encoded using the EIJ method.The ?nal Boolean formula F bool is then gen-erated as (F trans =?F bvar ).

Hereafter we will denote our hybrid encoding method by H YBRID .

4.1Automatically Selecting a Threshold

The value of the threshold parameter SEP THOLD determines the mix of SD and EIJ in H YBRID ,and hence determines its overall ef?ciency.For example,when SEP THOLD =0,H YBRID is the same as SD.While it might be acceptable to manually set the value of SEP THOLD for some formulas,it is highly desirable to ?nd a good default value.

We select a default value of SEP THOLD by statistical analysis of the results of running EIJ on a sample of the benchmarks.As a sample,we selected the same 16benchmarks that we used in Sec-tion 3to ?nd the correlation of EIJ with the number of separation predicates.Given the sorted sequence T 1,...,T 16of the normal-ized run-times of EIJ on these benchmarks,we calculated the value of k ,1≤k ≤16,that minimized the sum of the variances of each the two subsets {T 1,...,T k }and {T k +1,...,T 16}.Dividing points into subsets in this manner is a well-known technique for cluster-ing points in one dimension,using squared distance as a measure of similarity.Having performed this clustering,we chose the de-fault SEP THOLD as the smallest multiple of 100greater than n k ,the number of separation predicates corresponding to the run-time T k .For our sample set,we calculated n k to be 676,so we set the default value of SEP THOLD to be 700for all experiments reported in Section 5.

In general,a user can determine a default SEP THOLD by using a similar statistical technique on all formulas from a relevant domain that the tool has been run on in the past.

5.RESULTS &DISCUSSION

We implemented a decision procedure for SUF based on H YBRID in Moscow ML,a dialect of the Standard ML programming lan-guage.In this section,we describe empirical results comparing H YBRID with the SD and EIJ encoding methods.We also report comparisons with other decision procedures.

All experiments were run on a Pentium-IV 2GHz machine with 1GB of RAM running Linux.As a SAT engine,we used the zChaff SAT solver (version 2001.2.17)with the default options.A limit of 30minutes was imposed on each run of a decision procedure.We used the entire set of 49benchmarks described in Section 3,com-paring H YBRID to SD,EIJ,and other decision procedures on the total time taken to decide each formula.For H YBRID ,SD,and EIJ,this is the sum of the encoding time and the SAT time.Our results are depicted in Figures 4,5,and 6.In each plot,the x-coordinate

of each point is the time taken by H YBRID ,and the y-coordinate is the time taken by the decision procedure we compare it against.We also plot the diagonal line y =x in each plot.Thus,points above the diagonal correspond to benchmarks on which H YBRID outperforms the other procedures,while points below it correspond to benchmarks on which H YBRID is outperformed.

Comparing H YBRID to SD and EIJ.The results obtained from comparing H YBRID against SD and EIJ fall into two categories.The ?rst set of results are on 39benchmarks on which H YBRID with the default value of SEP THOLD outperformed both SD and EIJ,and are depicted in Figure 4.These 39benchmarks exclude formulas generated in proving correctness of hardware designs us-ing invariant checking.On the remaining 10benchmarks,SD out-performed both EIJ and H YBRID ,for various values of SEP THOLD greater than 100including the default value;the results obtained by setting SEP THOLD to 100are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4shows that H YBRID scales better than EIJ and SD.We notice that SD and EIJ timed out after 30minutes on some bench-marks,while H YBRID completed on all benchmarks.On several benchmarks that SD and EIJ completed on,H YBRID is a factor of 4to 8times faster.The only benchmarks on which SD and EIJ are marginally faster than H YBRID are small ones,all of which are decided within 16seconds.The improvement of H YBRID over EIJ is due to reduction in the number of transitivity constraints,while the improvement over SD is due to reduced SAT time.On one in-stance,zChaff fails to decide the SAT problem generated by SD within the timeout limit of 30minutes,while it ?nishes on the H Y -BRID encoding in about 90seconds.

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T o t a l T i m e f o r E I J o r S D (s e c .)

Total Time for Hybrid (sec.)

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Figure 4:Comparing H YBRID against EIJ and SD.Non-invariant checking benchmarks were used.Note the log scales on both axes.

However,the results on the invariant checking formulas are very different.These formulas are characterized by many inequalities and a very large number of applications of uninterpreted functions,almost none of which are p-function applications.This results in a relatively small number of large-sized symbolic constant classes.Thus,even if the original number of separation predicates in each class is relatively low (e.g.,less than SEP THOLD ),the number of symbolic constants involved in those predicates is large,and this leads to a large number of transitivity constraints.Hence,using the EIJ encoding method results in poor performance,whether in pure form or in H YBRID .We found that SD performs the best on these benchmarks.EIJ and H YBRID using the default value of SEP THOLD fail to complete on any of them.Setting SEP THOLD to 100,we found that H YBRID manages to complete on some bench-marks,but it is still outperformed by SD,as shown in Figure 5.

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timeout 16

642561024timeout

T o t a l T i m e f o r E I J o r S D (s e c .)

Total Time for Hybrid (sec.)

SD EIJ

Figure 5:Comparing H YBRID against SD and EIJ on invariant checking benchmarks.SEP THOLD was set to 100.

Comparison with Other Decision Procedures.We compared our decision procedure against existing decision procedures that can decide SUF formulas.One such procedure is the Stanford Valid-ity Checker (SVC)[2].SVC (version 1.1)can decide a superset of SUF,including,in addition,linear arithmetic and bit-vector arith-metic.We also compared against the more recent Cooperating Va-lidity Checker (CVC)[3],which is SAT-based.In all experiments,we used H YBRID with the default value of 700for SEP THOLD .Since both SVC and CVC interpret function applications over the rational numbers,we could not run them on the invariant check-ing benchmarks which involve inequalities,and whose validity de-pends on the property that the integers are not dense.We there-fore restricted our performance comparisons to the 39non-invariant checking benchmarks.

Figure 6compares H YBRID against both CVC and SVC.Let us ?rst consider the comparison with SVC.We see that the formulas on which SVC outperforms H YBRID are relatively small,decided within 32seconds.This is mainly due to the overhead of translating to SAT in H YBRID .Also many of these formulas are conjunctions of atomic predicates on which SVC performs well,since deciding a conjunction of separation predicates can be reduced to a shortest-path problem.However,for larger formulas involving several dis-junctions,SVC’s run-time quickly blows up,and it fails to ?nish within 30minutes.H YBRID ,on the other hand,completes within 3minutes on all formulas.

0.25

1

4

16

64

256

1024

timeout 0.25

1

4

1664

256

1024

T o t a l T i m e f o r C V C o r S V C (s e c .)

Total Time for Hybrid (sec.)

SVC CVC

Figure 6:Comparing H YBRID against SVC and CVC.Next,consider the comparison with CVC.Like EIJ,CVC works by replacing every equality or inequality with a fresh Boolean vari-able,and calling a SAT solver (a customized version of Chaff)on

the Boolean encoding.However,unlike EIJ,transitivity constraints are enforced lazily,based on adding con?ict clauses to rule out spu-rious satisfying assignments from the SAT solver.Each iteration of adding con?ict clauses requires a call to a ?rst-order decision pro-cedure.Our experiments indicate that for many benchmarks,the overhead of lazy enforcement of transitivity constraints is too high,and H YBRID outperforms CVC by orders of magnitude.The ex-ceptional cases where CVC outperforms H YBRID are conjunctions that are decided by both methods within 16seconds.We believe this is because CVC tries to add con?ict clauses that involve the smallest possible subset of literals from the satisfying assignment,and for a conjunction,this clause enforces transitivity constraints without need for further iteration.

Conclusions.The hybrid encoding method presented in this paper combines the complementary strengths of the small-domain and per-constraint encodings.Even with the default value of threshold,the method is robust to variations in formula characteristics,per-forming well on the majority of the benchmarks,and scaling better than other decision procedures.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Steven German,Ranjit Jhala,and Ofer Strichman for providing us with benchmarks.

6.REFERENCES

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R.Sebastiani.A SAT based approach for solving formulas over

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[2] C.Barrett,D.Dill,and J.Levitt.Validity checking for combinations

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systems using a logic of counter arithmetic with lambda expressions and uninterpreted functions.In CAV’02,LNCS 2404,pages 78–92.[7]R.E.Bryant and M.N.Velev.Boolean satis?ability with transitivity

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formulas with SAT.In CAV’02,LNCS 2404,pages 209–222.

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procedures in the formal veri?cation of superscalar and VLIW microprocessors.In DAC ’01,pages 226–231.

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品质体系框架图 1

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品质体系的一般架构

品质体系的一般架构 图中各缩写词含义如下: QC : Quality Con trol 品质控制QA : Quality Assura nee 品质保证QE : Quality Engin eeri ng 品质工程 IQC : Incoming Quality Con trol 来料品质控制 LQC :Line Quality Control 生产线品质控制IPQC :In Process Quality Control 制程品质控制FQC Fi nal Quality Co ntrol 最终品质控制SQA :Source (Supplier) Quality Assura nee 供应商品质控制DCC :Docume nt Con trol Cen ter 文控中心 PQA :Process Quality Assura nee 制程品质保证FQA :Final Quality Assura nee 最终品质保证DAS :Defects An alysis System 缺陷分析系统FA : Failure An alysis 坏品分析 CPI : Con ti nu ous Process Improveme nt 连续工序改善 CS : Customer Service 客户服务TRAINNING : 培训

一供应商品质保证(SQA) 1. SQA概念 SQA即供应商品质保证,识通过在供应商处设立专人进行抽样检验,并定期对供应商进行审核、评价而从最源头实施品质保证的一种方法。是以预防为主思想的体现。 2. SQA组织结构 3. 主要职责 1) 对从来料品质控制(IQC) /生产及其他渠道所获取的信息进行分析、综合,把结果反馈给 供应商,并要求改善。 2) 耕具派驻检验远提供的品质情报对供应商品质进行跟踪。 3) 定期对供应商进行审核,及时发现品质隐患。 4) 根据实际不定期给供应商导入先进的品质管理手法及检验手段,推动其品质保证能力的 提升。 5) 根据公司的生产反馈情况、派驻人员检验结果、对投宿反应速度及态度对供应商进行排 序,为公司对供应商的取舍提供依据。 4. 供应商品质管理的主要办法 1) 派驻检验员 把IQC移至供应商,使得及早发现问题,便于供应商及时返工,降低供应商的品质成本,便于本公司快速反应,对本公司的品质保证有利。同时可以根据本公司的实际使用情况及IQC的检验情况,专门严加检查问题项目,针对性强。 2) 定期审核 通过组织各方面的专家对供应商进行审核,有利于全面把握供应商的综合能力,及时发现薄弱环节并要求改善,从而从体系上保证供货品质定期排序,此结果亦为供应商进行排序提供依据。 一般审核项目包含以下几个方面 A. 品质。 B. 生产支持。 C. 技术能力及新产品导入。 般事务? 具体内容请看“供应商调查确认表”

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