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efficiency of a constructed wetland in removing contaminants from stormwater

efficiency of a constructed wetland in removing contaminants from stormwater
efficiency of a constructed wetland in removing contaminants from stormwater

WETLANDS,Vol.24,No.2,June2004,pp.459–466

?2004,The Society of Wetland Scientists

EFFICIENCY OF A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND IN REMOVING CONTAMINANTS

FROM STORMWATER

Gavin F.Birch*,Carsten Matthai,Mohammad S.Fazeli,and JeongYul Suh

Environmental Geology Group

School of Geosciences

The University of Sydney

New South Wales,2006,Australia

Abstract:As in most large capital cities,urban stormwater discharging into Port Jackson(Sydney)is highly

enriched in a wide range of contaminants,which has resulted in degradation of the receiving basin waters

and bottom sediments.The objective of the current investigation was to determine the removal ef?ciency of

contaminants in urban stormwater by a wetland constructed in the Sydney catchment.The wetland(700m2)

drains a residential urban catchment of about480,000m2comprising predominantly houses,streets,gardens,

and street parking areas.Samples of stormwater in?uent and ef?uent were obtained during rainfall events

between April and June2000.Eight samples were collected at the inlet and outlet to the wetland during

each event and analyzed for nutrients,trace metals,total suspended solids(TSS),and organochlorine pes-

ticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs).Water quality parameters(temperature,dissolved

oxygen,pH,turbidity,conductivity)were measured concurrently.The average removal ef?ciency of trace

metals Cr,Cu,Pb,Ni,and Zn was64%,65%,65%,22%,and52%,respectively for the six events measured,

whereas for Fe and Mn,removal ef?ciencies were negative for most events(mean?84%and?294%,re-

spectively).The average removal ef?ciency of NO

x

and TN was22%and16%,respectively.The average removal ef?ciencies of total Kjeldahl nitrogen(TKN)and total phosphorus(TP)were9%and12%,respec-

tively.During four high-?ow events,the removal ef?ciency of TSS in stormwater ef?uent from the wetland

was between9%and46%;however,substantially higher TSS concentrations were observed in ef?uent than

in?uent waters during two very high-?ow events(removal ef?ciency?98%and?67%).Fecal coliform counts

in the stormwater in this catchment are high(maximum:620,000cfu/100ml),but mean removal ef?ciency

was76%(range26%to98%)during the four high-?ow events monitored.Nevertheless,most samples from

the out?ow exceeded the Public Health criterion for secondary contact(e.g.,boating)of1000cfu/100ml.

Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and PAHs in stormwater were below analytical detection.Al-

though highly variable,lower concentrations of Cr,Cu,Ni,Pb,Zn,NO

x

,TN,and fecal coliform in the stormwater ef?uent compared to in?uent waters indicates that the wetland was moderately ef?cient in re-

moving contaminants from urban stormwater.

Key Words:stormwater,wetland,heavy metals,nutrients,fecal coliform

INTRODUCTION

Anthropogenic activities within urban catchments generate pollutants,which are transported from street surfaces by stormwater runoff and are discharged into adjacent receiving waters.Pollution carried by urban stormwater contributes substantially to the degradation of water quality of receiving waters(Davis et al.2001, Tilley and Brown1998,Birch and Taylor1999).Ur-ban stormwater pollutants include gross pollutants,as well as trace metals,nutrients,and fecal coliforms, which are associated with suspended solids and the dissolved phase(Walker et al.1999).Because of the well-documented adverse effects of increased toxicity and pathogen activity of polluted stormwater in urban waterways,local authorities are undertaking increased *E-mail:gavin@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7211069007.html,.au

community-awareness programs on urban stormwater quality.Major public awareness campaigns encourage environmental sensitivity and the implementation of structural techniques to physically remove visible gross pollutants(Tilley and Brown1998).Urban stormwater transports a variety of material,ranging from gross pollutants to?ne particulates,but the ma-jority of toxic substances are associated with the?ner fraction which requires careful management(Walker et al.1999).

Constructed wetlands as wastewater treatment sys-tem have become widespread in Australia and other parts of the world(Carleton et al.2001).During the last three decades,the multiple functions and value of vegetated ponds or wetlands have been widely rec-ognized(Schulz and Peall2001,Walker and Hurl 2002).Constructed wetlands are used extensively for

459

460WETLANDS,Volume24,No.2,2004

water quality improvement by reducing pollutant loads,as well as for ecological reasons(Wood and Shelley1999,Schulz and Peall2001).Wetlands were initially employed mainly to treat point-source waste-water,but more recently,an increased emphasis has been on urban and agricultural stormwater runoff (Carleton et al.2001,Schulz and Peall2001,Page et al.2002).

Studies suggest that wetland performance in treating stormwater is generally a function of in?ow,or hy-draulic loading rate and detention time,which are functions of storm intensity,runoff volume,and wet-land size(Carleton et al.2001).A number of investi-gations have found signi?cant levels of metals in stormwater runoff from urban areas,especially in highway runoff(Barbosa and Hvitved-Jacobsen,1999, Davis et al.2001,Walker and Hurl2002).The ef?-ciency of constructed wetlands for retention and re-duction of heavy metals(Davis et al.2001,Walker and Hurl2002),pesticides(Schulz and Peall2001), nutrients(Brezonik and Stadelmann2002),and sedi-ment(Backstrom2002)have been investigated.How-ever,only a few studies have been undertaken on the effectiveness of constructed wetlands for retention of sediments,nutrients,metals,and organic contaminants in a single investigation(Carleton et al.2001,Schulz and Peall2001).

Constructed wetlands are wastewater treatment sys-tems that combine biological,chemical,and physical treatment mechanisms for water quality improvement (Crites1992).The mechanisms for water quality im-provement in wetlands include adsorption,complexa-tion,chemical precipitation,and plant uptake(Reed et al.1995).A substantial reduction of?97%of Cu,Pb, and Zn in wastewater passing through a constructed wetland has been observed previously,albeit for a hy-draulic detention time of 5.5days(Gersberg et al. 1985).Similarly,high removal ef?ciencies of Pb and Zn have been reported by Lenehan(1992),with a de-tention time of?7days.A constructed wetland system commonly has two components:an upstream pond with relatively deep water and littoral macrophytes, and a downstream wetland with extensive macrophyte vegetation(EPA1997).The principal water quality objective of a constructed wetland is the retention of ?ne sediment and nutrients.However,possible disad-vantages include the required pre-treatment to remove coarse-grained sediment and the reliable in?ow needed to keep the wetland‘wet’throughout the year,unless designed as an ephemeral wetland.A common system is the installation of a gross pollutant trap(e.g.,a con-tinuous de?ective separation system or CDS)at the in?ow to the wetland to remove the coarse-grained sedimentary particles and litter prior to the stormwater entering the wetland.

Degraded water and sediment quality demonstrated in investigations of Port Jackson and Parramatta River, Sydney,Australia during the1990s were attributed to urban stormwater runoff(Irvine and Birch1998,Birch et al.1999,Birch and Taylor1999,2000,McCready et al.2000).To minimize the input of sediments and stormwater contaminants into aquatic ecosystems,a wetland was constructed at Riverwood in the south of Sydney in May1999(WRCS1997,1998)(Figure1).

A continuous de?ective separation(CDS)unit was in-stalled at the in?ow point to the wetland and releases ?ows up to the maximum expected daily rainfall for an average year(1:1years average recurrence interval, ARI)to a sedimentation pond.Flows are released from the sedimentation pond to the reed bed when a level of1.4m Australian Height Datum(AHD)is reached. The area,mean depth,and volume of the reed bed in the wetland and the sedimentation pond downstream of the CDS unit are700m2,2.0m,290m3,and100 m2,0.5m,105m3,respectively.The wetland catch-ment is approximately480,000m2and drains a mainly residential urban area of predominantly by houses, streets,gardens,and some street parking areas.The relative size of the wetland(0.1%)is thus probably less than optimum(0.5–2.0%)(Tilley and Brown 1998).Stormwater enters the sedimentation pond at the entrance of the wetland via a concrete pipe(70-cm diameter)and exits the wetland from a smaller pipe (20-cm diameter).The aims of the present study were to determine the ef?ciency of constructed wetland in controlling and removing sediments,nutrients,heavy metals,and fecal coliform from stormwater during ?ow events.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Stormwater samples were collected at the wetland between April and June,2000.During this period, high-?ow events were sampled to characterize the ef-?ciency of the wetland to retain total suspended solids (TSS),nutrients(TKN,NO

x

,TP),trace metals,organ-ochlorine pesticides(OCs),polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons(PAHs),fecal coliforms,and total oil and greases.In addition,water quality parameters(pH,tur-bidity,dissolved oxygen,temperature,conductivity) were measured using a YSI Model6920Multiprobe with built-in data-logger at the in?ow to the wetland to allow supplementary interpretation between total suspended solids and turbidity in stormwater runoff and provide additional information on TSS.

Sigma900MAX autosamplers were deployed at the inlet and outlet of the wetland.The water samples were collected via9.5-mm-inner-diameter,te?on-coat-ed sampling tubing and delivered directly into1000-ml acid-washed polyethylene sample bottles(glass

Birch

et al.,REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF CONSTRUCTED WETLAND461 Figure1.Design and components of wetland constructed in Hurstville,Sydney,Australia.

bottles for pesticide analyses)to minimize contami-nation.Flow level and velocity measurements were re-corded every2minutes at the two monitoring sites throughout the monitoring period.The automatic sam-pler at the in?ow location was triggered by the acous-tic?ow meter when the water level exceeded180mm. This level was reached within a few minutes of com-mencement of rainfall,ensuring that the?rst?ush of stormwater runoff was captured.Rainfall for the initial 24-hour period of each event ranged between1.0and 15.25mm.The rainfall intensity during the?rst hour of the high-?ow events ranged between0.75mm and 6.50mm.

Characterization of storm events included the deter-mination of concentrations of TSS,trace metals(Cd, Cr,Cu,Fe,Mn,Ni,Pb,Zn)(all6high-?ow events over the3-month period of investigation),nutrients (TKN,NO

x

,TP),and fecal coliform(four events)in stormwater sampled at inlet and outlet locations.A single rainfall event was sampled to determine the con-centrations of OCs,PAHs,total oil and grease,and TSS by compositing four350-ml samples obtained within6minutes after triggering to meet the minimum volume requirement for these analyses.Sampling was according to the hydrograph:two samples on the rising limb,two samples at peak?ow,and four samples on the falling limb.Temperature,pH,dissolved oxygen, turbidity,and conductivity were measured at the in-?ow to the wetland during three events in situ,and samples were collected simultaneously to determine the relationship between turbidity and TSS.

The event mean concentration is the weighted av-erage concentration(WAC)of a parameter measured in the stormwater samples(e.g.,TKN,TP,Cu,TSS) over the sampling period(i.e.,the time between the collection of the?rst and last samples).The sum of the average concentrations for each interval of known duration is divided by the total sampling interval to obtain the weighted average concentration(WAC)of the parameter during the storm event.The WAC of the event is calculated for in?ow and out?ow points.The removal ef?ciency of the stormwater remedial device is estimated by:

RE?WAC/WAC?100%

inflow outflow

where RE is the removal ef?ciency(in%),WAC

in?ow is the weighted average concentration at the in?ow point,and WAC

out?ow

is the weighted average concen-tration at the out?ow point(Figure2).

Chemical sample analyses were performed by a Na-tional Association of Testing Authorities(NATA)ac-credited Australian Laboratory Services(ALS)labo-ratory(Table1).All analytical work meets strict NATA accreditation requirements for Quality Control/ Quality Assurance.Analytical blanks were below de-tection for all parameters,ruling out laboratory con-tamination.Spike recoveries of control blanks,matrix-matched standards,and standard reference materials

462

WETLANDS,Volume 24,No.2,2004

Figure 2.Estimation of weighted average concentration (WAC)during a high ?ow event,using Cu concentrations observed during Event RF.

Table 1.Analytical methods,minimum sample volumes and detection limits required for analysis of stormwater passing through wetland.

Analysis

Minimum Volume Required (mL)

Detection Limit (mg/L)Method Reference Nox TKN TP FC

Trace metals TSS

Ocs &PCBs

PAHs &2-methylnaphthlene Oil &grease

2020050120100300400400500

0.010.10.01na

0.001(Fe 0.1)10.01

0.0005–0.0015

APHA 4500APHA 4500

USEPA 200.7by ICP APHA 9222D

USEPA 200.7by ICP USEPA 8081by ICP APHA 5520D

Nox ?Oxidisable nitrogen;TKN ?Total Kjeldahl nitrogen;TP ?Total phosphorus;FC ?Fecal coliforms;Trace metals ?Cd,Cr,Cu,Fe,Mn,Ni,Pb and Zn;TSS ?Total suspended solids;OCs ?Organochlorine pesticides;PCBs ?Polychlorinated biphenyls;PAHs ?Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

(SRM)were all within the acceptance criteria of the NATA-accredited laboratory.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the current work,the mean removal ef?ciency of TSS by the wetland ranged between ?98%and 46%(mean:?4%;SD:63%;n ?6).The mean removal ef?ciencies of TP and TKN were 12%(range ?14%to 39%)and 9%(range ?34%to 58%),respectively,exemplifying the large variability in the removal of these contaminants from stormwater by the wetland.The reduction of NO x was highly variable (mean 22%,range ?20%to 75%)for the four high-?ow events sampled,suggesting an important uptake of NO x by the wetland.The mean removal ef?ciency of fecal co-liforms was 98%,83%,and 99%during three high-?ow events but decreased to 26%during the largest high-?ow event sampled.During the latter high-?ow event,settling and removal of suspended particulates was substantially reduced and resuspended particulates likely contributed to the elevated TSS and fecal coli-

forms contents in out?owing stormwater during this event.

The mean removal ef?ciencies of trace metals from stormwater by the wetland were generally moderate to high but highly variable.Considerable Cr (67to 84%)was removed during four of the six high-?ow events monitored but decreased to 10%and was below dec-tection in the other two events (mean:64%).The re-moval ef?ciency of Cu by the wetland was high for all events (56–86%),except during the largest event (21%),suggesting that Cu may be preferentially ab-sorbed by plants in the wetland (Widerlund 1996).Pb and Zn also displayed substantial removal by the wet-land during ?ve of the six events monitored (Pb:44–89%;Zn:33–87%),but ef?ciencies were again mark-edly reduced during the highest ?ow event (Event RB)(Pb 27%and Zn ?5%).The average removal ef-?ciencies of Cu,Pb,and Zn during the six events mon-itored (including Event RB)were 65%,65%,and 52%,respectively,supporting the moderate to high removal of these trace metals from stormwater.These results are supported by other investigators (Walker and Hurl 2002),who found 48%,71%,and 57%reduction for Cu,Zn,and Pb,respectively.These authors deter-mined that sedimentation is the primary process for the removal of heavy metals from stormwater,along with other biological and chemical processes.The re-moval of Ni was highly variable and ranged from ?76%(Event RB)to 72%(mean:22%;n ?5).How-ever,the concentrations of Ni in stormwater were gen-erally below 0.005mg/L and do not represent a threat to aquatic biota (ANZECC/ARMCANZ,2000).The close association of metals and TSS in the current in-vestigation suggests that a substantial proportion of contaminants are associated with the particulate phase.A surprising outcome of the current work is the identi?cation of the wetland as a source of Fe and Mn over the three-momth period of the current invesiga-

Birch et al.,REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF CONSTRUCTED WETLAND463

tion.The mean removal ef?ciencies of Fe and Mn were?84%and?294%,respectively and although highly variable,the increased concentrations in ef?u-ent stormwater compared to in?uent water were repro-ducible for?ve of the six high-?ow events monitored. Because Fe and Mn behave differently than the other metals studied,the export of these elements from the wetland cannot be explained by simple resuspension of bottom sedimnts during high-?ow events.In partic-ular,WACs of Mn are up to?ve-fold greater than in?uent concentrations,indicating that the wetland contributes,rather than removes,this element from stormwater.A possible explanation for this phenom-enon is that the concentrations of Mn,and to a lesser extent Fe,are increased by the occurrence of medium-to coarse-grained Fe-and Mn-oxide coated grains.It is possible that these grains settle and accumulate in the wetland during low-?ow conditions and are re-moved during periods of high?ow when the resus-pension threshold velocity for coarse grains is exceed-ed.Monitoring of grain-size spectra in in?uent and ef?uent samples may aid in solving the source of the Fe and Mn discharged from the wetland.

During the highest rainfall event(Event RB),the removal ef?ciency of trace metals and TSS was sub-stantially lower than other events due to the intensity of rainfall(6.50mm during the?rst hour of the event and peak intensity of4.00mm during a10-minute pe-riod).The peak rainfall intensity was greater during this event than during other events monitored,and a maximum?ow of140L/s was observed at the in?ow point to the wetland.The rainfall intensity and the re-sulting large?ow volumes through the wetland during this high-?ow event may have contributed to the re-suspension of?ne-grained sediment and the transport of suspended particulates out of the wetland.Sediment in the wetland may require maintenance dredging to minimize the release of acid-volatile,sul?de-bound trace metals from the wetland during such periods of high?ow and sediment resuspension.

There are often speci?c treatments for the many types of pollutants generated from urban land-use ac-tivities.Heavier sediment may be settled and?oatable litter may be?ltered readily by use of Gross Pollutant Traps(GPT),whereas the removal of?ne-grained sus-pended solids requires the stormwater to?ow through settling basins or more elaborate treatment mecha-nisms.Wetlands are not only ef?cient in the removal of particulate-bound contaminants,including trace metals and nutrients by sedimentation(Crites et al. 1997,Backstrom2002,Walker and Hurl2002),but also have the advantage of achieving water quality im-provements in combination with biological and chem-ical treatment mechanisms.The water quality of in-and out-?owing stormwater collected during the six high-?ow events is compared to the ANZECC/ARM-

CANZ(2000)water quality guidelines for freshwater in Table2.No ANZECC guideline values are avail-able for TSS,TKN,NO

x

,and fecal coliforms.The

mean concentrations of TKN and NO

x

are therefore compared to the ANZECC/ARMCANZ(2000)guide-line values for ammonia and nitrate,respectively.AN-ZECC(1992)guideline values for TN and TP are used to compare the mean concentrations of these two pa-rameters in stormwater from the wetland catchment. The mean fecal coliform content in stormwater from this locality is compared to the level recommended for human health safety for secondary contact (LPRSWMP1999).

The mean concentrations of trace metals(Cr,Cu, Mn,Ni,Pb,Zn)in stormwater obtained from the wet-land inlet(n?48)and outlet(n?48)are compared to the guidelines and are expressed as a enrichment factor of the metal before and after treatment by the wetland.No water quality data are available for Fe, and Cd was below detection(?0.001mg/L)in all sam-ples.Mean concentrations of Cr exceed the ANZECC/ ARMCANZ(2000)guideline value3.3times at the in?ow point to the wetland but are similar to the rec-ommended concentration at the out?ow.Nickel also displays a moderate enrichment above ANZECC/ ARMCANZ(2000)guideline values of7.4and4.6 times in in-and out-?owing waters,respectively.The enrichments of Cu,Pb,and Zn in stormwater from the wetland catchment are substantially greater,ranging between45and173times above the recommended water quality guideline values for in?owing storm-water.Although the mean concentrations of these met-als are substantially reduced at the out?ow point from the wetland,the mean concentrations are still34,13, and63times above recommended ANZECC/ARM-CANZ(2000)guidelines concentrations(Table2).The mean concentrations of Mn in the in-and out-?owing waters are3.7and9.6times,respectively above the ANZECC/ARMCANZ(2000)water quality guideline for freshwater.

The overall removal ef?ciency of trace metal con-taminants by the wetland is moderate to high,except for Fe and Mn.However,concentrations of trace met-als(except Cr)in ef?uent stormwater from the wetland remains above the ANZECC/ARMCANZ(2000) guidelines for freshwater.Although the overall TSS content of the stormwater were slightly reduced from a mean content of144mg/L at the in?ow point to the wetland to121mg/L at the out?ow point,a further reduction of total suspended solids concentrations is desirable to reduce the ef?uent concentrations of trace metals.

The mean concentrations of TKN,NO

x

,and TN in the in?owing stormwater exceeded the ANZECC/

464

WETLANDS,Volume 24,No.2,2004

T a b l e 2.W e i g h t e d a v e r a g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (W A C )a n d r e m o v a l e f ?c i e n c y (%)o f h e a v y m e t a l s ,t o t a l s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s (T S S ),f e c a l c o l i f o r m s a n d n u t r i e n t s f r o m s t o r m w a t e r r u n o f f p a s s i n g t h r o u g h w e t l a n d .

E v e n t W A C

M a x .?o w L /s

C r C u F e P b M n N i Z n T S S T P F C T K N

N O x T N

R A

I n ?o w O u t ?o w R e m o v a l E f ?c i e n c y (%)9.924.40.0030.001840.0210.003861.41.2100.0130.002850.260.16370.0040.001620.470.06876133460.070.07?101022851?15608?981.780.74583.920.99755.701.7370R B

I n ?o w O u t ?o w R e m o v a l E f ?c i e n c y (%)146.450.30.0010.001100.020.016211.63.7?1290.0320.023270.040.23?4060.0020.004?760.170.18?587172?980.250.1635162050120721261.041.4?341.341.6?202.383.00?26R C

I n ?o w O u t ?o w R e m o v a l E f ?c i e n c y (%)73.439.8b d b d —0.0210.0095613.6?2690.0250.014440.060.36?477b d b d —0.220.15334881?670.060.0439182113151831.851.8322.292.05114.143.886R D

I n ?o w O u t ?o w R e m o v a l E f ?c i e n c y (%)13.612.70.0030.001840.0250.005791.72.4?420.0510.006890.130.37?1830.0030.002380.380.0684585290.20.23?1424887235992.412.18102.872.29205.284.4715R E

I n ?o w O u t ?o w 136.448.30.0040.0010.0360.0122.93.90.0540.0200.080.380.0120.0030.310.211764n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d R e m o v a l E f ?c i e n c y (%)7766?3462?392723445n d n d n d n d n d R F

I n ?o w O u t ?o w R e m o v a l E f ?c i e n c y (%)25.813.70.0030.001670.0410.009793.14.3?370.0520.009830.160.7?3420.0050.004120.390.0977*******n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d n d R A -R F

W A C (I n ?o w )S D (%)R S D (%)0.0030.001370.0270.009331.960.87440.0380.017450.1220.08660.0050.004760.320.1135n d n d n d 0.140.096668383811871191.770.56322.611.08414.381.4834R A -R F

W A C (O u t ?o w )S D (%)R S D (%)0.0010.000226

0.0090.005533.211.15360.0120.008680.3660.185510.0030.001430.120.0650n d n d n d 0.120.096941369687361661.540.62401.730.5733

3.271.1936

R A -R F

M e a n R e m o v a l E f ?c i e n c y (%)A N Z E C C /A R M C A N Z v a l u e s 64

0.0001650.00033

?84n d 65

0.0012

?294

0.047

22

0.0007

?52

0.0024

?4

n d

12

0.1

76

1000??

9

0.032???

22

0.12#16

0.1–0.5##

R A -R F

n (n u m b e r o f e v e n t s s a m p l e d )

6666

6

6

6

6

4

4

4

44

n d ?n o d a t a .A l l w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (W A C )i n m g L ?1.R S D ?R e l a t i v e S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n ;S D ?S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n .S e e T a b l e 1f o r o t h e r a b b r e v i a t i o n s .?S a m p l e s a n a l y z e d a f t e r 3d a y s ,d a t a n o t i n c l u d e d i n c a l c u l a t i o n s ,??H u m a n h e a l t h s a f e t y f o r s e c o n d a r y c o n t a c t (L P R S W M P ,1999).???A N Z E C C /A R M C A N Z ,2000g u i d e l i n e s f o r a m m o n i a ,#A N Z E C C /A R M C A N Z ,2000g u i d e l i n e s f o r n i t r a t e ,##A N Z E C C ,1992.

Birch et al.,REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF CONSTRUCTED WETLAND465

ARMCANZ(2000)and ANZECC(1992)guideline

values92,5.2,and36times,respectively.Although the mean concentrations of TKN,NO

x

,and TN in the out?owing waters of the wetland were substantially reduced to48,14and32times,respectively,above the recommended ANZECC(1999)values,the mean concentrations of TKN,NOx,and TN remained high. The mean concentration of TP decreased from0.14to 0.12mg/L in the in-and out?owing stormwater,re-spectively.Although this represents an overall reduc-tion of approximately15%,the ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000)guideline value was still exceeded slightly at the out?ow point(1.2times).

The number of fecal coliform colonies(FC)per100 ml of stormwater was very high,particularly in in?ow-ing stormwater.Mean FC contents at the in?ow point were about110,000cfu/100ml(excluding FC con-centrations obtained during Event RA,which were an-alyzed after the3days required by the sampling and analytical protocol),representing a level that is110 times above the recommended number for human health safety for secondary contact(e.g.,boating). These levels of fecal coliform in in?uent waters may pose a substantial risk for human exposure (LPRSWMP1999).Although fecal coliform counts in ef?uent water during high-?ow events were below 5500cfu/100ml for two events(Events RC and RD), substantially greater FC contents of up to220,000cfu/ 100ml were recorded during the largest of the high-?ow events monitored.This indicates a high removal ef?ciency of FC during moderately intense high-?ow events(?1.0mm of rain per hour),but ef?ciency was substantially reduced during periods of intense rainfall (?4.0mm of rain per hour).The source of fecal co-liforms was probably sewage over?ows in the catch-ment(NSW EPA1995);however,no single point source was identi?ed in the current work.Dog feces are also likely to contribute to the fecal coliform con-tent in stormwater of the catchment,as the wetland is used as a recreational exercise area for dogs,and dog feces were observed within the wetland catchment. Additional work is required to establish the source of the fecal bacteria by quantifying the abundance of the human fecal indicator Clostridium perfringens Welch.

The quality of water entering the wetland deter-mined during the current work was not signi?cantly different from concentrations of metals(Cu,Pb,Zn),

nutrients(TP,NO

x

),and fecal coliform measured four years previously before construction of the wetland (i.e.,1996and2000)(HCC2000).The continued high concentrations of trace metals in stormwater runoff in the wetland catchment emphasize the need for addi-tional stormwater managment strategies to be imple-mented,and particularly source-control through com-munity education programs.However,the concentra-tions of some of the water quality parameters investi-gated in the current study are substantially lower in ef?uent than in?uent stormwater(e.g.,Cu,NO

x

)and documents the advantageous application of wetlands for water quality remediation.

The wetland is located in a highly-urbanized area, and the main constraint on the wetland design was the limited space available.Due to this restriction,the wet-land is smaller than optimum size and detention times are shorter than necessary for ef?cient operation(Til-ley and Brown1998,Carleton et al.2001).No esti-mates have been made on the long-term sutainability of the wetland;however,the continued ability of the device to remove contaminants from stormwater is de-pendent mainly on its size relative to the catchment area and sedimentation rate(Smith et al.1993).Al-though the catchment is mostly urbanized,the CDS device upstream from the wetland is expected to in-tersect a substantial proportion of the coarse-grained material,which otherwise would have entered the wet-land.The wetland was completed in May1999,and to date there is no appeciable siltation and no visible degradation of?ora.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The project was funded by Hurtsville City Council, the New South Wales Environmental Protection Au-thority,and the Stormwater Trust and staff from these organizations who assisted in the project are gratefully acknowledged.The authors thank the two anomolous reviewers for valuable suggestions made on the man-uscript.

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Manuscript received17December2002;revisions received2Feb-ruary2004;accepted8March2004.

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Text A 课文 A The humanities: Out of date? 人文学科:过时了吗? When the going gets tough, the tough takeaccounting. When the job market worsens, manystudents calculate they can't major in English orhistory. They have to study something that booststheir prospects of landing a job. 当形势变得困难时,强者会去选学会计。当就业市场恶化时,许多学生估算着他们不能再主修英语或历史。他们得学一些能改善他们就业前景的东西。 The data show that as students have increasingly shouldered the ever-rising c ost of tuition,they have defected from the study of the humanities and toward applied science and "hard"skills that they bet will lead to employment. In oth er words, a college education is more andmore seen as a means for economic betterment rather than a means for human betterment.This is a trend that i s likely to persist and even accelerate. 数据显示,随着学生肩负的学费不断增加,他们已从学习人文学科转向他们相信有益于将来就业的应用科学和“硬”技能。换言之,大学教育越来越被看成是改善经济而不是提升人类自身的手段。这种趋势可能会持续,甚至有加快之势。 Over the next few years, as labor markets struggle, the humanities will proba bly continue theirlong slide in succession. There already has been a nearly 50 percent decline in the portion of liberal arts majors over the past generatio n, and it is logical to think that the trend is boundto continue or even accel erate. Once the dominant pillars of university life, the humanities nowplay li ttle roles when students take their college tours. These days, labs are more vi vid and compelling than libraries. 在未来几年内,由于劳动力市场的不景气,人文学科可能会继续其长期低迷的态势。在上一代大学生中,主修文科的学生数跌幅已近50%。这种趋势会持续、甚至加速的想法是合情合理的。人文学科曾是大学生活的重要支柱,而今在学生们参观校园的时候,却只是一个小点缀。现在,实验室要比图书馆更栩栩如生、受人青睐。 Here, please allow me to stand up for and promote the true value that the h umanities add topeople's lives. 在这儿,请允许我为人文学科给人们的生活所增添的真实价值进行支持和宣传。

新大学日语课文翻译。

第10课 日本的季节 日本的一年有春、夏、秋、冬四个季节。 3月、4月和5月这三个月是春季。春季是个暖和的好季节。桃花、樱花等花儿开得很美。人们在4月去赏花。 6月到8月是夏季。夏季非常闷热。人们去北海道旅游。7月和8月是暑假,年轻人去海边或山上。也有很多人去攀登富士山。富士山是日本最高的山。 9月、10月和11月这3个月是秋季。秋季很凉爽,晴朗的日子较多。苹果、桔子等许多水果在这个季节成熟。 12月到2月是冬季。日本的南部冬天不太冷。北部非常冷,下很多雪。去年冬天东京也很冷。今年大概不会那么冷吧。如果冷的话,人们就使用暖气炉。 第12课 乡下 我爷爷住哎乡下。今天,我要去爷爷家。早上天很阴,但中午天空开始变亮,天转好了。我急急忙忙吃完午饭,坐上了电车。 现在,电车正行驶在原野上。窗外,水田、旱地连成一片。汽车在公路上奔驰。 这时,电车正行驶在大桥上。下面河水在流动。河水很清澈,可以清澈地看见河底。可以看见鱼在游动。远处,一个小孩在挥手。他身旁,牛、马在吃草。 到了爷爷居住的村子。爷爷和奶奶来到门口等着我。爷爷的房子是旧房子,但是很大。登上二楼,大海就在眼前。海岸上,很多人正在全力拉缆绳。渐渐地可以看见网了。网里有很多鱼。和城市不同,乡下的大自然真是很美。 第13课 暑假 大概没有什么比暑假更令学生感到高兴的了。大学在7月初,其他学校在二十四日左右进入暑假。暑假大约1个半月。 很多人利用这个假期去海边、山上,或者去旅行。学生中,也有人去打工。学生由于路费等只要半价,所以在学期间去各地旅行。因此,临近暑假时,去北海道的列车上就挤满了这样的人。从炎热的地方逃避到凉爽的地方去,这是很自然的事。一般在1月、最迟在2月底之前就要预定旅馆。不然的话可能会没有地方住。 暑假里,山上、海边、湖里、河里会出现死人的事,这种事故都是由于不注意引起的。大概只能每个人自己多加注意了。 在东京附近,镰仓等地的海面不起浪,因此挤满了游泳的人。也有人家只在夏季把海边的房子租下来。 暑假里,学校的老师给学生布置作业,但是有的学生叫哥哥或姐姐帮忙。 第14课 各式各样的学生 我就读的大学都有各种各样的学生入学。学生有的是中国人,有的是美国人,有的是英国人。既有年轻的,也有不年轻的。有胖的学生,也有瘦的学生。学生大多边工作边学习。因此,大家看上去都很忙。经常有人边听课边打盹。 我为了学习日本先进的科学技术和日本文化来到日本。预定在这所大学学习3年。既然特意来了日本,所以每天都很努力学习。即便如此,考试之前还是很紧张。其他学生也是这

新视野大学英语5课文翻译(全)

教育界的科技革命 如果让生活在年的人来到我们这个时代,他会辨认出我们当前课堂里发生的许多事情——那盛行的讲座、对操练的强调、从基础读本到每周的拼写测试在内的教学材料和教学活动。可能除了教堂以外,很少有机构像主管下一代正规教育的学校那样缺乏变化了。 让我们把上述一贯性与校园外孩子们的经历作一番比较吧。在现代社会,孩子们有机会接触广泛的媒体,而在早些年代这些媒体简直就是奇迹。来自过去的参观者一眼就能辨认出现在的课堂,但很难适应现今一个岁孩子的校外世界。 学校——如果不是一般意义上的教育界——天生是保守的机构。我会在很大程度上为这种保守的趋势辩护。但变化在我们的世界中是如此迅速而明确,学校不可能维持现状或仅仅做一些表面的改善而生存下去。的确,如果学校不迅速、彻底地变革,就有可能被其他较灵活的机构取代。 计算机的变革力 当今时代最重要的科技事件要数计算机的崛起。计算机已渗透到我们生活的诸多方面,从交通、电讯到娱乐等等。许多学校当然不能漠视这种趋势,于是也配备了计算机和网络。在某种程度上,这些科技辅助设施已被吸纳到校园生活中,尽管他们往往只是用一种更方便、更有效的模式教授旧课程。 然而,未来将以计算机为基础组织教学。计算机将在一定程度上允许针对个人的授课,这种授课形式以往只向有钱人提供。所有的学生都会得到符合自身需要的、适合自己学习方法和进度的课程设置,以及对先前所学材料、课程的成绩记录。 毫不夸张地说,计算机科技可将世界上所有的信息置于人们的指尖。这既是幸事又是灾难。我们再也无须花费很长时间查找某个出处或某个人——现在,信息的传递是瞬时的。不久,我们甚至无须键入指令,只需大声提出问题,计算机就会打印或说出答案,这样,人们就可实现即时的"文化脱盲"。 美中不足的是,因特网没有质量控制手段;"任何人都可以拨弄"。信息和虚假信息往往混杂在一起,现在还没有将网上十分普遍的被歪曲的事实和一派胡言与真实含义区分开来的可靠手段。要识别出真的、美的、好的信息,并挑出其中那些值得知晓的, 这对人们构成巨大的挑战。 对此也许有人会说,这个世界一直充斥着错误的信息。的确如此,但以前教育当局至少能选择他们中意的课本。而今天的形势则是每个人都拥有瞬时可得的数以百万计的信息源,这种情况是史无前例的。 教育的客户化 与以往的趋势不同,从授权机构获取证书可能会变得不再重要。每个人都能在模拟的环境中自学并展示个人才能。如果一个人能像早些时候那样"读法律",然后通过计算机模拟的实践考试展现自己的全部法律技能,为什么还要花万美元去上法学院呢?用类似的方法学开飞机或学做外科手术不同样可行吗? 在过去,大部分教育基本是职业性的:目的是确保个人在其年富力强的整个成人阶段能可靠地从事某项工作。现在,这种设想有了缺陷。很少有人会一生只从事一种职业;许多人都会频繁地从一个职位、公司或经济部门跳到另一个。 在经济中,这些新的、迅速变换的角色的激增使教育变得大为复杂。大部分老成持重的教师和家长对帮助青年一代应对这个会经常变换工作的世界缺乏经验。由于没有先例,青少年们只有自己为快速变化的"事业之路"和生活状况作准备。

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