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细菌内毒素USP

细菌内毒素USP
细菌内毒素USP

BACTERIAL ENDOTOXINS TEST<85> USP35

Portions of this general chapter have been harmonized with the corresponding texts of

the European Pharmacopoeia and/or the Japanese Pharmacopoeia. Those portions that are not harmonized are marked with symbols () to specify this fact.

这一章节已经和欧洲药典(EP)与日本药典(JP)统一。没有统一的部分已经用标记出

来。

The Bacterial Endotoxins Test (BET) is a test to detect or quantify endotoxins from Gram-negative bacteria using amoebocyte lysate from the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus or Tachypleus tridentatus).

细菌内毒素检查法(BET)是通过鲎的阿米巴细胞溶解产物来检测或定量来自革兰氏阴性菌的内毒素。

There are three techniques for this test: the gel-clot technique, which is based on gel formation; the turbidimetric technique, based on the development of turbidity after cleavage of an endogenous substrate; and the chromogenic technique, based on the development of color after cleavage of a synthetic peptide-chromogen complex. Proceed by any of the three techniques for the test. In the event of doubt or dispute, the final decision is made based upon the gel-clot technique unless otherwise indicated in the monograph for the product being tested. The test is carried out in a manner that avoids endotoxin contamination.

细菌内毒素检查法有3种:凝胶法,基于凝胶的形成;浊度法,

BACTERIAL ENDOTOXINS TEST USP32

Portions of this general chapter have been harmonized with the corresponding texts of the European Pharmacopeia and/or the Japanese Pharmacopeia. Those portions that are not

harmonized are marked with symbols () to specify this fact.

This chapter provides a test to detect or quantify bacterial endotoxins that may be present in or on the sample of the article(s) to which the test is applied. It uses Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) obtained from the aqueous extracts of circulating amebocytes of horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus or Tachypleus tridentatus) which has been prepared and characterized for use as an

LAL Reagent.1

There are two types of techniques for this test: the gel-clot techniques, which are based on gel formation, and the photometric techniques. The latter include a turbidimetric method, which is based on the development of turbidity after cleavage of an endogenous substrate, and a chromogenic method, which is based on the development of color after cleavage of a synthetic peptide-chromogen complex. Proceed by any one of these techniques, unless otherwise indicated in the monograph. In case of dispute, the final decision is based on the gel-clot techniques, unless otherwise indicated in the monograph.

In the gel-clot techniques, the reaction endpoint is determined from dilutions of the material under test in direct comparison with parallel dilutions of a reference endotoxin, and quantities of endotoxin are expressed in USP Endotoxin Units (USP-EU).[NOTE—One USP-EU is equal to one IU of endotoxin.]

Because LAL Reagents have been formulated to be used also for turbidimetric or colorimetric tests, such tests may be used to comply with the requirements. These tests require the establishment of a standard regression curve; the endotoxin content of the test material is determined by interpolation from the curve. The procedures include incubation for a preselected time of reacting endotoxin and control solutions with LAL Reagent and reading of the spectrophotometric light absorbance at suitable wavelengths. In the endpoint turbidimetric procedure the reading is made immediately at the end of the incubation period. In the endpoint colorimetric procedure the reaction is arrested at the end of the preselected time by the addition of an enzyme reaction-terminating agent prior to the readings. In the turbidimetric and colorimetric kinetic assays the absorbance is measured throughout the reaction period and rate values are determined from those readings.

APPARATUS AND GLASSWARE

Depyrogenate all glassware and other heat-stable materials in a hot-air oven using a validated

process.2Commonly used minimum time and temperature settings are 30 minutes at 250.

If employing plastic apparatus, such as microplates and pipet tips for automatic pipetters, use only that which has been shown to be free of detectable endotoxin and not to interfere with the

test.[NOTE—In this chapter, the term “tube” includes any other receptacle such as a micro-titer well.]

PREPARATION OF THE STANDARD ENDOTOXIN STOCK SOLUTION AND STANDARD SOLUTIONS The USP Endotoxin RS has a defined potency of 10,000 USP Endotoxin Units (EU) per vial. Constitute the entire contents of 1 vial of the RSE with 5 mL of LAL Reagent Water3, mix

intermittently for 30 minutes, using a vortex mixer, and use this concentrate for making appropriate serial dilutions. Preserve the concentrate in a refrigerator for making subsequent dilutions for not more than 14 days. Mix vigorously, using a vortex mixer, for not less than 3 minutes before use. Mix each dilution for not less than 30 seconds before proceeding to make the next dilution. Do not store dilutions, because of loss of activity by adsorption, in the absence of supporting data to the contrary.

Preparatory Testing

Use an LAL Reagent of confirmed label sensitivity.

The validity of test results for bacterial endotoxins requires an adequate demonstration that specimens of the article or of solutions, washings, or extracts thereof to which the test is to be applied do not of themselves inhibit or enhance the reaction or otherwise interfere with the test. Validation is accomplished by performing the inhibition or enhancement test described under each of the three techniques indicated. Appropriate negative controls are included. Validation must be repeated if the LAL Reagent source or the method of manufacture or formulation of the article is changed.

Preparation of Sample Solutions

Prepare sample solutions by dissolving or diluting drugs or extracting medical devices using LAL Reagent Water. Some substances or preparations may be more appropriately dissolved, diluted, or extracted in other aqueous solutions. If necessary, adjust the pH of the solution (or dilution thereof) to be examined so that the pH of the mixture of the LAL Reagent and sample falls within the pH range specified by the LAL Reagent manufacturer. This usually applies to a product with a pH in the range of 6.0 to 8.0. The pH may be adjusted using an acid, base, or suitable buffer as recommended by the LAL Reagent manufacturer. Acids and bases may be prepared from concentrates or solids with LAL Reagent Water in containers free of detectable endotoxin. Buffers must be validated to be free of detectable endotoxin and interfering factors.

DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM VALID DILUTION (MVD)

The Maximum Valid Dilution is the maximum allowable dilution of a specimen at which the endotoxin limit can be determined. It applies to injections or to solutions for parenteral administration in the form constituted or diluted for administration, or, where applicable, to the amount of drug by weight if the volume of the dosage form for administration could be varied. The general equation to determine MVD is:

MVD = (Endotoxin limit × Concentration of sample solution)/()

where the concentration of sample solution and are as defined below. Where the endotoxin

limit concentration is specified in the individual monograph in terms of volume (in EU per mL), divide the limit by, which is the labeled sensitivity (in EU per mL) of the LAL Reagent, to obtain

the MVD factor. Where the endotoxin limit concentration is specified in the individual monograph in terms of weight or Units of active drug (in EU per mg or in EU per Unit), multiply the limit by the concentration (in mg per mL or in Units per mL) of the drug in the solution tested or of the drug constituted according to the label instructions, whichever is applicable, and divide

the product of the multiplication by, to obtain the MVD factor. The MVD factor so obtained is

the limit dilution factor for the preparation for the test to be valid.

ESTABLISHMENT OF ENDOTOXIN LIMITS

The endotoxin limit for parenteral drugs, defined on the basis of dose, is equal to K/M,

4where K is the threshold human pyrogenic dose of endotoxin per kg of body weight,

and M is equal to the maximum recommended human dose of product per kg of body weight in a single hour period.

The endotoxin limit for parenteral drugs is specified in individual monographs in units such as EU/mL, EU/mg, or EU/Unit of biological activity.

GEL-CLOT TECHNIQUES

The gel-clot techniques detect or quantify endotoxins based on clotting of the LAL Reagent in the presence of endotoxin. The concentration of endotoxin required to cause the lysate to clot under standard conditions is the labeled sensitivity of the LAL Reagent. To ensure both the precision and validity of the test, tests for confirming the labeled LAL Reagent sensitivity and for interfering factors are described under Preparatory Testing for the Gel-Clot Techniques.

Preparatory Testing for the Gel-Clot Techniques

Test for Confirmation of Labeled LAL Reagent Sensitivity—Confirm the labeled sensitivity using at least 1 vial of the LAL Reagent lot. Prepare a series of two-fold dilutions of the USP Endotoxin

RS in LAL Reagent Water to give concentrations of 2,, 0.5, and 0.25, where is as

defined above. Perform the test on the four standard concentrations in quadruplicate and include negative controls. The test for confirmation of lysate sensitivity is to be carried out when a new batch of LAL Reagent is used or when there is any change in the experimental conditions that may affect the outcome of the test.

Mix a volume of the LAL Reagent with an equal volume (such as 0.1-mL aliquots) of one of the standard solutions in each test tube. When single test vials or ampuls containing lyophilized LAL Reagent are used, add solutions directly to the vial or ampul. Incubate the reaction mixture for a

constant period according to directions of the LAL Reagent manufacturer (usually at 37 ± 1for 60 ± 2 minutes), avoiding vibration. To test the integrity of the gel, take each tube in turn directly from the incubator and invert it through about 180in one smooth motion. If a firm gel has

formed that remains in place upon inversion, record the result as positive. A result is negative if an intact gel is not formed. The test is not valid unless the lowest concentration of the standard solutions shows a negative result in all replicate tests.

The endpoint is the last positive test in the series of decreasing concentrations of endotoxin. Calculate the mean value of the logarithms of the endpoint concentration and then the antilogarithm of the mean value using the following equation:

Geometric Mean Endpoint Concentration = antilog (S e / f)

where S e is the sum of the log endpoint concentrations of the dilution series used, and f is the number of replicate test tubes. The geometric mean endpoint concentration is the measured

sensitivity of the LAL Reagent (in EU/mL). If this is not less than 0.5and not more than 2, the labeled sensitivity is confirmed and is used in tests performed with this lysate.

Interfering Factors Test for the Gel-Clot Techniques—Prepare solutions A, B, C, and D as shown in Table 1, and perform the inhibition/enhancement test on the sample solutions at a dilution less than the MVD, not containing any detectable endotoxins, following the procedure in

the Test for Confirmation of Labeled LAL Reagent Sensitivity above. The geometric mean endpoint concentrations of solutions B and C are determined using the equation in that test.

Table 1. Preparation of Solutions for the Inhibition/Enhancement Test for Gel-Clot Techniques

Solution

Endotoxin

Concentration/Solution to

which Endotoxin is Added Diluent

Dilution

Factor

Initial

Endotoxin

Concentration

Number of

Replicates

A a none/sample solution ——— 4

B b

2/sample solution sample

solution

1

2

4

2

1

4

4

0.5

4

8

0.25

4

Solution

Endotoxin

Concentration/Solution to

which Endotoxin is Added Diluent

Dilution

Factor

Initial

Endotoxin

Concentration

Number of

Replicates

C c

2/water for BET LAL

Reagent

Water

1

2

2

2

1

2

4

0.5

2

8

0.25

2

D d none/LAL Reagent Water ——— 2

a Solution A: a sample solution of the preparation under test that is free of detectable endotoxins.

b Solution B: test for interference.

c Solution C: control for labele

d LAL Reagent sensitivity.

d Solution D: negativ

e control o

f LAL Reagent Water.

This test must be repeated when any condition that is likely to influence the test results changes. The test is not valid unless Solutions A and D show no reaction and the result of Solution C confirms the labeled sensitivity.

If the sensitivity of the lysate determined in the presence of the sample solution under test of Solution B is not less than 0.5and not greater than 2, the sample solution does not contain

factors which interfere under the experimental conditions used. Otherwise, the sample solution to be examined interferes with the test.

If the sample under test does not comply with the test at a dilution less than the MVD, repeat the test using a greater dilution, not exceeding the MVD. The use of a more sensitive lysate permits a greater dilution of the sample to be examined and this may contribute to the elimination of interference.

Interference may be overcome by suitable treatment, such as filtration, neutralization, dialysis, or heating. To establish that the chosen treatment effectively eliminates interference without loss of endotoxins, perform the assay described below using the preparation to be examined to which USP Endotoxin RS has been added and which has been subjected to the selected treatment.

Gel-Clot Limit Test

This test is used when a monograph contains a requirement for endotoxin limits.

Procedure—Prepare Solutions A, B, C, and D as shown in Table 2, and perform the test on these solutions following the procedure in the Test for Confirmation of Labeled LAL Reagent Sensitivity under Preparatory Testing for the Gel-Clot Techniques.

Table 2. Preparation of Solutions for the Gel-Clot Limit Test

Solution*Endotoxin Concentration/Solution to which Endotoxin is Added Number of Replicates

A none/diluted sample solution 2

B

2/diluted sample solution

2

C

2/LAL Reagent Water

2

D none/LAL Reagent Water 2

*Prepare Solution A and positive product control Solution B using a dilution not greater than the MVD and treatments as directed in the Interfering Factors Test for the Gel-Clot Techniques under Preparatory Testing for the Gel-Clot Techniques.Positive control Solutions B and C contain the standard endotoxin preparation at a concentration corresponding to twice the labeled LAL Reagent sensitivity. The negative control Solution D is LAL Reagent Water.

Interpretation—The test is not valid unless both replicates of positive control Solutions B and C are positive and those of negative control Solution D are negative. The preparation under test complies with the test when a negative result is found for both tubes containing Solution A. The preparation under test does not comply with the test when a positive result is found for both tubes containing Solution A.

Repeat the test when a positive result is found for 1 tube containing Solution A and a negative result for the other one. The preparation under test complies with the test when a negative result is found for both tubes containing Solution A in the repeat result. If the test is positive for the preparation under test at a dilution less than the MVD, the test may be repeated at a dilution not greater than the MVD.

Gel-Clot Assay

This assay quantifies bacterial endotoxins in sample solutions by titration to an endpoint. Procedure—Prepare Solutions A, B, C, and D as shown in Table 3, and test these solutions by following the procedure in the Test for Confirmation of Labeled LAL Reagent

Sensitivity under Preparatory Testing for the Gel-Clot Techniques.

Table 3. Preparation of Solutions for the Gel-Clot Assay

Solution

Endotoxin

Concentration/Solution to

which Endotoxin is Added Diluent

Dilution

Factor

Initial Endotoxin

Concentration

Number of

Replicates

Solution

Endotoxin

Concentration/Solution to

which Endotoxin is Added Diluent

Dilution

Factor

Initial Endotoxin

Concentration

Number of

Replicates

A a none/sample solution LAL

Reagent

Water

1 — 2

2 — 2

4 — 2

8 — 2

B b

2/sample solution — 1

2

2

C c

2/LAL Reagent Water LAL

Reagent

Water

1

2

2

2

1

2

4

0.5

2

8

0.25

2

D d none/LAL Reagent Water ——— 2

a Solution A: a sample solution under test at the dilution, not to exceed the MVD, with which the Interfering Factors Test for the Gel-Clot Techniques was completed. Subsequent dilution of the sample solution must not exceed the MVD. Use LAL Reagent Water to make dilution series of four tubes containing the sample solution under test at concentrations of 1, ?, ?, and

1/8 relative to the dilution with which the Interfering Factors Test for the Gel-Clot Techniques was completed. Other dilutions may be used as appropriate.

b Solution B: Solution A containing standard endotoxin at a concentration of 2(positive product control).

c Solution C: two series of 4 tubes of LAL Reagent Water containing the standar

d endotoxin at a concentration of 2,, 0.5, and 0.25, respectively.

d Solution D: LAL Reagent Water (negativ

e control).

Calculation and Interpretation—The test is not valid unless the following conditions are met: (1) both replicates of negative control Solution D are negative; (2) both replicates of positive product control Solution B are positive; and (3) the geometric mean endpoint concentration of Solution C

is in the range of 0.5to 2.

To determine the endotoxin concentration of Solution A, calculate the endpoint concentration for each replicate series of dilutions by multiplying each endpoint dilution factor by. The

endotoxin concentration in the sample is the geometric mean endpoint concentration of the replicates (see the formula given in the Test for Confirmation of Labeled LAL Reagent Sensitivity under Preparatory Testing for the Gel-Clot Techniques). If the test is conducted with a diluted sample solution, calculate the concentration of endotoxin in the original sample solution by multiplying by the dilution factor. If none of the dilutions of the sample solution is positive in a

valid assay, report the endotoxin concentration as less than(if the diluted sample was tested,

less than times the lowest dilution factor of the sample.) If all dilutions are positive, the endotoxin concentration is reported as equal to or greater than the greatest dilution factor multiplied by(e.g., initial dilution factor times 8 times in Table 3).

The article meets the requirements of the test if the concentration of endotoxin is less than that specified in the individual monograph.

PHOTOMETRIC TECHNIQUES

The turbidimetric method measures increases in turbidity. Depending on the test principle used, this technique is classified as either endpoint-turbidimetric or kinetic-turbidimetric. The endpoint-turbidimetric technique is based on the quantitative relationship between the concentration of endotoxins and the turbidity (absorbance or transmission) of the reaction mixture at the end of an incubation period. The kinetic-turbidimetric technique is a method to measure either the onset time needed to reach a predetermined absorbance of the reaction mixture or the rate of turbidity development.

The chromogenic method measures the chromophore released from a suitable chromogenic peptide by the reaction of endotoxins with the LAL Reagent. Depending on the test principle employed, this technique is classified as either endpoint-chromogenic or kinetic-chromogenic. The endpoint-chromogenic technique is based on the quantitative relationship between the concentration of endotoxins and the release of chromophore at the end of an incubation period. The kinetic-chromogenic technique is a method to measure either the onset time needed to reach a predetermined absorbance of the reaction mixture or the rate of color development.

All photometric tests are carried out at the incubation temperature recommended by the LAL

Reagent manufacturer, which is usually 37 ± 1.

Preparatory Testing for the Photometric Techniques

To assure the precision or validity of the turbidimetric and chromogenic techniques, preparatory tests are conducted to verify that the criteria for the standard curve are valid and that the sample solution does not inhibit or enhance the reaction. Revalidation for the test method is required when conditions that are likely to influence the test result change.

Verification of Criteria for the Standard Curve—Using the Standard Endotoxin Solution, prepare at least three endotoxin concentrations to generate the standard curve. Perform the test using at least three replicates of each standard endotoxin concentration according to the manufacturer's instructions for the LAL Reagent (with regard to volume ratios, incubation time, temperature, pH, etc.). If the desired range in the kinetic methods is greater than two logs, additional standards should be included to bracket each log increase within the range of the standard curve. The absolute value of the correlation coefficient, |r|, must be greater than or equal to 0.980 for the range of endotoxin concentrations indicated by the manufacturer of the LAL Reagent.

Interfering Factors Test for the Photometric Techniques—Select an endotoxin concentration at or near the middle of the endotoxin standard curve. Prepare Solutions A, B, C, and D as shown

in Table 4. Perform the test on Solutions A, B, C, and D at least in duplicate following the instructions for the LAL Reagent used (with regard to volume of sample and LAL Reagent, volume ratio of sample to LAL Reagent, incubation time, etc.).

Table 4. Preparation of Solutions for the Inhibition/Enhancement Test for Photometric

Techniques

Solution Endotoxin Concentration

Solution to which

Endotoxin is Added

Number of

Replicates

A a none sample solution not less than 2

B b middle concentration of the standard

curve

sample solution not less than 2

C c at least 3 concentrations (lowest

concentration is designated) LAL Reagent Water each not less

than 2

D d none LAL Reagent Water not less than 2

a Solution A: the sample solution may be diluted not to exceed MVD.

b Solution B: the preparation under test at the same dilution as Solution A, containing added endotoxin at a concentration equal to or near the middle of the standard curve.

c Solution C: the standar

d endotoxin at th

e concentrations used in the validation o

f the method described in Verification of Criteria for the Standard Curve under Preparatory Testin

g for the Photometric Techniques(positive control series).

d Solution D: LAL Reagent Water (negativ

e control).

Calculate the mean recovery of the added endotoxin by subtracting the mean endotoxin concentration in the solution (if any) from that containing the added endotoxin. In order to be considered free of interfering factors under the conditions of the test, the measured concentration of the endotoxin added to the sample solution must be within 50% to 200% of the known added endotoxin concentration after subtraction of any endotoxin detected in the solution without added endotoxin.

When the endotoxin recovery is out of the specified ranges, the interfering factors must be removed as described in the Interfering Factors Test for the Gel-Clot

Techniques under Preparatory Testing for the Gel-Clot Techniques.Repeating the Interfering Factors Test for the Gel-Clot Techniques validates the treatment.

Procedure for the Photometric Techniques

Follow the procedure described in the Interfering Factors Test for the Photometric Techniques under Preparatory Testing for the Photometric Techniques.

Calculation for the Photometric Techniques

Calculate the endotoxin concentration of each of the replicates of test Solution A using the standard curve generated by positive control series C. The test is not valid unless the following conditions are met: (1) the results of control series C comply with the requirements for validation defined under Verification of Criteria for the Standard Curve under Preparatory Testing for the Photometric Techniques;(2) the endotoxin recovery, calculated from the concentration found in Solution B after subtracting the endotoxin concentration found in Solution A is within 50 to 200%; and (3) the result of negative control series D does not exceed the limit of the blank value required in the description of the LAL Reagent used.

Interpretation of Results from the Photometric Techniques

In photometric assays, the preparation under test complies with the test if the mean endotoxin concentration of the replicates of Solution A, after correction for dilution and concentration, is less than the endotoxin limit for the product.

1LAL Reagent reacts with some-glucans in addition to endotoxins. Some preparations that are treated will not react with-glucans and must be used for samples that contain glucans.

2For a validity test of the procedure for inactivating endotoxins, see Dry-Heat

Sterilization under Sterilization and Sterility Assurance of Compendial Articles1211. Use an

LAL Reagent having a sensitivity of not less than 0.15 Endotoxin Unit per mL.

3Sterile Water for Injection or other water that shows no reaction with the specific LAL Reagent with which it is to be used, at the limit of sensitivity of such reagent.

4K is 5 USP-EU/kg for any route of administration other than intrathecal (for which K is 0.2

USP-EU/kg body weight). For radiopharmaceutical products not administered intrathecally the endotoxin limit is calculated as 175/V, where V is the maximum recommended dose in mL. For intrathecally administered radiopharmaceuticals, the endotoxin limit is obtained by the formula 14/V. For formulations (usually anticancer products) administered on a per square meter of body

surface, the formula is K/M, where K= 5 EU/kg and M is the (maximum dose/m2/hour × 1.80 m2)/70 Kg.

抗菌药诱导的内毒素释放作用

论文关键词: 抗菌药内毒素青霉素结合蛋白 论文摘要: 一些实验研究及临床资料证明,有些抗菌药尤其是β-内酰胺类抗生素在治疗革兰氏阴性菌感染时,有诱导大量内毒素释放的副作用,在临床上可能引起或加重内毒素血症。不同类型抗菌药诱导内毒素释放的程度与其对不同类型青霉素结合蛋白(pbp)的亲和性有关,抗菌药与pbp3或pbp2结合所造成的内毒素释放的量较高。因此在抗菌药的研究设计中,除了要考虑其杀菌效力外,还应考虑可能诱导内毒素释放的问题。在败血症治疗中也应采取合理的治疗方案,以防止或减轻内毒素血症的发生。 内毒素是革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁外膜中的脂多糖成分,具有广泛的生物活性。内毒素对机体造成双重影响:少量内毒素刺激机体时,能增强特异性及非特异性免疫力,诱导产生干扰素等;而大量内毒素进入机体循环时,可造成广泛而强烈的病理反应,如弥漫性血管内凝血、多器官功能衰竭及休克等。内毒素在革兰氏阴性杆菌引起的感染性休克中起着关键作用[1-3]。对于革兰氏阴性菌败血症病人,有些广谱抗菌药能有效地控制菌血症,但是临床资料证明病人的死亡率仍然很高,其原因可能与抗菌药诱导细菌释放内毒素有关[4,5]。由于在抗菌药治疗的过程中,随着细菌的裂解,内毒素从细菌的细胞壁外膜释放后进入血液循环,因而可能加重内毒素血症,从而促进一系列的炎症反应,造成机体严重而广泛的病理损伤。 1 抗菌药诱导的内毒素释放 在体外细菌培养系统中,已发现多种抗菌药如β-内酰胺类[6~8]、氨基糖苷类[9]、氟喹诺酮类药物[10]等均能引起不同程度的内毒素释放,其中β-内酰胺类抗生素(如氨苄西林,头孢噻肟,头孢他啶,氨曲南等)能诱导多种细菌包括野生菌和突变菌(如大肠埃希氏菌,铜绿假单胞菌[6~8],肺炎克雷伯氏菌[11],流感嗜血菌[12]等)释放大量的内毒素,在这些抗菌药处理的细菌培养上清液中能检测到内毒素含量比无抗菌药处理者高几倍甚至几十倍。β-内酰胺类抗生素诱导的内毒素释放常常与其造成的细菌溶解伴随发生,并与细菌溶解程度有一定关系。内毒素-细胞因子级联反应所造成的全身炎症过程是发生内毒素休克的重要环节。抗菌药作用于细菌后,由于细菌裂解及伴随的内毒素释放到培养上清液中,其上清液可刺激巨噬细胞及血管内皮细胞等产生大量的肿瘤坏死因子(tnf)和白细胞介素-6(il-6)[13~15],这些炎性因子的大量产生可促进内毒素休克的发生。 有些动物体内实验可观察到与体外实验一致的结果。给大肠埃希氏菌性腹膜炎家兔注射庆大霉素后,动物血液中细菌数量急剧减少,但血浆中内毒素含量较未治疗者明显增高[9]。用氨苄西林治疗幼年大鼠流感嗜血菌性腹膜炎,造成较多的内毒素释放入血液循环[12]。烧伤后感染肺炎克雷伯氏菌的败血症小鼠,经头孢他啶、氨曲南、亚胺培南治疗后,小鼠血液中内毒素含量明显增高,同时内毒素激活巨噬细胞产生大量的il-6[16]。大肠埃希氏菌性脑膜炎家兔,经美罗培南和头孢噻肟治疗后,在脑脊液中可检测到高含量的内毒素,同时脑脊液中tnf 浓度也增高[17]。不同类型的抗菌药所诱导的内毒素释放水平有所不同,如拉氧头孢对菌血症的清除作用与庆大霉素相似,但其诱导内毒素释放的量比庆大霉素高20倍[18]。用d-半乳糖胺处理小鼠后,再造成大肠埃希氏菌性腹膜炎模型,发现用头孢他啶治疗比用亚胺培南治疗引起更多的小鼠死亡,推测头孢他啶诱导更多的内毒素释放[19]。 虽然动物体内的研究结果不能外推到人,但这些研究证据提示了抗菌药促进内毒素释放,加重内毒素血症的可能性。有些革兰氏阴性菌败血症患者在接受抗菌药治疗后,尽管血液中细菌数减少或消失,但大部分病人呈现血浆中游离及总内毒素含量增高(游离内毒素含量升高2~50倍)[5,20]。流感嗜血菌感染的脑膜炎患儿,在接受头孢他啶治疗后,所有患儿脑脊液中游 离内毒素含量均增高,同时脑脊液中乳酸盐及乳酸脱氢酶增高及葡萄糖下降,提示内毒素增高导致炎症加重[21]。用抗菌药治疗泌尿系感染后,尿液培养显示细菌数下降,但尿中内毒素含量却明显增高。内毒素释放的程度与所用的抗菌药种类有关,其中β-内酰胺类抗生素所

内毒素和外毒素

内毒素和外毒素

1.外毒素产生菌主要是革兰阳性菌中的破伤风梭菌、肉毒梭菌、白喉杆菌、产气荚膜梭菌、A群链球菌、金黄色葡萄球菌等。某些革兰阴性菌中的痢疾志贺菌、鼠疫耶氏菌、霍乱弧菌、肠产毒素型大肠埃希菌、铜绿假单胞菌等也能产生外毒素。大多数外毒素是在菌细胞内合成后分泌至细胞外;也有存在于菌体内,待菌溶溃后才释放出来的,痢疾志贺菌和肠产毒素型大肠埃希菌的外毒素属此。 外毒素的毒性强。1mg肉毒毒素纯品能杀死2亿只小鼠,毒性比KCN大1万倍。不同细菌产生的外毒素,对机体的组织器官具有选择作用,各引起特殊的病变。例如肉毒毒素能阻断胆碱能神经末梢释放乙酰胆碱,使眼和咽肌等麻痹,引起眼睑下垂、复视、斜视、吞咽困难等,严重者可因呼吸麻痹而死。又如白喉毒素对外周神经末梢、心肌等有亲和性,通过抑制靶细胞蛋白质的合成而导致外周神经麻痹和心肌炎等。 多数外毒素不耐热。例如白喉外毒素在58—60℃经1—2h,破伤风外毒素在60℃经20min可被破坏。但葡萄球菌肠毒素是例外,能耐100℃30min。大多外毒素是蛋白质,具有良好的抗原性。在0.3%—0.4%甲醛液作用下,经一定时间,可以脱去毒性,但仍保有免疫原性,是为类毒素(toxoid)。类毒素注入机体后,可刺激机体产生具有中和外毒素作用的抗毒素抗体。类毒素和抗毒素在防治一些传染病中有实际意义,前者主要用于人工主动免疫,后者常用于治疗和紧急预防。 多数外毒素的分子结构为A-B模式,即由A和B两种亚单位组成。A亚单位是外毒素活性部分,决定其毒性效应。B亚单位无毒,能与宿主靶细胞表面的特殊受体结合,介导A亚单位进入靶细胞。A或B亚单独对宿主无致病作用,因而外毒素分子的完整性是致病的必要条件。利用B亚单位能与靶细胞受体结合后阻止受体再与完整外毒素分子结合,且B亚单位抗原性强;将B亚单位提纯制成疫苗,有可能预防相关的外毒素性疾病。 根据外毒素对宿主细胞的亲和性及作用方式等,可分成神经毒素、细胞毒

内毒素和外毒素

For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use 内毒素和外毒素

1.外毒素产生菌主要是革兰阳性菌中的破伤风梭菌、肉毒梭菌、白喉杆菌、产气荚膜梭菌、A群链球菌、金黄色葡萄球菌等。某些革兰阴性菌中的痢疾志贺菌、鼠疫耶氏菌、霍乱弧菌、肠产毒素型大肠埃希菌、铜绿假单胞菌等也能产生外毒素。大多数外毒素是在菌细胞内合成后分泌至细胞外;也有存在于菌体内,待菌溶溃后才释放出来的,痢疾志贺菌和肠产毒素型大肠埃希菌的外毒素属此。 外毒素的毒性强。1mg肉毒毒素纯品能杀死2亿只小鼠,毒性比KCN大1万倍。不同细菌产生的外毒素,对机体的组织器官具有选择作用,各引起特殊的病变。例如肉毒毒素能阻断胆碱能神经末梢释放乙酰胆碱,使眼和咽肌等麻痹,引起眼睑下垂、复视、斜视、吞咽困难等,严重者可因呼吸麻痹而死。又如白喉毒素对外周神经末梢、心肌等有亲和性,通过抑制靶细胞蛋白质的合成而导致外周神经麻痹和心肌炎等。多数外毒素不耐热。例如白喉外毒素在58—60℃经1—2h,破伤风外毒素在60℃经20min可被破坏。但葡萄球菌肠毒素是例外,能耐100℃30min。大多外毒素是蛋白质,具有良好的抗原性。在0.3%—0.4%甲醛液作用下,经一定时间,可以脱去毒性,但仍保有免疫原性,是为类毒素(toxoid)。类毒素注入机体后,可刺激机体产生具有中和外毒素作用的抗毒素抗体。类毒素和抗毒素在防治一些传染病中有实际意义,前者主要用于人工主动免疫,后者常用于治疗和紧急预防。多数外毒素的分子结构为A-B模式,即由A和B两种亚单位组成。A亚单位是外毒素活性部分,决定其毒性效应。B 亚单位无毒,能与宿主靶细胞表面的特殊受体结合,介导A亚单位进入靶细胞。A或B亚单独对宿主无致病作用,因而外毒素分子的完整性是致病的必要条件。利用B亚单位能与靶细胞受体结合后阻止受体再与完整外毒素分子结合,且B 亚单位抗原性强;将B亚单位提纯制成疫苗,有可能预防相关的外毒素性疾病。 根据外毒素对宿主细胞的亲和性及作用方式等,可分成神经毒素、细胞毒素和肠毒素三大类。细菌的外毒素多数为A-B型分子结构,这类外毒素的作用机制不完全相同,又可分为几种类型:(1)具腺苷二磷酸核糖基转

如何去除内毒素

3.2.1原本法用于去除实验用玻璃器皿上的内毒素。将玻璃器皿置于烤箱中,加热到250℃,持续30min,即可去除内毒素。 3.2.2方法与步骤1、内毒素去除效率的评估(1)制备浓度分别为1000和1000EU/mL 的CSE溶液。按内毒素测量方法检测这些溶液。(2)向所有待去除内毒素的玻璃器皿滴入1mL的CSE溶液。(每种类型的玻璃器皿至少有3EU的CSE)。(3)将玻璃器皿置放烤箱中,在60℃下,干烤持续30min,烘干,然后在烤箱中,250℃下,干烤30min。(4)加入适量的LAL水,剧烈振荡5min,以清洗玻璃器皿,然后测量清洗后的LAL水中的内毒素的浓度。(5)比较原来的内毒素含量和现存的内毒素浓度。当内毒素含量至少减少了3—log时,该方法有效。必要时,重复操作,去除内毒素。用鲎度验法计算内毒素去除的百分比。2、去除实验玻璃器皿上的内毒素确定可使内毒素玻璃器皿上的内毒素对于用来配置无同一内毒素溶液的玻璃器皿,重复操作,直至内毒素含量下降3—log。(例如,1000 IEU和10000 10EU)数个加热循环后,用前述的鲎试验法,测定内毒素含量。3、对照阴性对照:用只盛有LAL水的玻璃器皿,在250℃下,干烤30min并用LAL法测量内毒素的含量。阳性对照:干燥(60℃,30min)每种玻璃器皿中的内毒素溶液,不经过干烤(250℃,30min)去内毒素的操作,然后测定其内毒素质量。 3.2.3质控与提示(1)保烤箱散热均匀,为此,在操作过程中,可将玻璃器皿放置在烤箱中的每一层上,当温度在250℃后,温度的波动不要超过±15℃。(2)用含100EU的内毒素过行的检测,可用来确定去内毒素的效率。用含10000EU的内毒素进行的检测,可用来确定对内毒素含量较高的器皿去除内毒素的效率。(3)如果如果不理想,可增加每一次操作的时间和操作次数。(4)其他技术适用于培养基的内毒素,例如,超滤,反向渗透,但比较昂贵。选取有效的滤过膜,确保去内毒素后,培养基的营养成分不丢失并且内毒素含量下降3—log。

去内毒素实验方法介绍

去内毒素质粒提取Protocol 内毒性也称为脂多糖或LPS,是革兰氏阴性(如大肠杆菌,E.coli)胞膜上一种成分。细菌外膜的外部脂质成分完全由内毒素分子组成。一个E.coli包含约2百万个LPS分子,每个LPS 分子又由疏水性的脂质A、复杂的多糖链以及带负电荷的磷酸基团组成。因此每个内毒素既包含疏水区域也包含了亲水和带电区域,从而赋予其与其它分子相互作用的独特性质。 图1. 内毒素结构图。 细菌在其活跃生长时表面的内毒素成分较少,而一旦其死亡则会释放大量内毒素。在质粒提取的裂解过程中,内毒素会从细菌的外膜释放到裂解液中。内毒素的存在会严重的影响质粒转染细胞的效率,此外会激活造血细胞(如B细胞、巨噬细胞等)的非特异免疫反应,造成实验的假阳性,所以转染级质粒的提取纯化必须去除内毒素。 内毒素如何测定? 历史上,内毒素测定主要是基于内毒素与鲎(一种海洋节支动物,也称马蹄型蟹)血液中的变形细胞冻融后的溶解物(鲎试剂)接触时可发生凝血反应。鲎试剂与细菌内毒素产生凝胶反应的机理是:鲎的血液及淋巴液中有一种有核的变形细胞,胞浆内有大量的致密颗粒,内含凝固酶及凝固蛋白原。当内毒素与鲎变形细胞冻融后的溶解物(鲎试剂)接触时,可激活凝固酶原,继而使可溶性的凝固蛋白原变成凝固蛋白而使鲎变形细胞冻融物呈凝胶状态。现在已经发展出更加灵敏的光度计测试方法,该方法主要基于鲎试剂以及一种人工合成的可产生颜色反应的底物。 LPS污染通常用内毒素单位(Endotoxin Units, EU)表示,通常情况下,1ng LPS对应于1到10个EU。

Protocol 常用的试剂盒选择包括Qiagen、Sigma都挺好用的。或者omega、天根等。在选择取出内毒素的质粒提取试剂盒的时候有一个小窍门,就是有的盒子上写着“Endofree”字样,这种试剂盒是专门用来提取用于细胞转染实验的质粒的。一般这种质粒提取试剂盒采用独特的硅胶膜吸附技术,高效专一地结合质粒DNA。同时采用特殊的溶液P4和过滤柱CS,可以有效的去除内毒素、蛋白等杂质。没有这个字样的试剂盒,对于常规的分子克隆实验,如,PCR,酶切,克隆等完全够用了。 如果不是特别的试验,建议采用手工方法,丁香园战友推荐以下的protocol提的质粒免疫动物没有问题,曾用于制备DNA疫苗,可进行大量的去内毒素质粒提取。 1)挑取一个新鲜菌落接种于含5ml LB及相应抗生素的试管,37℃培养8-12小时。 2)用上述新鲜培养物小提质粒鉴定后,剩余的菌液接种于含相应抗生素的400ml LB培养基中,37℃培养12-16小时。 3)用500ml离心筒收集菌液,5000rpm离心10分钟,弃上清。 4)用40ml预冷的STE重悬菌体,转移至2支30ml离心管中,6000rpm 5分钟,弃上清。 5)用3ml预冷的溶液I重悬菌体,再加入6ml新鲜配制的溶液II,轻轻颠倒混匀;再加入4.5ml预冷的溶液III,轻轻颠倒混匀。 6)4℃12000rpm离心10分钟,将上清转移至另外的30ml管中。 7)加等体积的异丙醇,颠倒混匀,置于-20℃20分钟以上。 8)4℃12000rpm离心15分钟,弃上清,70%乙醇洗涤沉淀,37℃蒸发至沉淀边缘透明。 9)加入5ml TE使DNA溶解后,加入5mol/L的LiCl溶液5ml,轻轻混匀,-20℃放置5-10分钟。 10)4℃12000rpm离心15分钟,转移上清,加入等体积的异丙醇,-20℃放置20分钟以上。 11)4℃12000rpm离心15分钟,弃上清,用70%的乙醇洗涤沉淀,倒置控干后,37℃蒸发至沉淀基本透明。 12)用2ml TE溶解沉淀,并加入50μl/管的RNase(5mg/ml),37℃消化过夜。

去内毒素的方法及检查方法

去内毒素的方法及检查方法 注:这部分内容为内毒素的检测方法及去除方法。 热原(pyrogen)是微生物产生的内毒素,是由磷脂、脂多糖和蛋白质组成的复合物,微量即可引起恒温动物体温异常升高。其中脂多糖具有很强的热原活性。由革兰氏阴性杆菌产生的热原致热能力最强,真菌、病毒也可以产生热原。 【相关链接】热原的危害 一、热原的性质及除去热原的方法 1.高温法 热原的耐热性能良好,60℃加热1h不被分解破坏,100℃不降解,但180℃3~4h、200℃60min或250℃30~45min可使热原彻底破坏。因此耐热物品如玻璃制品、金属制品、生产过程中所用的容器和其它用具以及注射时使用的注射器等,均可采用此法破坏热原。但在通常使用的注射剂热压灭菌条件下不足以破坏热原。 2.吸附法 热原在水溶液中可被活性炭、石棉、白陶土等吸附而除去。由于活性炭性质稳定、吸附性强兼具助滤和脱色作用,故广泛用于注射剂生产,但应注意吸附药液所造成的主药的损失。 3.超滤法 热原分子量为1×106左右,体积较小,约1~5nm,可以通过一般滤器和微孔滤膜,但采用超滤法如用 3.0~15nm超滤膜可将其除去。

4.蒸馏法 热原能溶于水但不挥发,但可随水蒸气的雾滴进入注射用水中,因此制备注射用水时,原水中的热原可经蒸馏除去,但需多次蒸馏,,并加有隔沫装置,单次蒸馏往往效果不理想。 5.酸碱法 热原能被强酸、强碱、强氧化剂破坏。玻璃容器及用具如配液用玻璃器皿、输液瓶等可用重铬酸钾硫酸清洁液或稀氢氧化钠处理,破坏热原。 6.其它 包括离子交换法、凝胶滤过法、反渗透法等。 二、热原的检查方法 《中国药典》2005年版规定热原检查采用家兔法,细菌内毒素检查采用鲎试剂法。 1.热原检查法 由于家兔对热原的反应与人基本相似,目前家兔法仍为各国药典规定的检查热原的法定方法。 《中国药典》2005年版规定的热原检查法系将一定剂量的供试品,静脉注入家兔体内,在规定时间内,观察家兔体温升高的情况,以判定供试品中所含热原的限度是否符合规定。检查结果的准确性和一致性取决于试验动物的状况、试验室条件和操作的规范性。家兔法检测内毒素的灵敏度为0.001μg/ml,试验结果接近人体真实情况,但操作繁琐费时,不能用于注射剂生产过程中的质量监控,且不适用

内毒素清除剂使用说明

内毒素清除剂使用说明 货号:E1040 规格:20ml/100ml 保存:4℃半年有效,-20℃长期储存。 产品简介: 内毒素清除剂主要用于清除DNA、蛋白质或其他液体样品中的内毒素。在特定的pH值、盐浓度和温度条件下,内毒素清除剂能与DNA、重组蛋白以及液体样品中的内毒素特异性结合,经过室温高速离心后,DNA或蛋白质等保留在水相,而内毒素则被浓缩到极小体积的下层相而被清除。经过3次以上重复抽提后可将活性为5000~50000EU/ml的内毒素水平降低到5~0.5EU/ml以下,即降低1000~10000倍。 操作步骤: 提取前请将内毒素清除剂放在冰上冰浴5min,期间翻转瓶子数次使试剂均匀预冷。 1、a)已纯化的质粒DNA内毒素清除:吸取500μl DNA溶液于微型离心管,加入1/10体积3M NaAc pH5.2或1/20体积5M NaCl溶液,冰浴5min。 b)在提取质粒DNA过程中清除内毒素:以碱裂解法提取质粒为例,在加入裂解液和中和液并离心去除碎片之后,吸取含质粒DNA的上清于新离心管中,冰浴5min。 2、加入1/5体积预冷的内毒素清除剂,振荡混匀,溶液变浑浊。

3、冰浴5min,溶液应变清亮。 4、37℃水浴5min,不时振荡,溶液又变浑浊。 5、12000rpm室温离心5min,溶液应分为两相,上层水相含DNA,下层油状相含内毒素。 6、将含DNA的上层水相转移到新管,弃油状相,重复抽提三次,即重复步骤2-6三次。 7、加入 2.5体积无水乙醇,-20℃沉淀30min或过夜;12000rpm离心10min,弃上清;加入70%乙醇洗涤沉淀,12000rpm离心5min弃上清;空气干燥沉淀,加入100~200μl无内毒素的高纯水或TE溶解沉淀。 8、用内毒素检测试剂测定样品中内毒素活性,并与初始样品比较。 注意事项: 1、DNA浓度>1mg/ml时清除内毒素效率降低。由于DNA和蛋白质本身的性质,清除程序可导致10-20%的DNA丢失,所幸的是与清除内毒素的艰难相比DNA更容易提取制备。 2、所有溶液应用无内毒素的高纯水配制,所有器械材料均应不含内毒素,玻璃器皿可高温烘烤,非挥发性水溶液可高压120℃高温处理。 相关试剂: D1140无内毒素质粒小量提取试剂盒 D1150无内毒素质粒大量提取试剂盒 12100DMEM(H)

内毒素知识介绍

内毒素知识介绍 (2010-01-16 10:00:17) 转载 分类:精彩推荐展示 标签: 抗体 细胞因子 蛋白 酶 试剂盒 信号转导 凋亡 生化 试剂 干细胞 生物 ips 细菌内毒素,英文称作Enolotoxin,是G-菌细胞壁个层上的特有结构,内毒素为外源性致热原,它可激活中性粒细胞等,使之释放出一种内源性热原质,作用于体温调节中枢引起发热。内毒素的主要化学成分为脂多糖中的类脂A 细菌内毒素这个概念在1890年的时候就已被提了出来,它是在研究发热物质过程所引成的,1933年Boivin 最先由小鼠伤寒杆菌提取出来,进行化学免疫学方面的研究,到1940年时候,Morgan使用志贺氏痢疾菌阐明了细菌内毒素是由多糖脂质及蛋白质三部分所组成的复合体,到了1950年以后,随着生物学,物理化学,免疫学以及遗传学等的进步发展,细菌内毒素的研究工作,尤其是其化学结构组成及各种生物活性间的关系也更加明确起来。 细菌英文叫Bacteria :为原核生物中的一类单细胞微生物由二分裂法繁殖。若按革兰氏染色法可将细菌

分为G+菌和G-菌两大类。这两类细菌细胞壁的结构和化学组成存在很大差异。唯有肽聚糖为其共同成分,但其含量的多少和肽链的性质有所不同,见下表: 关于细菌细胞壁结构,尤其G+/G-菌不同之处见下图所示: 由以上结构模式图可以发现,G+菌与G-菌有不同之处,其中对于G-菌来说: 细胞壁较薄,厚约10-15nm,结构也较复杂。肽聚糖含量低,仅占细胞干生10%左右,层薄又较疏松,因肽聚糖之间仅四肽侧链直接联结,缺乏五肽桥;肽聚糖居于细胞最内层,外面由内向外还有脂蛋白,外膜和脂多糖的三层聚合物。 (1)脂蛋白(lipoprotein)由类脂和蛋白质构成,联结在外膜与肽聚糖层之间,类脂一端经非共价键联结到外膜的磷脂上,另一端由共价键联结到肽聚糖肽链中的二氧基庚二酸残基上,使外膜和肽聚糖层构成一个整体。 (2)外膜(outer membrane)是革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁的重要结构,位于肽聚糖的外侧,其结构类似细胞膜,为液态的磷脂双层,其中镶嵌一些特异蛋白质,穿透外膜的内外双层,呈液态镶嵌体。外膜中间有微小孔道,容许水溶性的小分子通过,以进行细胞内外的物质运输和交换。除此之外,外膜还能防止胰蛋白酶和溶菌酶等进入,起到保护性屏障作用。(3)脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)由多糖O抗原、核心多糖和类脂A(lipid A)组成(图1-8),位于最外层。多糖O抗原向外,由若干个低聚糖的重复单位组成的多糖链,即革兰氏阴性菌的菌体抗原(O抗原),有特异性。核心多糖由庚糖、半乳糖、2-酮基-3-脱氧辛酸(2-keto-3-deoxyoctonic acid, KDO)等组成,所有革兰氏阴性细菌都有此结构。类脂A是以脂化的葡萄胺二糖为单位,通过焦磷酸酯键组成的一种独特的糖脂化合物,具有致热作用,是革兰氏阴性细菌内毒素的毒性成分。

内毒素知识介绍[1].

内毒素知识介绍 内毒素是革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁中的一种成分,叫做脂多糖。脂多糖对宿主是有毒性的。内毒素只有当细菌死亡溶解或用人工方法破坏菌细胞后才释放出来,所以叫做内毒素。 内毒素不是蛋白质,因此非常耐热。在100℃的高温下加热1小时也不会被破坏,只有在250℃的温度下加热1个小时,或用强碱、强酸或强氧化剂加温煮沸30分钟才能破坏它的生物活性。与外毒素不同之处,还有:内毒素不能被稀甲醛溶液脱去毒性成为类毒素;把内毒素注射到机体内虽可产生一定量的特异免疫产物(称为抗体),但这种抗体抵消内毒素毒性的作用微弱。 内毒素脂多糖分子由菌体特异性多糖、非特异性核心多糖和脂质A三部分构成。脂质A是内毒素的主要毒性组分。不同革兰氏阴性细菌的脂质A结构基本相似。因此,凡是由革兰氏阴性菌引起的感染,虽菌种不一,其内毒素导致的毒性效应大致类同。这些毒性反应主要有: 发热反应。人体对细菌内毒素极为敏感。极微量(1-5纳克/公斤体重)内毒素就能引起体温上升,发热反应持续约4小时后逐渐消退。自然感染时,因革兰氏阴性菌不断生长繁殖,同时伴有陆续死亡、释出内毒素,故发热反应将持续至体内病原菌完全消灭为止。内毒素引起发热反应的原因是内毒素作用于体内的巨噬细胞等,使之产生白细胞介素1、6和肿瘤坏死因子α等细胞因子,这些细胞因子作用于宿主下丘脑的体温调节中枢,促使体温升高发热。 白细胞反应。细菌内毒素进入宿主体内以后,血流中占白细胞总数60-70%的中性粒细胞数量迅速减少,这是因为细胞发生移动并粘附到组织毛细血管上了。不过1-2小时后,由内毒素诱生的中性细胞释放因子刺激骨髓释放其中的中性粒细胞进入血流,使其数量显著增加,有部分不成熟的中性粒细胞也被释放出来。革兰氏阴性菌的伤寒沙门菌是例外,其内毒素使白细胞总数始终是减少状态,目前还不清楚是什么原因。由于绝大多数被革兰氏阴性菌感染的患者血流中白细胞总数都会增加,所以现在医生在诊断前,为了初步区别是细菌性感染还是病毒性感染,常常要化验病人的血液,对白细胞进行总数测定和分类计数。被病毒感染的病人,其白细胞总数和中性粒细胞百分比基本在正常值范围内。 内毒素血症与内毒素休克。当病灶或血流中革兰氏阴性病原菌大量死亡,释放出来的大量内毒素进入血液时,可发生内毒素血症。大量内毒素作用于机体的巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞、内皮细胞、血小板,以及补体系统和凝血系统等,便会产生白细胞介素1、6、8和肿瘤坏死因子α、组胺、5羟色胺、前列腺素、激肽等生物活性物质。这些物质作用于小血管造成功能紊乱而导致微循环障碍,临床表现为微循环衰竭、低血压、缺氧、酸中毒等,于是导致病人休克,这种病理反应叫做内毒素休克。 关于内毒素休克,过去曾有过惨痛的教训。20世纪40年代青毒素刚问世的时候,医生发现青霉素对脑膜炎奈瑟菌引起的流行性脑膜炎疗效非常显著。因此,凡发现这类病人,一律优选青霉素进行治疗;且按照一般规律,用药剂量随病情严重程度而递增。结果发生了意外,用大剂量青霉素治疗重症脑膜炎患者时,不少发生了内毒素休克而死亡。后来经过研究分析,发现了其中的原委。病情严重的患者,体内存在的病原菌数量多,医生采用大剂量“轰炸”,意欲“一举歼敌”。快速、彻底杀灭病原体,这种战略无可非议,但有些医生忽略了另一方面,即流行性脑膜炎的病原菌是属革兰氏阴性菌的脑膜炎奈瑟菌,其致病物质是内毒素,而内毒素是要在病菌死亡后再放出的。如今用大剂量青霉素一下子将全部病菌杀死,也就是使大量内毒素一次放出,促成了内毒素休克,加速了患者的死亡。随着医学的进步,现在医生遇到这类病人,一方面仍然要用大剂量的有效抗菌药物去对付,同时要加用激素类药物,以保护对内毒素敏感的细胞不对内毒素诱生的细胞因子发生反应,从而度过“休克”难关。犹如外科手术时,采用麻醉药使病人丧失痛觉一样。 内毒素或脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)在酒精性肝病(ALD)所致的肝损害中起重要作用[1]。LPS要发挥生理作用,必须与血循环中的载体结合,脂多糖结合蛋白(lipopolysaccharide binding protein, LBP)是近年发现的一种LPS载体蛋白,它能与LPS结合形成LPS-LBP复合物,并将LPS运送到效应靶器官或靶细胞发挥生理或病理生理作用。单核/巨噬细胞表面存在一种膜蛋白CD14,其分子量为5.5×104,主要功能是识别LPS,被认为是LPS的受体,在LPS介导单核/巨噬细胞激活中起重要作用[2]。LPS-LBP与CD14的结合能促使单核/巨噬细胞激活并释放多种细胞因子,诱导肝脏损害[3]。LPS、LBP及CD14三者在ALD中的确切作用机制及相互关系尚不清楚。本研究用乙醇喂养大鼠建立酒精性肝病动物模型,观察LBP和CD14 mRNA的表达及其在肝损害中的作用。 结果 1. 血中内毒素和ALT含量变化:乙醇喂养组大鼠喂养4周和8周时血浆LPS浓度分别为(129±21) pg/ml 和(187±35)pg/ml, 明显高于对照组的(48±9)pg/ml 和(53±11)pg/ml(t值分别为11.2和11.6,P<0.05);乙醇组血清ALT浓度分别为(112±15)U/L 和(147±22)U/L,也明显高于对照组的(31±12)U/L和(33±9)U/L(t值分别为5.9和20.6,P<0.05)。 2. 肝组织中LBP和CD14 mRNA的表达:两组大鼠肝组织中LBP和CD14 mRNA的表达见图1~3。对照组大鼠4周和8周肝组织中LBP 和CD14 mRNA的表达均不明显。乙醇喂养组大鼠肝组织中LBP和CD14 mRNA在4周时已明显表达,8周时表达进一步增加,其中CD14 mRNA 表达最显著,与对照组相比差异有显著性(P<0.05)。 3. 肝脏形态学变化:对照组大鼠光、电镜下肝组织无明显的病理学变化。乙醇喂养组4周时光镜下见肝细胞内出现大小不等的空泡样变性,肝窦内有较多白细胞,但未见明显的炎性细胞浸润和坏死病灶形成;乙醇喂养8周后,肝细胞脂肪变性更加明显,并有较多的炎性细胞浸润及坏死灶出现(图4、5)。电镜下乙醇喂养组肝细胞内有较多局灶性的胞浆变性及髓鞘样结构形成,并可见坏死灶的出现(图6、7)。 讨论 酒精性肝病时肝脏损害的程度与乙醇的剂量和作用时间呈正相关,雌性大鼠比雄性大鼠对乙醇具有更高的敏感性,甘氨酸通过减少

内毒素的检测和去除

1 内毒素及其来源 1.1内毒素 内毒素(endotoxin)是存在于革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁外膜表面的一种大分子物质,一般只有在细胞死亡或分解时自行释放到周围介质中,特殊条件下也可以从活细胞中直接泄漏出来。内毒素又被称为热原,是一种脂多糖物质,具有耐热性,不易被去除。若疫苗中存在一定浓度的内毒素,接种动物后,可引起动物发热,休克等,严重时甚至造成死亡。 1.2内毒素的来源 因为革兰氏阴性菌无处不在,所以内毒素几乎存在于任何地方。在疫苗生产中一定要重视和尽可能减少内毒素的污染。 生产用水中内毒素的含量是导致疫苗安全性的关键因素之一。大量研究表明,疫苗生产过程中内毒素主要来源于培养液和配制用水,其在贮存过程中易受到革兰氏阴性菌的污染。贮水罐,纯水系统的过滤器和连接管道,以及培养液容器等都可能受到革兰氏阴性菌的污染。工作人员进出车间携带的物品,以及空气净化系统久不维护,都有可能造成生产车间内的空气尘埃浓度升高,导致内毒素污染。 生产用具、管道、泵、阀门、滤器等的清洗消毒不彻底也会造成内毒素污染。生产原料的污染,如血液制品,细胞培养基。人为操作不规范也会引起内毒素污染。 2内毒素的检测 目前,内毒素的检测方法较多,但是各存在利弊,因此,选取检测方法要根据实际需求,不建议采取单一的检测方法。 2.1鲎试验法 鲎试验法是通过酶的级联反应而实现,内毒素在二价阳离子的参与下激活C因子(FC),然后激活其它酶原,产生一系列凝集酶反应。该方法是目前检测内毒素最特异和最灵敏的方法。 2.2重组C因子法 重组C因子法是使用一个单一的蛋白(重组C因子)作为有效活性成分。反应中内毒素激活重组C因子,活化的重组C因子将荧光底物裂解,产生荧光复合物,定量检测荧光复合物来量化内毒素。这种方法可有效避免假阳性的产生。该方法可用于药品生产,环境,器械生产中的内毒素检测。 2.3热原试验法 该方法是比较广泛的检测热原的方法,利用微量内毒素可引起动物体温升高的特性来测试其含量。这种方法存在灵敏度低,无法定量测定,种属差异大,周期长等问题。 2.4其它方法 除了上述较常见的方法外,还有一些方法也被应用于内毒素的检测,如免疫学方法(酶联免疫吸附检测法,火箭免疫电泳鲎试验法,双抗体夹心ELISA法等),生物学方法,化学发光法,流式细胞法,高效液相色谱法等。 3内毒素的去除 一直以来,去除内毒素都是疫苗生产中的一个难题。其热稳定性高,对PH值不敏感。目前,已有一些去除内毒素的方法,但其去除方法还有待进一步研究。 3.1超滤法 利用内毒素与其他物质的分子量的差别来去除内毒素。一般在样品流经超滤膜时,超滤膜将内毒素截留在膜上,而让其它低分子量物质透过,从而有效控制内毒素的含量。超滤膜的内毒素去除率较高,变化范围较宽,高达%,低至%。因热原是一类形态和相对分子质量均不确定的物质,其种类,浓度也会有所不同,因此内毒素的去

内毒素清除剂

内毒素清除剂 华越洋 ------------------------------------------------ 华越洋内毒素清除剂主要用于清除DNA、蛋白质或其他液体样品中的内毒素。在特定的pH值、盐浓度和温度条件下,内毒素清除剂能与DNA、重组蛋白以及液体样品中的内毒素特异性结合,经过室温高速离心后,DNA或蛋白质等保留在水相,而内毒素则被浓缩到极小体积的下层相而被清除。经过3次以上重复抽提后可将活性为5000~50000EU/ml的内毒素水平降低到5~0.5 EU/ml以下,即降低1000~10000倍。 操作步骤:提取前请将内毒素清除剂放在冰上冰浴5min,期间翻转瓶子数次使试剂均匀预冷。 1、a)已纯化的质粒DNA内毒素清除:吸取500μlDNA溶液于微型离心管,加入1/10体积3M NaAc pH5.2 或1/20体积5M NaCl溶液,冰浴5min。 b)在提取质粒DNA过程中清除内毒素:以碱裂解法提取质粒为例,在加入裂解液和中和液并离心去除碎片之后,吸取含质粒DNA的上清于新离心管中,冰浴5min。 2、加入1/5体积预冷的内毒素清除剂,振荡混匀,溶液变浑浊。 3、冰浴5min,溶液应变清亮。 4、37℃水浴5min,不时振荡,溶液又变浑浊。 5、12000rpm室温离心5min,溶液应分为两相,上层水相含DNA,下

层油状相含内毒素。 6、将含DNA的上层水相转移到新管,弃油状相,重复抽提三次,即重复步骤2-6三次。 7、加入2.5体积无水乙醇,-20℃沉淀30min或过夜;12000rpm离心10min,弃上清;加入70%乙醇洗涤沉淀,12000rpm离心5min弃上清;空气干燥沉淀,加入100~200μl无内毒素的高纯水或TE溶解沉淀。 8、用内毒素检测试剂测定样品中内毒素活性,并与初始样品比较。 华越洋内毒素清除剂注意事项: 1、DNA浓度>1mg/ml时清除内毒素效率降低。由于DNA和蛋白质本身的性质,清除程序可导致10-20%的DNA丢失,所幸的是与清除内毒素的艰难相比DNA更容易提取制备。 2、所有溶液应用无内毒素的高纯水配制,所有器械材料均应不含内毒素,玻璃器皿可高温烘烤,非挥发性水溶液可高压120℃高温处理。 保存:4℃半年有效,-20℃长期储存。

内毒素.doc

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