ISSUE论据
1·美国，加拿大停电。再加上最近英国也停电一次。可以来说明高科技的发展，人们的以来等等
双刃剑：two-edge sword，technological dualism
停电：power failure，power blackouts
停电动词表示很多，如：hit USA
如美国的纽约表示为：the largest metropolis in USA
英国停电：Major power failure in London causes chaos.
伦敦市长：London mayor Ken Livingstone
2·前不久，巴西卫星爆炸
Brazil rocket explodes, killing 21 and injuring 21 others.发射平台：launch pad
3·非常有用的一个，你一定知道，可是别忘记拼写Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome--SARS
肺炎：penumonia
流行病：epidemic
take effective and efficient measures
如the Health Ministry的领导说话不负责任。
这个SARS简直通用。可以说明：政治家的修养和道德，政府和人民，科技和医学，人类发展，科研资料共享与研究互动，还有合作。。。太多了
4·丑闻scandle
Bill Clitton and Monica Lewiski love affair
这都不知道怎么用，你可以下次再考，这次不急：)
还有British Prime Minister Tony Blair (Iraq attack )也是一个丑闻嘛
Saddam Hussein--the former Iraq ruler
Nixion's resignation水门事件
5·Japan must deal with aftermath of chemical weapon death.
这个我也不想多解释
6·counter-terrorism反恐，需要合作，还要领导人的铁腕
7·关于科技的争论，可以这样表示
The place of technology in modern society is a subject of continuing
controversy. Key issue include not only the impact of technology on
quotidian life but also the need to control the development and uses of
technological innovations so that they bebefit all aspects of community.
8·科学家及理论
Einstein's relativism
Newton's classical mechanics
Newton's gravity theory
Galileo's clash with the Inquisition
Darwin's adaptive theory
科学家研究的东西如：Pyramid, pollution等等
9·列举时候，需要自己编写例子人名要几个麻烦的才可以，如：
Jonathan Kaliski, A. Fujinori, Eung Soo Kim, Ken Livingstone(伦敦市长)。。。
地名也是需要记住几个复杂的，如Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin....
数字，最好写比例是编奇数，还带个小数点，这样比较可信！
10·一些经典的人物
Aristotle，全才
Archimedes，阿基米德的故事太多
Columbus，专家犯错误
Da Vinci，说明学习时候的什么理科文科，艺术之类
Galileo，不畏强权
Copernicus，坚持真理
Socrates，想怎么应用都可以啊
Newton，巨人肩膀之类
Lincoln，政治家，自己的学校教育
Darwin，不用说吧
Eistein，更是多的不的了
具体用来说明什么，自己编吧，呵呵！
对于一篇ISSUE，论证分三个部分
第一个就是引用。我是这样子写的：
Jonathan Livingstone, president and CEO of？(公司简称，自己提前编写)，a distinguished and well-known company in Massachusetts, illustrates this brilliantly in the following quptes (and I paragraph),"......"这不是搞定一段了吗？？？
第二，举例，编写例子，还可以用我说的论据，好多可以自圆其说，关键是么记住一些能有说服力的名字，包括一些专用名词。
象SARS不知道可以用多少次，经常可以用到。用不到，我也可以说一个人是研究SARS的，反正写作是要流氓一些。
第三，就是来个让步，或者给出一些现象，无非是一些人认为，
另一些人认为，自己说明自己的想法。也可以来个建议，如人们
该怎么办，政府怎么办，当前的困难和任务。。。总之，无论怎么搞，都有一段啊。
这样就只用总结一个通用的开头结尾模板，考试时候写中间就可以了，ISSUE还难吗？？？
I高分的关键：论据
如何写议论文相信大家中学作文都学的很清楚了，语文老师整天念叨着议论文的三要素：论点，论据，论证，一个都不能少。这一点在写AW时也不例外。
论点：也就是Thesis和Topic sentence，明确的论点是高分的关键。在准备初期可以多看看前辈总结的提纲，明确各种类型题目的写法，相信在准备后期如何破题展开论点的问题是很好解决的。
论证：AW考的就是logical的写作能力，所以选择什么样的论证方法也很重要，论证方法是连接论点和论据的纽带。论证过程连接的好，主题鲜明，论据也能很好的支持论点；反之论据混乱，不知所云。不过论证过程的套路性很强，相信练过10篇I以后大家也能够总结出一套自己的论证思路。
论据：AW的难点，I的题库中包括的大的分类就有十几种之多，想要每道题目都言之有物，不靠平时的积累是绝对不行的。我在准备作文之初花了快一个月的时间来整理论据，查前辈的总结，查Encyclopedia，找大段的例子，非常花费时间。开始我还觉得能写出大段例子的文章是好文章，能体现出写作水平，其实错了。事实证明，高分作文是论点和论据match的文章，是论点能概括论据，论据能支持论点，论证过程严密，衔接自然的文章。因此对待论据，一方面一定要重视积累，另一方面也不能走另一个极端整段整段的引述。
如果问大家I高分的关键是什么，论点？论据？论证？可能各种答案
都有，不过我觉得，I高分的关键一定是论据。原因有二：
1．在新东方八股泛滥的中国AW文坛，ETS考官早已经恶心了新东方的那些提纲套路和老掉牙的例子，唯一能够体现文章unique的地方就在论据的引用。其实ETS也是有苦难言，对于AW这种命题作文，为了尽可能防止雷同作弊，肯定会在审论据上下功夫（这一点A也一样，新东方的模版在A中更是泛滥）。没听说过哪篇文章是用的雷同的论点和论证过程而判雷同的。那些被判雷同作弊的大多是背了好段子直接就默写上去了。
2．也许有人可能会觉得论点最重要，因为新东方总强调开门见山，立场明确。不过大家可以仔细思考一下自己拿到题目时的思维过程，一篇最终选择什么立场靠的是什么？靠的是你已知的论据！能举出什么样的例子支持你的论点。
本帖目的：
鉴于论据在Issue中的重要程度和复杂程度，我想开一篇帖子集合大家的力量，整理出一些I常用的、新的论据，可以让大家节省时间多模考，多练几篇文章。希望大家有好的例子能够跟帖贴出，我会分类整理。大家可以有选择的选取例子，修改后成为自己的写作素材。
跟帖要求：
建议每位跟帖提供1－3条精选的例子，可以是单独的例子，可以是短短的一两句话，也可以是包含具体例子的一个论述过程。另外，最好能够列出例子的适用范围和题目。可以应用一下格式：
Key Words:
Application:
e.g.:
分类：
教育类 科技类 社会类 历史类 文化类 艺术类 政治类 环境类 其他类
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
教育类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
科技类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
Key Words:Watson and Crick describe structure of DNA
Details:8#
社会类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
Key Words:Media, Newspaper
Application:媒体的舆论作用
"I like reporters, even if I haven't always liked what some wrote about me. I figure that's a pretty minor price to pay for a free press in a free society."
— Gerald R. Ford, 38th U.S. president, 2005
"Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter."
— Thomas Jefferson, letter to Col. Edward Carrington, Jan. 16, 1787
历史类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
文化类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
艺术类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
Key Words: Antoni Gaudi, Templo de la Sagarda Familia
Application: 艺术家能否被同时代承认，是否应该保留古建筑
A good case in point is Antoni Gaudi who was appointed official architect of the momentous “Templo de la Sagarda Familia” in 1883, which, although still unfinished at his death, is acknowledged as his masterpiece. Its lofty semi-cubist towers, with mosaic-covered finials, dominate the Barcelona skyline, and its imaginative forms, colors, and textures are unmatched in European architecture.
Key Words:Sydney Opera :
Application: 除了ISSUE26外，还可以用在论证当务之急与百年大计, 艺术给社会的作用等上面. 类似的还是位于西班牙毕尔巴鄂Bilbao的Guggenheim Museum, 由美国设计师Frank Gehry设计. 这座博物馆依靠夸张的外形为Bilbao带来了众多的游客和巨大的商业效益
The Sydney Opera was designed as a totally new building, showing appearance like a beautiful shell or sail boat on the sea store. The Danish architect used his creative way to give Sydney, a city with no historical accumulation, a chance to show the world of its symbol. But the construction of Sydney Opera was a struggling progress. Designed with a unreasonable structure, the opera cost as 10 times money as what the Austrilian government predicted and caused several ministry step down for this heavy project. This opera was considered as a failure during its constructure and few anticipated its reputation boomed after accomplishment. Sometimes historical buildings can be built now, and become history in future. But even the strongest holder of this theory, the Dutch architect, Rem Koolhaas admits that buildings like Sydney Opera are so rare, which locate in a place with no history and ask for landmark.
政治类：
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环境类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
Key Words:Ayers Rock
Application: 自然环境保护
Uluru, also called Ayers Rock, is one of the largest monoliths, or rock masses, in the world, located in the central arid Australia. Although Uluru National Park is a little isolated from the outside world, which means that visitors have to transit three times from Sydney or Melbourne before the plane arrived near the National Park, thousands of people overcome this obstacle to visit the Uluru to enjoy its beauty.
Key Words:Pollution
Application:环境污染的引述
There are few places in the world today that have not been spoiled by the industrialized development and pollution. The air we breathe is more often than not polluted by the smoke from the factory chimneys or the exhausted fumes from the motor vehicles, while chemical waste poisons our rivers, lakes and seas. By covering more and more surface of the world with numerous skyscrapers and highways, we are erecting concrete barriers between ourselves and nature.
Key Words:Rainforest
Application:自然资源的保护
Rainforest, woodland characterized by lush vegetation and comparatively high temperature and rainfall throughout the year. Rain forests are the world’s most biologically diverse ecosystems. Although they account for less than 7 percent of the land surface on Earth, they contain more than 50 percent—some scientists estimate as high as 90 percent—of its plant and animal species.
Rain forests also play a critical role in global climate regulation by absorbing carbon dioxide, a gas believed to be partially responsible for global warming. Plants naturally absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen gas in the process of photosynthesis, and tropical rain forests absorb more carbon dioxide than any other terrestrial ecosystem on earth. There is general agreement among the scientific community that by absorbing some of the gas, rain forests play a vital role in lessening its impacts.
其他类：
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
Key Words:Profession Vs Laymen
Application:专家新手对比，专家的优势
When people feel sick, they would see the doctor for diagnosis and follow their arrangement on having pills and treatment; when people have a lawsuit, they would turn to their lawyer for help, since they are good at defending; when people want to buy a house, they would rather pay money for a full time real-estate agent and listen the suggestion, for they comprehend the market well; when people intend to keep healthy, they will accept the advices of nutritionists having a healthy diet and frequently taking part in sports.
Application:专家新手对比，专家也会犯错误
Details:10#
Invited by Russia to treat its declined economy in 1990s, Jeffrey Sachs used his "Shock Therapy" to deal with this former socialism country's national industry and commerce. This therapy gained success before Sachs came to Russia, in Bolivia, helping this country get through its dilemma. The "Shock Therapy" uses a drastic way to stop the planned economy of a socialism country and cover from this shock with a new base. However, failing to effectively analyze the difference between Bolivia and Russia, the latter of which inherited the huge ecomonical system from Suviet Union and totally diversified from the former's, Sachs this time gave Russia only "shock" but no "therapy". The academia has believed that it is the Sachs wrong treatment that caus
ed Russia's depression during the following years. Despite of admitted contribution that "Schock Therapy" did to the reform of Russian ecomony, it was mostly a lesson telling us about the [possibility of experience telling lies/importance of analyzing a different environment/possibility of authority's fault
GRE写作补充讲义
---------Issue论据资料
by上海新东方学校 傅顺贤
一、 人物
Michelangelo 米开朗琪罗
Euclid 欧机里德
Archimedes 阿基米德
Aristotle
Galileo
Kepler
Copernicus
Bruno
Ptolemy
Isaac Newton
Columbus
Thomas Edison
Einstein(Zurich 苏黎世)
Marie curie(Pierre)
Radioactivity is the starting point for cancer treatment, for the dating techniques used on ancient objects, rocks and the universe, and for molecular biology and modern genetics; it is also the source of nuclear energy and the atomic bomb.
Frank Borman
In 1970, Apollo astronaut Frank Borman embarked on a 12-nation fact-finding mission to determine the fate of American servicemen missing in Vietnam. Though his search proved fruitless, he told Congress, "I beg you not to forsake your countrymen who have given so much for you."
Stephen hawking(A Brief History of Time ;suffer from ALS)
Descartes 笛卡尔
Kant--kantianism康德
Hegelian--Hegelianism
Schopenhauer 叔本华（German philosopher）
Socrates
Plato
以下选自英国文学史：
Geoffrey Chaucer
William Shakespeare----Hamlet,Sonnet,
Francis Bacon------Of Truth, Of Studies,
John Milton------Paradise Lst
John Bunyan-----The Pilgrim's Progress
Daniel Defoe-----Robinson Crusoe
Jonathan Swift----Gulliver's Travels
Robert Burns----A Red, Red Rose
William Wordsworth
George Gordon, Lord Byron
Shelley
John Keats
Walter Scott
Jane Austen---- Pride and Prejudice
Charles Dickens
Charlotte Bronte----Jane Eyre
Emily Bronte----Wuthering Heights
Thamos Hardy
Bernard Shaw
Lawrence-----Sons and Lovers
以下选自美国文学史：
Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Jefferson--- The Declaration of Independence
Washington Irving ----The Legend of Sleepy Hollow
Emerson
Henry David Thoreau
Henry Wadsworth Longman
Walt Whitman
Emily Dickson
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Mark Twain---- The adventures of Tom Sawyer
O Henry--- The Cop and the Anthem
Henry James-----The Portrait of a Lady
Jack London---- The Sea Wolf, Martin Eden
Ernest Heminway ----- A Farewell to Arms
John Steinbeck ------ The Grapes of Wrath
Leonardo da Vinci
Bach 巴赫
Beethoven
Mozart
Time-Warner
Rolling Stones
Rock-and-Roll
Beetles
Dali
Picasso
Andy Warhol
Rodin's "The Thinker"
George Bush
On January 16, 1991, President Bush ordered the commencement of Operation Desert Storm, a massive U.S.-led military offensive against Iraq in the Persian Gulf.
In late 1992, Bush ordered U.S. troops into Somalia, a nation devastated by drought and civil war. The peacekeeping mission would prove the most disastrous since Lebanon, and President Clinton abruptly called it
off in 1993.
Jimmy Carter
President Carter's policy of placing human rights records at the forefront of America's relationships with other nations contributed to a cooling of Cold War relations in the late 1970s.
In 1980, for the first time in seven years, Fidel Castro authorized emigration out of Cuba by the country's citizens. The United States welcomed the Cubans, but later took steps to slow the tide when evidence suggested that Castro was using the refugee flight to empty his prisons.
Neville Chamberlain
In 1938, British Prime Minister Chamberlain signed the Munich Pact with Adolf Hitler, an agreement that gave Czechoslovakia away to Nazi conquest while bringing, as Chamberlain promised, "peace in our time."
Eleven months after the signing of the Munich Pact, Germany broke the peace in Europe by invading Poland. A solemn Chamberlain had no choice but to declare war, and World War II began in Europe.
Winston Churchill
In the early 1930s, Conservative M.P. Winston Churchill issued unheeded warnings of the threat of Nazi aggression from his seat on a House of Commons backbench.
With German tanks racing across France, Churchill spoke to the British people for the first time as prime minister, and pledged a struggle to the last breath against Nazi conquest and oppression.
In the summer of 1940, the democracies of continental Europe fell to Germany one by one, leaving Great Britain alone in its resistance to Adolf Hitler. The Nazi leader was confident that victory against Britain would come soon, but Churchill prophesied otherwise, telling his countrymen that the Battle of Britain would be "their finest hour."
Bill Clinton
In 1994, President Clinton authorized a military operation to overthrow Haiti's military dictators and restore its democratically elected leader. On the eve of invasion, bloodshed was prevented when former president Jimmy Carter brokered an agreement with Haiti's leaders in which they pledged to give up power.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
On June 5, 1944, the supreme Allied commander ordered commencement of the D-Day invasion, the largest combined sea, air, and land military operation in history. Eisenhower told the 3 million men of the Allied Expeditionary Force, "The eyes of the world are upon you!"
In 1956, Israel, Britain, and France invaded Egypt in protest of its nationalization of the Suez Canal. The U.S.S.R. and the United States, both vying for greater influence in the Middle East, forced the three nations to end their occupation of the strategic canal.
Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret
During the Battle of Britain, the children of King George VI delivered a radio address to British children who had been evacuated abroad. Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret, like their parents, weathered the dark days of World War II in Britain.
Gerald Ford
Nine days before the fall of Saigon, President Ford spoke on the resignation of South Vietnamese President Thieu. Soon after, the United St
ates launched a massive helicopter evacuation of tens of thousands of anticommunist South Vietnamese and the last few Americans remaining in the country.
Mohandas Gandhi
In 1931, Gandhi, the political and spiritual leader of the Indian independence movement, was released from prison to attend the London Round Table Conference on India as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.
Mikhail Gorbachev
As leader of the U.S.S.R., Mikhail Gorbachev was a great force for peace, even at the cost of the Soviet government's downfall after 74 years in power.
Adolf Hitler
A few days before his occupation of the Sudetenland, a confident Hitler addressed a Nazi rally at Berlin's Sportpalast stadium, and reassured the crowd that if war came with Britain and France the German Wehrmacht would be victorious.
Pope John Paul II
In 1995, the pope addressed the United Nations on the occasion of its 50th anniversary. Reaffirming his support of the ideals and goals of the U.N., he praised the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called for the U.N. to become the moral center of a family of nations.
John F. Kennedy
At their 1961 summit meeting, Soviet leader Khrushchev greatly underestimated President Kennedy, who was not about to break his inaugural vow to "pay any price, bear any burden" to protect democracy in the world.
Nikita Khrushchev and Richard Nixon
In a defining moment of the Cold War, Vice President Nixon and Soviet leader Khrushchev engaged in an impromptu debate about the merits and disadvantages of capitalism and communism. The exchange, which took place in Moscow in front of a replica of a suburban American kitchen, was known as the "Kitchen Debate."
Douglas MacArthur
On September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, the most destructive war in human history officially came to an end as representatives of the Japanese government and military signed their country's unconditional surrender.
After clashing with President Truman over war policy, MacArthur was relieved of his command of U.N. forces in Korea and returned to the U.S. for the first time since before World War II. Given a hero's welcome, he addressed a joint meeting of Congress, where he declared, "Old soldiers never die, they just fade away."
Richard Nixon
In 1973, after five years of talks, the United States and North Vietnam reached a peace agreement to end U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Two years later, Saigon fell to North Vietnamese forces and Vietnam was unified under Communist rule.
Ronald Reagan
In 1984, Reagan called for an international ban on chemical weapons. Six years later, President Bush and Soviet leader Gorbachev would sign a historic agreement to cease production and begin destruction of both nations' sizable reserves.
In 1987, during a visit to Berlin, the president made a dramatic plea to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to "tear down" the Berlin Wall. Two years later, Berliners would do so on thei
r own accord.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
The day after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt addressed a joint session of Congress, and proclaimed December 7 "a date which will live in infamy." With only one dissent, Congress granted his request for an official declaration of war against Japan.
Two months before his death, Roosevelt met Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin for the last time at Yalta in the U.S.S.R. The "Big Three" leaders discussed military considerations in the war against Germany and Japan, and compromised on their visions of the postwar world order.
Tito
In 1963, Tito, the independent-minded communist leader of Yugoslavia since 1945, visited the United States during a tour of the Americas.
Harry Truman
Three days after the bombing of Hiroshima, President Truman warned Japan of further atomic attacks until it surrendered. When no answer came, he authorized the dropping of a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki. Six days later, Japan surrendered.
In 1949, Truman signed the North Atlantic Treaty with 10 European nations and Canada--establishing the NATO military alliance.
二、Events
1.Medicine and biology
1348: Black Plague
The bubonic plague killed one third of Europe's population between 1348 and 1350, making it the most deadly epidemic since the sixth century. With no cure available, and no clue as to what caused the disease, many believed it was God's punishment for sinful behavior. The plague had a massive effect on every aspect of society: serfs were freed, the labor force was decimated, and cultivation of food ceased. Doctors were forced to think of medicine in a new way, leading to the rise of the scientific theory.
1628: Harvey discovers circulatory system
Dr. William Harvey, an English physician, made medical history when he published his discovery that blood, driven by the pumping of the heart, is constantly on the move throughout the human body. This disproved the previous medical wisdom that the heart's main purpose was to keep blood warm.
1882: Germs proven to cause disease
In 1864, Louis Pasteur amazed the scientific community by proving that microorganisms live in the air. Years later, German scientist Robert Koch announced his findings that specific microorganisms can be linked to specific diseases in what is now known as the "germ theory of disease." His discovery instantly improved physicians' ability to diagnose and treat patients, as well as expanding human understanding of cleanliness as a means to prevent disease.
1928: Fleming discovers penicillin
Scottish physician Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered the ability of molds to destroy sickness–causing bacteria, when he noticed that mold growing on a staphylococcus culture had killed parts of the culture. Penicillin, the antibiotic derived from mold, allows doctors to easily treat patients for a variety of ailments previously considered incurable, including pneumonia, tetanus, gangrene, and scarlet fever as
well as more mundane illnesses like respiratory and ear infections.
1543: Anatomy 101
Andreas Vesalius took the medical community by storm by revealing the true skeletal and muscular structure of humans for the first time and correcting more than 200 errors in the common thinking among doctors of the day. Unfortunately, his contribution was tarnished in his own time by the legal and moral taboo against the dissection of human bodies—Vesalius's main source of research.
1796: Smallpox vaccine
English doctor Edward Jenner stumbled upon a way to prevent smallpox when he noticed that milkmaids who had developed cowpox didn't get the dreaded disease. His resulting vaccine, made from the cowpox virus, virtually wiped out smallpox, which had killed more than sixty million Europeans in the eighteenth century. His vaccine also gave credence to the science of immunology, leading to the development of vaccines for other deadly diseases, including diphtheria, polio, and measles.
1866: Mendel's Law of Heredity
Through his work crossbreeding different varieties of the garden pea, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel advanced the idea that traits are transferred from parents to progeny by way of distinct units and formulated mathematical laws governing the inheritance of these traits. Mendel's "law" was eventually proven true for both plants and animals. His findings were rediscovered in the early twentieth century, allowing farmers to reproduce positive traits in plants and create healthier, stronger crops of food.
1914: Birth Control
Margaret Sanger sparked the birth control movement with the publication of The Woman Rebel, in which she encourages women to view conception as a choice rather than an obligation. In 1923, her tireless efforts resulted in the establishment of America's first legal birth control clinic, which served as a contraceptive dispensary and research facility under the auspices of the American Birth Control League (one of the groups that eventually morphed into Planned Parenthood). The birth control movement has had far-reaching, worldwide implications, from women's rights to population control to the sexual revolution.
2.Science and discovery
Early 1300s: Gunpowder first used in Europe
Although gunpowder is believed to have been invented in China as early as the ninth century, it wasn't until the early 1300s that it was first used in battle in Europe. A relatively simple mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and saltpeter, gunpowder has been making the world's wars more deadly ever since.
1522: First circumnavigation of the globe completed
In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan and a crew of 237 men and five ships set out on a voyage to claim the Spice Islands as the property of Spain. Although Magellan himself was killed while trying to convert a native Philippine chief to Christianity in 1521, one ship and the remainder of his crew, by then eighteen men, completed the voyage around the world and returned to Spain on September 8, 1522.
1
859: Darwin's Origin of Species
Charles Darwin shocked the world with his theory of evolution as proposed in Origin of Species. He explained that, over time, species adapt to their environment in order to survive and then pass along these acquired traits to future generations in a process known as "natural selection." Although his ideas are widely accepted today, the notion that species could have evolved from an entirely different species caused outrage from those believing that all living creatures were created by God.
1492: Columbus lands in America
Although Leif Ericson was reportedly the first to land in America in 1000, his voyage ultimately brought about little change to the continent. On October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus and his crew landed in what is now part of the Bahamas. With him, he brought about European colonization and slew of changes: Christianity, disease, guns, and horses to name a few.
1543: Copernicus disputes earth is center of universe
Nicolaus Copernicus may have tried to avoid public outrage by waiting until the year of his death to publish On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, but he was the first person to propose that the sun, and not the earth, was at the center of the universe. Later, Johannes Kepler argued the orbital paths of planets were actually elliptical, not circular, and in 1610, despite strong opposition from the Catholic Church, Galileo Galilei used his telescope to prove that the earth does, in fact, revolve around the sun.
1666: Newton's Law of Gravity
In 1666, after watching an apple fall from a tree, Isaac Newton realized that the force holding any object to the Earth is the same as the force holding the moon and planets in their orbits. He created a mathematical equation that defined the gravitational pull between two objects. In essence, our bodies pull on the Earth just as the Earth pulls on our bodies. However, since we weigh so much less than the Earth, we do not affect its motion at all.
1905: Einstein's Theory of Relativity
In 1905, Albert Einstein concluded that if the energy of motion could change mass, mass itself could become energy. The relationship between mass and the energy is described in what is probably the most famous equation in science, E=mc2 (Energy = mass x speed of light squared).
1957: First satellite launched
The successful launch of Sputnik-1 on October 4, 1957, indicated to the world that the Soviet Union had taken the lead in space exploration. It also caused fear that this technology would allow the Soviet Union to launch nuclear weapons into space. In response, the United States established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), embarking on a quest to the moon where Neil Armstrong took his revolutionary first steps in 1969.
3.Inventions.
1879: Incandescent lamp
In 1879, after more than 1,000 trials and $40,000, Thomas Edison introduced an inexpensive alternative to candles and gaslight: the incandescent lamp. Using
carbonized filaments from cotton thread, his light bulb burned for two days. These bulbs were first installed on the steamship Columbia and have been lighting up the world ever since.
1903: First powered flight
Orville Wright took off in the first powered flight in history in 1903 with the help of his brother, Wilbur. By 1905, the Wright brothers had completed the first practical airplane for public use. Since the advent of airplanes, the world has experienced a rapid merging of cultures, ideas and resources.
1908: Ford's Model T
At $850, the world's first automobile proved to be an invaluable bargain for farmers and city dwellers alike. And with Henry Ford's introduction of the revolutionary assembly line, the volume of sales increased dramatically, bringing the cost of the Model T, also known as the "Tin Lizzie," to just $525.
1712: Newcomen's steam engine
Although each separate component of a modern steam engine had already been invented by the year 1712, the first person to tie all of these elements together was Thomas Newcomen, an English blacksmith. The steam engine not only provided an immense source of power and energy, but, along with James Watt's improvements in 1769, also paved the way for the Industrial Revolution and the move from an agrarian society to life in a city.
1876: Telephone
Not realizing the full impact it would have on society, Alexander Graham Bell introduced the first telephone to an amazed audience at America's Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876. Within a year, Bell had installed 230 phones and established the Bell Telephone Company, which was later transformed into AT&T. In 1997, 643,000,000,000 calls were made by people in the United States alone.
1901: Wireless transmission of a signal
On December 12, 1901, Guglielmo Marconi transmitted the Morse code letter "s" across the Atlantic from Cornwall, England, to St. John's, Newfoundland. This demonstration of wireless transmission eventually paved the way for today's complex global (and interglobal) communications, including radio, radar, and even signals from other planets.
1926: First public demonstration of television
On January 26, 1926, John Logie Baird displayed television for the first time in public at a department store in London. This was the first major step in the advancement of television since Paul Nipkow received a patent on his proposal for a mechanical television system in 1883. By 1993, there were 215 million television sets in the United States alone.
1947: Silicon chip
After ENIAC, the first computer, was invented in 1946, researchers sought a more practical way to perform highly complex calculations. In 1947, three engineers (John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain) demonstrated that it was possible to selectively control the flow of electricity through silicon. This discovery led to the creation of microprocessors and has since paved the way for today's high-speed, efficient computers.
4.Poli
tics and government
1787: Philadelphia Convention published the U.S. Constitution
The signing of the constitution is an unqualified benchmark in United States, and world, history. The constitution's four most important contributions were (1) the electoral process, (2) a system of checks and balances, (3) federalization combined with state control, and (4) protection of individual rights
1804: Napoleon declared himself emperor of France
Almost sixteen years after the French Revolution, monarchy returned to France when Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself emperor; thereafter he was known simply as Napoleon. His Napoleonic Code was a sort of compromise between the aristocratic regime and the revolutionary's egalitarianism, remnants of which are still law in Europe today. He built the largest European empire since the Romans.
1917: Lenin led Bolshevik Revolution
Led by Vladimir I. Lenin, the Bolshevik Revolution finalized the end of Czarist Russia and formed a new nation, the Soviet Union. Lenin moved the capital to Moscow, abolished private property, suppressed organized religion, and nationalized business and industry. He also set the model for totalitarianism in the twentieth century and was an impassioned advocate of the Marxist-Leninist system, which he successfully exported to nearly half the world.
5.Society and culture
1596: Flush toilet
British nobleman John Harington devised the first flushing "water closet," which featured a wooden seat with a cistern and a valve for flushing. However, it wasn't until the nineteenth century when extensive sewage systems were introduced, that the flush toilet became as popular as the outhouse, the chamber pot, and the secluded tree.
1834: Refrigerator
Modern refrigeration was invented by Jacob Perkins, a Massachusetts native residing in London. Perkins's patented machine closely resembles today's refrigerator: a compressed fluid - ether for Perkins, Freon for us - evaporates to cool goods, then re-condenses. Today, fewer than one percent of American homes lack this cool convenience.
1854: Elevator
Elisha Graves Otis demonstrated the world's first safe elevator at an 1854 New York City fair. Like other elevators, Otis's invention ran up and down on a rope coiled around a power-driven drum. However, when Otis had his assistant cut the supporting rope, the public saw Otis's real innovation: a spring that set iron teeth into secure notches when tension in the rope slackened.
1498: Toothbrush
In 1498, the Chinese invented the toothbrush, a row of bristles mounted at right angles to a straight handle. Society has enjoyed cleaner teeth and brighter smiles ever since.
1582: Gregorian calendar
In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII boldly changed the course of history and of timekeeping when he instituted the present-day Christian calendar. The Gregorian calendar chopped ten days off the previously-used Julian calendar, which had been the standard since 46 BC, and switched New Year's Day from Mar
ch to the first of January. The still-active Gregorian calendar is not quite accurate: it runs twenty-six seconds fast per year.
1714: Mercury thermometer
Daniel Fahrenheit, a German physicist working in Holland, invented the mercury thermometer. This invention was a more accurate temperature gauge than the alcohol-filled thermometer which was popular at the time. Fahrenheit's thermometer had three fixed points: water's freezing point, its boiling point, and the temperature of human blood. This temperature scale is still in use today.
1886: Coca-Cola
John Pemberton, an Atlanta druggist, invented the famous carbonated blend of coca leaf and kola nut in 1886. Pemberton originally marketed his drink as "French wine of Coca - an ideal Nerve Tonic and Stimulant," but today 606 million people choose Coke "just for the taste of it" every day.
6.Philosophy and learning
1088: The first university
The first university with the authority to grant degrees arose in Bologna, Italy from student guilds and societies of scholars seeking protection from an intolerant church and government. Universities in Paris and Oxford were formed shortly thereafter, creating largely secular and democratic centers of learning that began to challenge the beliefs of the church and state, and nurture the development of human thought.
1641: I think, therefore I am
In order to cleanse the palette of widely accepted, though incorrect, philosophical ideas in Europe, Rene Descartes coined the phrase "I think, therefore I am." Searching for the origin of human knowledge, he reasoned that one must start with doubt, instead of faith. He distinguished between the mind and material objects, concluded that the physical universe, aside from God and the human soul, is mechanical (and therefore subject to the laws of mechanics), and invented analytic geometry.
1897: The birth of psychoanalysis
German psychologist Sigmund Freud revolutionized the process of psychoanalysis for the treatment of mental illness. He popularized the concepts of anxiety and repression and introduced the idea of early childhood development of sexual feeling. Although his ideas are highly controversial and impossible to prove, terms such as "Oedipus complex" captured the collective imagination and equipped psychoanalysts with a new school of thought.
7.Art and architecture
1260: The gothic cathedral
Consecrated in 1260, the massive Chartres Cathedral in France marked the highpoint of gothic architecture. Its towering spires could be seen from twenty miles away, and innovations such as tall arcades, a narrow triforium, and a cavalcade of flying buttresses pushed the boundaries of architectural possibility. A popular pilgrimage destination in the Middle Ages, the Chartres Cathedral seemed to embody the popular conception of God at that time--dwarfing, unreachable, and unknowable.
1883: First steel framed structure
A new cathedral is born on the cusp of the twentieth century— the s
kyscraper. The Home Insurance building in Chicago contained the first fireproof steel frame, but the Woolworth building in New York City combined several new technologies, including a set of concrete piers delving into the bedrock below the waterline, portal arches, and high speed elevators. Mies Van der Roe carried the skyscraper to a whole new aesthetic level using metal and glass to give the monoliths an ethereal sense of lightness and spaciousness.
8.war
1066: Norman Conquest
In 1066, William, duke of Normandy (later William I), led a force of 6,000 men from northern France to defeat King Harold of England in the Battle of Hastings. The Norman Conquest destroyed England's tie to Scandinavia, instead bringing it into close contact with Western Europe. Within England, Norman French became the language of literature and of both the court and upper classes, and had a great effect on the development of the English language.
1775-1781: American Revolutionary War
The Thirteen Colonies' successful war of independence from Great Britain led to the creation of the United States and the establishment of the modern democratic style of government. The Revolution had a great influence on liberal thought throughout Europe, inspiring revolutions in France, and later, in Spain's American colonies.
1861-1865: American Civil War
The American Civil War erupted when southern states seceded from the Union in order to form their own nation. The North's ultimate victory preserved the Union, abolished slavery, and granted citizenship to newly freed slaves. The Civil War also marked the economic and political ascendancy of the rapidly industrializing states of the North.
1939-1945: World War II
World War II involved every major power in the world and was the costliest war in history. The conflict resulted from the rise of totalitarian, militaristic regimes after World War I. Modern methods of warfare, including the first use of nuclear weapons--together with Germany's attempt to exterminate entire religious and ethnic groups (particularly the Jews)-- killed tens of millions. Political consequences included the reduction of Britain and France to powers of lesser rank, the birth of the United Nations, and the beginning of the Cold War.
1095-1192: Crusades (One through Three)
The Crusades, profoundly altering European history, were a series of attacks organized by Western Christians in order to take control of the holy city of Jerusalem from Muslim powers. Although they generally failed in their chief purpose, the Crusades exercised an immense influence on Western civilization by bringing the West into closer contact with new ways of living and thinking--stimulating commerce, giving fresh impetus to literature and invention, and increasing geographical knowledge.
1799-1815: Napoleonic Wars
With Napoleon in a position of absolute power, France fought the shifting alliances of other European nations for territory. France enjoyed a short domi
nation over most of Europe, during which Napoleon instituted many administrative and legal reforms. After his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon's empire disintegrated, stimulating movements for national unification.
1914-1917: World War I
The underlying causes of World War I were the imperialist, territorial, and economic rivalries of the great powers. It was the advent of "total war," in which civilians became legitimate targets, and use of modern weaponry made the war one of the bloodiest in history, with an estimated ten million killed. The signing of the Treaty of Versailles changed the face of Europe and the Middle East while the harsh terms imposed on Germany set the stage for World War II.
1950-1953: Korean War
The conflict between communist and non-communist forces in Korea was the first war fought under international authority (the United Nations) and the first post-nuclear war. Ending in a stalemate, the Korean War clarified the lines of the Cold War between democracy and Communism and intensified the arms race between the United States and Russia.
9.Music and literature
1955: Rock and roll
With his speedy, spiced-up version of rhythm and blues, Chuck Berry combined all the essential ingredients of rock 'n' roll and delivered them to the mainstream audience. Juiced up with double-string guitar licks and a witty lyricism that appealed to postwar youth, his sassy and energetic Maybelline skyrocketed to number five on the Billboard charts. Elvis Presley burst upon the scene shortly thereafter - adding the moves, charisma, and sensuality that caused nationwide hysteria. Rock 'n' roll was born.
1387: Tales from the trail
Geoffrey Chaucer begins work on The Canterbury Tales--the story of a storytelling contest amongst a group of pilgrims traveling to a shrine in Canterbury. Chaucer's exploration of the young Middle English language profoundly influenced the development of English literature; his tales, ranging from the terrifyingly bleak to the raucous and bawdy, exhibited a keen perception of the human condition.
1795: Sense and Sensibility
Jane Austen expanded the novel's range in subject matter as the first to write about average people in everyday situations. Although not the first novelist (Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding beat her to it), her writing exhibited a shrewd mastery of the form. Austen's works have had mass appeal, proving that daily life for women at the close of the eighteenth century was every bit an adventure and a battlefield.
三、名言Old sayings
Get new insights through reviewing old materials---Confucius
*(孔子：Confucius)
Get twice the result with half the effort
Kill two birds with one stone.
Tough time does not last long, but tough people do.
Don’t part with your illusions. When they are gone you may still exist, but you have ceased to live. ------Mark Twain 不要放弃你的幻想。当幻想没有了以后，你还可以生存，但是你虽生
犹死。
Man errs so long as strives.-----Johann Wolfgang Goethe,German poet and dramatist 人只要奋斗就会犯错误。
Where there is a will, there is a way.--------Thomas Edison 有志者，事竟成。
Character cannot be developed in ease and quiet. Only through experience of trial and suffering can the soul be strengthened, vision cleared, ambition inspired, and success achieved. ------Helen Keller 要使性格有所发展并非简单之事，只有通过艰难和困苦的磨练才能使心灵强化，视野开阔，雄心振奋，从而达到成功的目的。
Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful.-----William Shakespeare 美德是勇敢的，善良从来无所畏惧。
Histories make men wise; poems witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.
----Francis Bacon 历史使人明智；诗词使人灵秀；数学使人周密；自然哲学使人深邃；伦理使人庄重；逻辑修辞学使人善辩。
Never too old to learn.
------Thomas Middleton, British writer 活到老学到老。
The more you study, the more you will find yourself ignorant.
---Rene Descartes, French philosopher/mathematician。
All happy families are like one another; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. ------Leo Tolstoy, Russian writer 所有幸福的家庭都十分相似；而每个不幸的家庭各有自不幸。
Experience is the father of wisdom and memory the mother.
------Charles Bernard French philosopher 经验是智慧之父，记忆是智慧之母。
Knowledge is power. Francis Bacon 知识就是力量。
Experience is not what happens to a man; it is what a man does with what happens to him. -------Aldous Leonard HuxleyAmerican writer 经验不会从天降；经验只有通过实践才能获得。
I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. --------Voltaire, French writer 我不同意你说的话，但是我愿意誓死捍卫你说话的权利。
Plato is dear to me, but dearer still is truth. -----Aristotle, Ancient Greek philosopher 吾爱吾师，吾更爱真理。
Imagination is more important than knowledge. -------Albert Einstein 想象力比知识更为重要。
Do not, for one repulse, give up the purpose that you resolved to effect. -----William Shakespeare 不要只因一次失败，就放弃你原来决心想达到的目的。
I want to bring out the secrets of nature and apply them for the happiness of man. I don’t know of any better service to offer for the short time we are in the world.Thomas Edison 我想揭示大自然的秘密，用来造福人类。认为，在我们的短暂一生中，最好的贡献莫过于此了。
It is at our mother’s knee that we acquire our noblest and truest and highest ideals, but there is seldom any money in them.Mark Twain 就是在我们母亲的膝上，我们获得了我们的最高尚、最真诚和
最远大的理想，但是里面很少有任何金钱。
The ideals which have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully have been kindness, beauty and truth. ----Albert Einstein 有些理想曾为我引过道路，并不断给我新的勇气以欣然面对人生，那些理想就是—真、善、美。
The only limit to our realization of tomorrow will be our doubts of today.Franklin Roosevelt 实现明天理想的唯一障碍是今天的疑虑。
If you have great talents, industry will improve them; if you have but moderate abilities, industry will supply their deficiency.Joshuas Reynolds, American female essayist 如果你很有天赋，勤勉会使其更加完善；如果你能力一般，勤勉会补足其缺陷。
My fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.John Kennedy 美国同胞们，不要问国家能为你们做些什么，而要问你们能为国家做些什么。全世界的公民们，不要问美国将为你们做些什么，而要问我们共同能为人类的自由做些什么。
Achievement provides the only real pleasure in life.Thomas Edison 有所成就是人生唯一的真正的乐趣。
Success covers a multitude of blunders.George Bernard Shaw 成功由大量的失误铸成。
You have to believe in yourself. That’s the secret of success.Charles Chaplin 人必须相信自己，这是成功的秘诀。
A light heart lives long.William Shakespeare 豁达者长寿。
Bitter pills may have blessed effects.Anonymous 良药苦口利于病。
Diseases of the soul are more dangerous than those of the body. M.T. Cicero,Ancient Roman orator and statesman 心灵上的疾病比身体上的疾病更危险。
The first wealth is health.Ralph Waldo Emerson, American thinker 健康是人生第一财富。
All the splendor in the world is not worth a good friend.Voltaire, French thinker 人世间所有的荣华富贵不如一个好朋友。
Beggars do not envy millionaires, though of course they will envy other beggars who are more successful.Bertrand Russell 乞丐并不羡慕百万富翁，尽管他们一定会羡慕比他们乞讨得多的乞丐。
It is good to have money to buy things that money can buy, but it is better not to lose things money cannot buy.George H Lorimer, American journalist 有钱去买能买得到的东西当然不错，但是不丢失用金钱买不到的东西更好。
Money is a good servant and a bad master.Francis Bacon 金钱是善仆，也是恶主。
No country, however rich, can afford the waste of its human resources.Frankin Roosevelt 任何一个国家，不管它多么富裕，都浪费不起人力资源。
A contented mind is the greatest blessing a man enjoy in this world.Joseph Addison, American writer 知足是人生在世最大的幸事。
The supreme happiness of life is the conviction that we are loved.Vitor Hugo 生活中最大的幸福是坚信有人爱我们。
Do you love life? Then do not squander time; for that’s the stuff life is made of.Benjamin Franklin 你热爱生命吗？那么，别浪费时间，因为生命是由时间组成的。
Never leave that until tomorrow, which you can do today. Benjamin Franklin 今天的事不要拖到明天。
The time of life is short, to spend that shortness basely, it would be too long.William Shakespeare 人生苦短，若虚度年华，则短暂的人生就太长了。
To choose time is to save time. Francis Bacon 合理安排时间是节约时间。
Liberty is the only thing you cannot have unless you give it to others.William A. White, American journalist 自由就是这样的东西，不给予别人，你自己也无法得到。
Liberty, when it begins to take root, is a plant of rapid growth. George Washington 自由一旦生根，便是株迅猛生长的植物。
Smokers and nonsmokers cannot be equally free in the same railway carriage.George Bernard Shaw 吸烟者和不吸烟者在同一节车厢里无法享受同样的自由。
A good laugh is sunshine in a house.William Makepeace Thackeray,British novelist 令人愉快的欢笑是房间里的阳光。
He that travels far knows much.John Ray, British scientist 远行者见闻多。
I never consider ease and joyfulness as the purpose of life itself.Albert Einstein 我从来不认为安逸和欢乐就是生活本身的目的。
In almost every face and every person, they may discover fine feathers and defects, good and bad qualities. Benjamin Franklin 人各有其面，有优缺点，有长短处。
The principal thing in this world is to keep one’s soul aloft. Flaubert 人生在世首要大事是保持灵魂的高尚。
Cultivation to the mind is as necessary as food for the body.Cicero, Ancient Roman statesman and orator 学习对于头脑，如同食物对于身体一样不可缺少。
My philosophy of life is work.Thomas Alva Edison 我的人生哲学就是工作。
Work banishes those three great evils: boredom, vice, and poverty.Voltaire, French philosopher 工作撵跑三个魔鬼：无聊，堕落和贫穷。
A friend is, as it were, a second self.Cicero 可以说，朋友是另一个自我。
Friendship is an essential ingredient in the making of a healthful, rewarding life. Ralph Waldo EmersonAmerican thinker 友谊是使人的一生健康而有意义所不可缺少的组成部分。
Friendship is both a source of pleasure and a component of good health.Ralph Waldo Emerson 友谊既是快乐之源泉，又是健康之要素。
Mistakes are an essential part of education.Bertrand Russell, British philosopher 从错误中吸取教训是教育极为重要的一部分。
Initiative is doing the right thing without being told.Elbert Hubbard, American writer 主动性是指在没有人告诉你的情况下去做合适的事情
。
Strong reasons make strong actions.William Shakespeare 强有力的理由产生强有力的行动。
There is no time like the present.Tobias George SmallettBritish novelist 时不待我，没有比现在更宝贵的了。
Although the world is full of suffering, it is full also of the overcoming of it.Hellen Keller, American writer 虽然世界多苦难，但是苦难总是能战胜的。
To be proud of learning is the greatest ignorance.Jereny Taylor, American composer 以学识自傲是最大的无知。
A friendship founded on business is better than business founded on friendship.John D. Rockerfeller, American businessman 建立在商务基础上的友谊胜过建立在友谊基础上的商务。
No society can make a perpetual constitution, or even a perpetual law.Thomas Jefferson, American president 没有哪个社会可以制订一部永远适用的宪法，甚至一条永远适用的法律。
A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops. H. B. Adams, American historian 教师的影响是永恒的；无法估计他的影响会有多深远。
Education is a progressive discovery of our ignorance. Durant, American historian 教育是一个逐步发现自己无知的过程。
Example is always more efficacious than precept.Samuel Johnson British writer and critic 身教胜于言教。
1. 论据
William Harvey (1578-1657) 哈维，血液循环发现人，推翻了盖伦的理论（对于这个例子，我既可以用在质疑精神推动了科学的进步，又能用在那些“伟大的思想家，科学家往往不受他们所在的时代和社会的认可”以及“现在的很多成就都受过去的成就的影响”，因此这样一个例子就能眷顾到很多话题的支持中，这样也就提高了我们的备考效率，要多掌握那些很有针对性同时还不乏灵活性的例子，我们所掌握的素材就能发挥更高的效率）
William Harvey (1578-1657), English physician, who discovered the circulation of the blood and the role of the heart in propelling it, thus refuting the theories of Galen （注：质疑精神的题目用到的有效论据）and laying the foundation for modern physiology（注：过去对现在的影响的有效论据）. Harvey's De Motu Cordis subjected him to severe criticism by some contemporaries（注：伟大的科学家总不受当时的社会认可，思想超前）, but this was more than compensated for by the later widespread recognition of his contribution.
如上所示的一个哈维的例子，我们其实应对了三个主题的写作的例子，而这三个主题加起来辐射了我们GRE Issue话题题库中的将近49个题目，这种素材的性价比就太高了，因此大家要学会这样的总结，这里就只是大家这样一个启发。
2. 论证---质疑精神的本质
Doubt tends to be wholly rational and causes us to hesitate before acting, and apply more rigorous methods. In politics, ethics and