外文翻译---软件和软件工程

外文翻译:

Software and software engineering ----the software appearance and enumerates

As the decade of the 1980s began, a front page story in business week magazine trumpeted the following headline:” software: the new driving force.”software had come of age—it had become a topic for management concern. during the mid-1980s,a cover story in foreune lamented “A Growing Gap in Software,”and at the close of the decade, business week warned managers about”the Software Trap—Automate or else.”As the 1990s dawned , a feature story in Newsweek asked ”Can We Trust Our Software? ”and The wall street journal related a major software company’s travails with a front page article entitled “Creating New Software Was an Agonizing Task …” these headlines, and many others like them, were a harbinger of a new understanding of the importance of computer software ---- the opportunities that it offers and the dangers that it poses.

Software has now surpassed hardware as the key to the success of many computer-based systems. Whether a computer is used to run a business, control a product, or enable a system , software is the factor that differentiates . The completeness and timeliness of information provided by software (and related databases) differentiate one company from its competitors. The design and “human friendliness” of a software product differentiate it from competing products with an otherwise similar function .The intelligence and function provided by embedded software often differentiate two similar industrial or consumer products. It is software that can make the difference.

During the first three decades of the computing era, the primary challenge was to develop computer hardware that reduced the cost of processing and storing data .Throughout the decade of the 1980s,advances in microelectronics resulted in more computing power at increasingly lower cost. Today, the problem is different .The primary challenge during the 1990s is to improve the

quality ( and reduce the cost ) of computer-based solutions- solutions that are implemented with software.

The power of a 1980s-era mainframe computer is available now on a desk top. The awesome processing and storage capabilities of modern hardware represent computing potential. Software is the mechanism that enables us to harness and tap this potential.

The context in which software has been developed is closely coupled to almost five decades of computer system evolution. Better hardware performance, smaller size and lower cost have precipitated more sophisticated computer-based syst ems. We’re moved form vacuum tube processors to microelectronic devices that are capable of processing 200 million connections per second .In popular books on “the computer revolution,”Osborne characterized a “new industrial revolution,” Toffer called the advent of microelectronics part of “the third wave of change” in human history , and Naisbitt predicted that the transformation from an industrial society to an “information society” will have a profound impact on our lives. Feigenbaum and McCorduck suggested that information and knowledge will be the focal point for power in the twenty-first century, and Stoll argued that the “ electronic community” created by networks and software is the key to knowledge interchange throughout the world . As the 1990s began , Toffler described a “power shift” in which old power structures( governmental, educational, industrial, economic, and military) will disintegrate as computers and software lead to a “democratization of knowledge.”

Figure 1-1 depicts the evolution of software within the context of. computer-based system application areas. During the early years of computer system development, hardware underwent continual change while software was viewed by many as an afterthought. Computer programming was a "seat-of-the-pants" art for which few systematic methods existed. Software development was virtually unmanaged--until schedules slipped or costs began to escalate. During this period, a

batch orientation was used for most systems. Notable exceptions were interactive systems such as the early American Airlines reservation system and real-time defense-oriented

systems such as SAGE. For the most part, however, hardware was dedicated to the union of, a single program that in turn was dedicated to a specific application.

Evolution of software

During the early years, general-purpose hardware became commonplace. Software, on the other hand, was custom-designed for each application and had a relatively limited distribution. Product software(i.e., programs developed to be sold to one or more customers) was in its infancy . Most software was developed and ultimately used by the same person or organization. You wrote it, you got it running , and if it failed, you fixed it. Because job mobility was low , managers could rest assured that you’d be there when bugs were encountered.

Because of this personalized software environment, design was an implicit process performed in one’s head, and action was often nonexistent. During the early years we learned much about the implementation of computer-based systems, but relatively little about computer system engineering .In fairness , however , we must acknowledge the many outstanding computer-based systems that were developed during this era. Some of these remain in use today and provide landmark achievements that continue to justify admiration.

The second era of computer system evolution (Figure 1.1) spanned the decade from the

mid-1960s to the late 1970s. Multiprogramming and multiuse systems introduced new concepts of human-machine interaction. Interactive techniques opened a new world of applications and new levels of hardware and software sophistication . Real-time systems could collect, analyze, and transform data form multiple sources , thereby controlling processes and producing output in milliseconds rather than minutes . Advances in on-line storage led to the first generation of database management systems.

The second era was also characterized by the use of product software and the advent of "software houses." Software was developed for widespread distribution in a multidisciplinary market. Programs for mainframes and minicomputers were distributed to hundreds and sometimes

thousands of users. Entrepreneurs from industry, government, and academia broke away to "develop the ultimate software package" and earn a bundle of money.

As the number of computer-based systems grew, libraries of computer software began to expand. In-house development projects produced tens of thousands of program source statements. Software products purchased from the outside added hundreds of thousands of new statements. A dark cloud appeared on the horizon. All of these programs--all of these source statements-had to be corrected when faults were detected, modified as user requirements changed, or adapted to new hardware that was purchased. These activities were collectively called software maintenance. Effort spent on software maintenance began to absorb resources at an alarming rate.

Worse yet, the personalized nature of many programs made them virtually unmentionable. A "software crisis" loomed on the horizon.

The third era of computer system evolution began in the mid-1970s and continues today. The distributed system--multiple computers, each performing functions concurrently and communicating with one another- greatly increased the complexity of computer-based systems. Global and local area networks, high-bandwidth digital communications, and increasing demands for 'instantaneous' data access put heavy demands on software developers.

The third era has also been characterized by the advent and widespread use of microprocessors, personal computers, and powerful desk-top workstations. The microprocessor has spawned a wide array of intelligent products-from automobiles to microwave ovens, from industrial robots to blood serum diagnostic equipment. In many cases, software technology is being integrated into products by technical staff who understand hardware but are often novices in software development.

The personal computer has been the catalyst for the growth of many software companies. While the software companies of the second era sold hundreds or thousands of copies of their programs, the software companies of the third era sell tens and even hundreds of thousands of copies. Personal computer hardware is rapidly becoming a commodity, while software provides the differentiating characteristic. In fact, as the rate of personal computer sales growth flattened during the mid-1980s, software-product sales continued to grow. Many people in industry and at home spent more money on software than they did to purchase the computer on which the software would run.

The fourth era in computer software is just beginning. Object-oriented technologies (Chapters 8 and 12) are rapidly displacing more conventional software development approaches in many application areas. Authors such as Feigenbaum and McCorduck [FEI83] and Allman [ALL89] predict that "fifth-generation" computers, radically different computing architectures, and their related software will have a profound impact on the balance of political and industrial power throughout the world. Already, "fourth-generation" techniques for software development (discussed later in this chapter) are changing the manner in which some segments of the software community build computer programs. Expert systems and artificial intelligence software has finally moved from the laboratory into practical application for wide-ranging problems in the real world. Artificial neural network software has opened exciting possibilities for pattern recognition and human-like information processing abilities.

As we move into the fourth era, the problems associated with computer software continue to intensify:

Hardware sophistication has outpaced our ability to build software to tap hardware's potential.

Our ability to build new programs cannot keep pace with the demand for new programs.

Our ability to maintain existing programs is threatened by poor design and inadequate resources.

In response to these problems, software engineering practices--the topic to which this book is dedicated--are being adopted throughout the industry.

An Industry Perspective

In the early days of computing, computer-based systems were developed using

hardware-oriented management. Project managers focused on hardware because it was the single largest budget item for system development. To control hardware costs, managers instituted formal controls and technical standards. They demanded thorough analysis and design before something was built. They measured the process to determine where improvements could be made. Stated simply, they applied the controls, methods, and tools that we recognize as hardware engineering. Sadly, software was often little more than an afterthought.

In the early days, programming was viewed as an "art form." Few formal methods existed and fewer people used them. The programmer often learned his or her craft by trial and error. The jargon and challenges of building computer software created a mystique that few managers cared to penetrate. The software world was virtually undisciplined--and many practitioners of the clay loved it!

Today, the distribution of costs for the development of computer-based systems has changed dramatically. Software, rather than hardware, is often the largest single cost item. For the past decade managers and many technical practitioners have asked the following questions: Why does it take so long to get programs finished?

Why are costs so high?

Why can't we find all errors before we give the software to our customers?

Why do we have difficulty in measuring progress as software is being developed?

These, and many other’ questions, are a manifestation of the concern about software and the manner in which it is developed--a concern that has tend to the adoption of software engineering practices.

译文:

软件和软件工程

——软件的出现及列举

在二十世纪八十年代的前十年开始的时候, 在商业周刊杂志里一个头版故事大声宣扬以下标题：“软件，我们新的驱动力！”软件带来了一个时代------它成为了一个大家关心的主题。在八十年代中期，《财富》杂志的一个封面故事在哀叹：“一个在发展的软件的缺口”在这十年结束时,商业周刊杂志的经理被警告只因为关于那句“软件陷阱自动装置或者其他”。在九十年代破晓之初, 在纽约时代杂志上有个特写询问：“我们能信任我们的软件吗?”并且华尔街时报叙述了一家专业软件公司通过辛苦的努力的头版文章题为“创造新的软件是苦恼的任务。”这些标题和很多其他的类似的，是那种重要的电脑软件的一种新的理解的先兆, 是新理解的作先驱计算机软件的重要机会, 它提供并且形成的危险。

软件现在已经超过了硬件，作为许多计算机成功的电脑基础系统的钥匙。无论计算机被用来经营业务，控制一个产品工程，或使系统运行，软件是区分的因素。信息的完整性和实时性由一个公司的不同的竞争者的不同软件(和相关的数据库) 提供。软件产品的设计和图案的功能来自人类，区分它从只能选其中之一的产品以一个相似的作用来看。那理解力和功能被插入的软件提供，经常区分二种相似的工业或消费品。这就是有利有弊的软件。

在计算机时代的前三十年期间, 第一位的主要挑战就是发展电脑计算机硬件减少处理和存放数据的费用。在八十年代的十年过程中,微观电子学的发展导致计算能力逐步提高而成本却越来越低。今天,问题不同了，在九十年代第一位的主要挑战是发展电脑基础解决办法的软件执行质量(和减少费用被实施以软件的)为主。

一台1980年代主要结构主机的力量是现在一台办公桌上可利用的。现代硬件的令人敬畏的处理和贮藏能力代表计算的潜力。软件是使我们利用和轻拍这潜力的机制。

软件角色的演变

在计算机系统发展的五十年左右的时间里，软件紧密地配合着其发展。更好的硬件性能，更小的尺寸，更少的花费已经促成更好的计算机基础系统。

我们移动真空电子管处理器微观电子学的设备已有能力每秒运行二亿条指令。在流行书籍上的电脑革命，有科学家描绘它为“一场新的工业革命”。有的科学家说微型电子学的发展是人类历史上第三次巨大的变化，有的预言道一场工业革命在向信息社会发展在我们的生活中将有一个意义深远的效果，有的说道电脑控制的信息和知识将成为21世纪的焦点力量，有的提出“电子社区”将被网络工作创造以及软件是世界上相互交换知识的钥匙。

在九十年代初，有的科学家描述到一个力量变速器在旧的建筑（政府的、教育的、工业的、经济的、军用的）将一体化作为计算机或者软件导致的知识的民主化。

图1-1 软件的演变。

图1-1 描述的是在计算机为主的系统应用区域之内软件的演变的时间表。在早年计算机系统发展期间, 硬件进行了连续变动。那时侯软件作为事后的不被注意想法被许多人观看了。计算机编程是少量系统的方法存在的艺术。软件开发实际上是不被关注的——直到日程表滑倒了或费用开始升级。在这个期间, 批取向被多数系统使用了。也有例外的，著名的例外是交互式系统譬如早期的美国

航空保留系统和实时针对防御系统。甚至在很大程度上，硬件是执行一个专用执行文件程序的专用物件。

在早年期间, 通用硬件变得普遍。软件，另一方面，是按客户要求设计的为各种应用和有相对地有限地发行。

软件产品(i.e.,节目显现出被卖对一个或更多顾客) 是在联邦税务局初期。多数软件由同样人或组织开发了和最终使用。您写了它, 您得到了它的运行, 并且如果它失败了, 您固定了它。由于工作流动性是降低, 如果遇到问题负责人也能放心。

由于这是个人性化的软件环境, 设计是在一个人的头脑里含蓄过地程执行, 并且文献经常是不存在的。

在早年我们学会了关于计算机为主的系统的实施, 但较少学习关于计算机系统工程。但是, 我们必须承认被开发在这个时代期间的计算机为主的系统是有许多卓著之处的。这些令人倾慕的成就有很多保留在今天的使用中提供继续纠错。

第二个时代计算机系统演变(图1-1) 跨过了十年即从60 年代中期对70 年代晚期。

多元化的程序和多用户系统介绍了人与机器互相作用的新概念。交互式技术打开了应用硬件和软件优雅新水平的一个新世界。实时系统能收集、分析，并且变换数据表多个来源，因此控制过程和生产产品在毫秒而不是分钟。其优点在网上存贮导致了数据库管理系统的第一代。

第二个时代为软件公司出现并且描绘产品软件的用途。软件为普遍发行在一个多重学科的市场上这个目的而被开发了。软件为计算机主机和微型计算机吸引了上百和甚至数以万计的用户。

从此，企业家从产业、政府以及学术界打破了“开发最后软件包”和赢得捆绑金钱的模式。

如同计算机为主的系统的数量在增长一样, 计算机软件图书馆开始扩展。机构内部的发展项目导致了成千上万个程序源语句。

被购买的软件产品从外面增加了成千上万个的新声明。但是犹如一朵黑暗的云彩出现在天际，所有这些程序——所有这些有一些应用是产生的缺点来源状态被查出了被改, 当用户要求修改则改变, 或适应被购买的新硬件。这些活动集

体叫做软件维护。在软件维护上工作人员花费了很多的功夫，但是软件还是以惊人的比率吸收资源得到资源。

更糟糕的是, 许多程序的个人化的本质使他们潜伏的盟友失去了运转的可靠性。一个“软件危机”在世界上隐约地出现了。

计算机系统演变第三个时代开始在70 年代中期直到今天。分配系统——多台计算机, 各一致地起作用并且执行通信，很大地增加了计算机为主的系统的复杂。

全球性和地区网络, 高带宽数字通信,已经在软件开发商那里对瞬间数据存取的增长的需求投入了重大需求。

第三个时代为对微处理器的出现和以及其普遍用途, 个人计算机，以及强有力的小规模工作站。

微处理器产生了大多智能产品，比如从汽车到微波炉, 从产业机器人到血液清液诊断设备。在许多情况下, 软件技术是联合了解硬件的产品的技术职员开发的，但经常是新手在开发软件。

个人计算机是许多软件公司成长的催化剂。如果说第二个时代被卖的是上百或数以万计的软件公司他们的程序的拷贝, 第三时代出售就是十和甚而成千上万个的拷贝的软件公司。

当软件提供区分的特征的时候，个人计算机硬件迅速地成为商品。实际上, 作为个人计算机销售成长率被铺平在80 年代中期期间, 软件产品销售还在继

续增长。许多人在产业和在软件上做购买软件花费的金钱比他们买的在家会运行的计算机更多。

第四个时代对计算机软件来说是正义起点。面向对象的技术(章节8 和12) 在许多应用范围迅速地偏移更加常规的软件开发方法。

作者譬如[ FEI83 ] 以及Allman [ ALL89 ] 预言"五世代" 计算机, 计算的程序根本不同, 并且他们的相关软件在世界各地将对政治和工业力量的平衡方面产生深刻的冲击。

现在，“软件开发的第四代”技术(在这个章节里以后会讨论) 改变方式软件社区修造了计算机程序的一些段。最后，专家系统和人工智能软件从实验室进入了现实世界中的广泛问题，成为其实际应用的软件。人工神经网络软件开辟了扣人心弦的类似人类信息处理能力。

如同我们进入第四个时代的时候，计算机软件的问题继续增强:

问题一：很多性能优越的硬件已经超过了我们建立软件控制硬件的潜力及能力。

问题二：我们建立新程序的能力无法与对新程序的需求同步。

问题三：由于粗劣的设计和不充分的资源，我们维护现有的程序的能力受到了威胁。

这些问题的的回应, 被采取在产业过程中。软件工程实践——这本书的题目是热忱的。

产业透视

在早期计算, 程序员开发了计算机为主的系统使用被安置的硬件管理。项目负责人集中于硬件因为这是为系统开发唯一最大的预算项目。控制硬件费用, 负责人设立了正式控制和技术标准。

在某事被建立了之前，他们会要求详尽的分析和设计。他们测量过程确定何处能做改进。简单地陈述，他们申请了控制、方法，以及我们认可当硬件工程学的工具。但是很悲哀的是, 软件经常只是少许事后的想法。

在早期, 编程被观看者观看了但是只是作为“艺术形式”。少量正常方法存在了但是也只有很少人使用了他们。

很多程序员经常地经过反复试验大家的编程艺术，然后学会这些复杂的编程工艺。计算机软件专科术语的大厦的杂乱无章和攻击性大厦挑战了少量程序员仔细透视这一奥妙。软件世界是真正的无纪律的—那个时期很多专业人员爱上了软件世界!

今天, 费用的发行被计算机为主的系统的发展显著改变了。软件, 而不是硬件, 经常是最大的唯一费用项目。过去十年经理和许多技术实习者请求以下问题:

为什么它采取如此长期时间得到被完成的编程?

为什么费用是很高的?

为什么我们不可以发现所有错误在我们把软件给我们的顾客之前?

为什么我们当软件被开发时在测量的进展时有困难?

这些, 并且还有很多其他的问题, 是被程序开发者对软件的关心和对软件工程实践的采纳的关心的一种表现的显示。

本文译自：Roger S.Pressman,Ph.D “Software Engineering ,” 1992

软件开发概念和设计方法大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：软件开发概念和设计方法文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业： 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14

外文资料原文 Software Development Concepts and Design Methodologies During the 1960s, ma inframes and higher level programming languages were applied to man y problems including human resource s yste ms,reservation s yste ms, and manufacturing s yste ms. Computers and software were seen as the cure all for man y bu siness issues were some times applied blindly. S yste ms sometimes failed to solve the problem for which the y were designed for man y reasons including: ?Inability to sufficiently understand complex problems ?Not sufficiently taking into account end-u ser needs, the organizational environ ment, and performance tradeoffs ?Inability to accurately estimate development time and operational costs ?Lack of framework for consistent and regular customer communications At this time, the concept of structured programming, top-down design, stepwise refinement，and modularity e merged. Structured programming is still the most dominant approach to software engineering and is still evo lving. These failures led to the concept of "software engineering" based upon the idea that an engineering-like discipl ine could be applied to software design and develop ment. Software design is a process where the software designer applies techniques and principles to produce a conceptual model that de scribes and defines a solution to a problem. In the beginning, this des ign process has not been well structured and the model does not alwa ys accurately represent the problem of software development. However,design methodologies have been evolving to accommo date changes in technolog y coupled with our increased understanding of development processes. Whereas early desig n methods addressed specific aspects of the

英文文献及中文翻译

毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程

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参考文献 [1]中华人民共和国住房和城乡建设部.GB50500-2008,建设工程工程量清单计价 规范[S].北京:中国计划出版社,2008. [2]福建省建设工程造价管理总站.FJYD-101-2005,福建省建筑工程消耗量定额 [S].北京:中国计划出版社,2005. [3]福建省建设工程造价管理总站.FJYD-201-2005,福建省建筑装饰装修工程消 耗量定额[S].北京:中国计划出版社,2005. [4]中华人民共和国建设部.GB/T50353-2005,建筑工程建筑面积计算规范[S].北 京:中国计划出版社,2005. [5]刘元芳.建筑工程计量与计价[M].北京:中国建材工业出版社,2009. [6]刘元芳.建设工程造价管理[M].北京:中国电力出版社,2005. [7]幸伟.我国政府采购招标投标问题研究[D].东北师范大学,2009. [8]杨平.工程合同管理[M].北京:人民交通出版社,2007. [9]陈慧玲．建设工程招标投标实务[M].南京：江苏科学技术出版社，2004年. [10]邹伟，论施工企业投标报价策略与技巧[J]，建筑经济，2007年. [11]陈娟，杨泽华，谢智明，浅谈工程投标报价的策略[J]，招投标研究，2004 年. [12]徐学东主编.《工程量清单的编制与投标报价》中国计划出版社.2005年. [13]田满霞,浅谈建设项目的工程造价控制[J].技术市场,2013,(9):188-188. [14]王雪青，国际工程投标报价决策系统研究[J],天津大学博士论文，2003年. [15]Online Computer Library Center, Inc. History of OCLC[EB/OL],2009. [16]Gray,C.,& Hughes,W.(2001).Building design management.Oxford, UK:Butterworth-Heinemann.

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软件工程论文参考文献 [1] 杜献峰 . 基于三层 B/S 结构的档案管理系统开发 [J]. 中原工学院学报，2009:19-25 [2]林鹏，李田养. 数字档案馆电子文件接收管理系统研究及建设[J].兰台世界，2008:23-25 [3]汤星群.基于数字档案馆建设的两点思考[J].档案时空，2005:23-28 [4]张华丽.基于 J2EE 的档案管理系统设计与实现[J].现代商贸工业. 2010:14-17 [5] 纪新.转型期大型企业集团档案管理模式研究[D].天津师范大学，2008：46-57. [6] 周玉玲.纸质与电子档案共存及网络环境电子档案管理模式[J].中国科技博览，2009：44-46. [7] 张寅玮.甘肃省电子档案管理研究[D]. 兰州大学，2011:30-42 [8] 惠宏伟.面向数字化校园的档案信息管理系统的研究与实现[D]. 电子科技大学，2006:19-33 [9] 刘冬立.基于 Web 的企业档案管理系统的设计与实现[D].同济大学，2007:14-23 [10]钟瑛.浅议电子文件管理系统的功能要素[J]. 档案学通讯，2006:11-20 [11] 刘洪峰，陈江波.网络开发技术大全[M].人民邮电出版社，2005：119-143. [12] 程成，陈霞.软件工程[M].机械工业出版社，2003：46-80. [13] 舒红平.Web 数据库编程-Java[M].西安电子科技大学出版社，2005：97-143. [14] 徐拥军.从档案收集到知识积累[M].是由工业出版社，2008：6-24. [15]Gary P Johnston，David V. Bowen.he benefits of electronic recordsmanagement systems: a general review of published and some unpublishedcases. RecordsManagement Journal，2005:44-52 [16]Keith Gregory.Implementing an electronic records management system: Apublic sector case study. Records Management Journal，2005:17-21 [17]Duranti Luciana.Concepts，Principles，and Methods for the Management of Electronic RecordsR[J].Information Society，2001：57-60.

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