自考语言学复习大纲
自考英语语言学复习大纲
Chapter 1Introduction 绪论1.What is linguistics?什么是语言学
1.1Definition:Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。
2.What is language?什么是语言？
2.1Definitions:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交流的一个任意的语音符号系统。(1)language is a system (2)language is arbitrary (3)language is vocal (4)language is human specific Chapter 2Phonology 音位学
1.The phonic medium of language 语言的语音媒介
2.Phonetics 语音学 a.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学。
b.The study of sounds,which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.语音学
c.The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.音位学
d.The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.形态学
e.The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.句法学
f.The study of meaning in language is called semantics.语义学
g.The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.语用学
h.The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.社会语言学
i.The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycholinguistics.心理语言学
j.The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is general known as applied linguistics.应用语言学
h.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,(人类语言学)neurological linguistics(神经语言学),mathematical linguistics(数字语言学)and computational linguistics(计算机语言学).
1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴
a.语言的任意性（武断性）Arbitrariness
b.语言的能产性Productivity
c.语言的双重性Duality
d.语言的移位性Displacement
e.语言的文化传递性Cultural transmission
1Prescriptive vs.Descriptive 规定性与描写性
2Synchronic vs.Diachronic 共时性与历时性(Saussure)3Speech and Writing 口头语和书面语
4Langue and Parole (both from French words)语言（抽象）和言语（具体）(Saussure)5Competence and Performance 语言能力与语言运用(Chomsky)
1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的一些重要的区分
2.2Design features
语言的甄别性特征
Hockett
人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的一些特征
语言学内部的主要分支
跨学科分支
2.1Definition:phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.语音学关注的是语言世界中的所有声音
↘
three points of view 2.2Organs of speech 从三个角度审视
语言的发音器官
2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds —broad and narrow transcriptions IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标
语音的正字表征—宽式标音和严式标音
There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds:两种标音方法
2.4Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类
(1)articulatory phonetics 发音语音学→研究语言的产生(2)auditory phonetics 听觉语音学→研究语言怎样被感知(3)acoustic phonetics 声学语音学→研究语音的物理属性
The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔(the throat)→喉咙
The oral cavity 口腔(the mouth)→嘴巴The nasal cavity 鼻腔(the nose)→鼻子
One is the transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.
The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics called narrow transcription.stops 闭塞音/p/,/b/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/g/
fricatives 摩擦音/f/,/v/,/s/,/z/,/?/,/?/,/θ/,/e/,/h/affricates 塞擦音/t?/,/d?/liquids 流音/l/,/r/
nasals 鼻音/m/,/n/,/?/glides 滑音/w/,/j/
bilabial 双唇音/p/,/b/,/m/,/w/labiodental 唇齿音/f/,/v/dental 齿音/θ/,/e/
alveolar 齿龈音/t/,/s/,/d/,/z/,/n/,/l/,/r/palatal 鄂音/?/,/?/,/t?/,/d?/,/j/velar 软腭音/k/,/g/,/?/glottal 喉音/h/
Front 前元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/?/,/a/Central 中元音/?:/,/?/,/?/back 后元音/u:/,/u/,/?:/,/?/,/a:/
close vowels 闭元音/i:/,/i/,/?:/,/u/
semi-close vowels 半闭元音/e/,/?:/
semi-open vowels 半开元音/?/,/?:/open vowels 开元音/?/,/a/,/?/,/?/,/a:/
Consonants 辅音in terms of manner of articulation 按照发音方式in terms of place of articulation
按照发音部位
Vowels
元音
the position of the tongue in the mouth
按照舌在口腔的位置
the openness of the mouth 按照嘴的张合度
the shape of the lips 按照嘴唇形状
the length of the vowels 按照音的长度
rounded vowels 圆唇元音/u:/,/u/,/?:/,/?/
unrounded vowels 不圆唇元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/?/,/a/,/?:/,/?/,/?/long vowels 长元音/a:/,/?:/,/?:/,/i:/,/u:/
short vowels 短元音/?/,/?/,/?/,/i/,/u/,/e/,/?/
monophthong 单元音
在元音中还有一些双元音(diphthong),包括：/ei/,/ai/,/au/,/?u/,/?i/,/i?/,/ε?/,/u?/
3.Phonology 音位学
3.1phonology and phonetics 音位学和语音学
3.2phone,phoneme,allophone 音素、音位和音位变体
3.3Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体
3.4Some rules in phonology 3.5Suprasegmental features Chapter 3Morphology 形态学
1.Definition:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。2.Morpheme 词素
2.1Definition:Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.正如音位是音位学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。2.2Types of morphemes
词素的分类
2.2.3Morphological rules:Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。
https://www.sodocs.net/doc/8017648612.html,pounding 复合法3.1Types of compound words
3.2Features of compounds
Sequential rules 序列规则
Assimilation rules 同化规则
Deletion rule 省略规则Stress 重音
Tone 声调
Intonation 语调
free morphemes 自由词素
bound morphemes 黏着词素
roots 词根affixes 词缀
inflectional affixes 曲折词缀derivational affixes 派生词缀
prefix 前缀suffix 后缀
1)Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between,or as two separate words.在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。如armchair,follow-up,thunder bird
2)Syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold 是形容词，head-strong 也是形容词，greenhouse 是名词。而例外的情况有：
follow-up,crackdown,kickoff 都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick,snowfall,facelift 都是名词而不是动词。
3)Semantically,the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog,greenhouse 等。
4)Phonetically,the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,while the second element receives secondary stress.在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。
这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing 的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing 形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如running dog 重
Chapter 4Syntax 句法学
What is Syntax?Definition:Syntax studies the sentence structure of language.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
1.Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
2.Sentence structure
2.1The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成
A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command.Normally,a sentence consists of at lea st a subject （主语）and its predicate （谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。
2.2.Types of sentence 句子的类型
2.3The linear and hierarchical
structures of sentences
句子的线性和层次结构
1)The simple sentence 简单句
A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。2)The coordinate sentence 并列句
A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction,such as “and ”but ”
”or ”.并列句包含两个子句，由and,but,or 等并列连词连接。3)The complex sentence 复合句
A complex sentence contains two or more clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other.That is,the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequ al status,one subordinating the other.The incorporated,or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause,and the clause into which it is emb edded is called a matrix clause.复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。
1)The linear word order of a sentence 句子的线性词序
When a sentence is uttered or written down,the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.Meanwhile,they are heard o r read as arranged one after another in a sequence.This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.我们说出或写下一个句子，其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时，对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明，句子的结构是线性的。
2)The hierarchical structure of a sentence 句子的层次结构
The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured.Sentence structure is hierarc hical in nature.组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。3)Tree diagrams of sentence structure 句子结构树形图
The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure.句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67－70页。
In addition,the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。
3.Syntactic categories
句法类型
Important note:NP just contain a noun,VP just contain a verb,PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective.重要提示：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。
4.Grammatical relations:Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents.语法关系:我们的语言知识包括对组成成分的结构和逻辑功能关系的认识。
https://www.sodocs.net/doc/8017648612.html,binational rules
组合规则
6.Syntactic movement and movement rules 句法位移和位移规则
7.Toward a theory of Universal Grammar (UG)
1)Lexical categories 词类
2)Phrasal categories 词组类型
Major lexical categories
主要词类：
Minor lexical categories 次要词类：
Noun (N)名词：student Verb (V)动词：like
Adjective (Adj)形容词：tall Adverb (Adv)副词：loudly
Determiner (Det)限定词：the,a,this,his Auxiliary (Aux)助动词：can,do,will Preposition (Prep)介词：in,at,over Pronoun (Pron)代词：he,she,us,mine Conjunction (Conj)连词：and,or,but,while Interjection (Int)感叹词：oh,ah,eh
noun phrase (NP)名词词组verb phrase (VP)动词词组
prepositional phrase (PP)介词词组adjective phrase (AP)形容词词组
1)phrase structure rules or rewrite rule 短语结构规则
2)the recursive-ness of phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性3)X-bar theory X-标杆理论
1)NP-movement and WH-movement 名词词组位移与WH 位移2)Other types of movement 其他类型的位移
3)D-structure and S-structure 深层结构与表层结构
4)Move α—a general movement rule 移动α一条普遍规则
Case Condition 格条件
Adjacency Condition 毗邻条件
General principles of Universal Gramma
r
The parameters of Universal Grammar 普遍语法参数
Chapter 5Semantics 语义学
1.what is semantics?什么是语义学Definition:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.语义学对语言意义的研究。
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论
3.Lexical meaning 词汇意义
3.1Sense and reference 意义和所指
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and de-contextualized.意义，是词汇内在的、抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，是词汇所有特征的集合。这个意义正是词典编纂者感兴趣的。
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.所指，是词汇所指称的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。
3.2Major sense relations 主要意义关系
4.Sense relations between sentences 句子间的语义关系
5.Analysis of meaning 意义分析Chapter 6Pragmatics 语用学1.what is pragmatics?什么是语用学
1.1Definition:Pragmatics,it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.语用学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功交际
1)the name theory 命名论
2)the conceptualist view 意念论3)contextualism 语境论4)behaviorism 行为主义论
1)Synonymy 同义关系
2)polysemy 多义关系
3)homonymy 同音/同形异义关系
4)hyponymy 上下义关系
5)antonymy 反义关系
1)Dialectal synonyms 方言同义词-synonyms used in different regional dialects 2)Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词-synonyms differing in style
3)Stylistic that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 情感意义或评价意义不同的同义词4)Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词
5)Semantically different synonyms 语义上有一定差别的同义词
同音异义词homophones 同形异义词homographs
完全同音同形异义词complete homonymys
gradable antonyms 可分等级的反义词complementary antonyms 互补性反义词relational antonyms 关系反义词
Componential analysis —a way to analyze lexical meaning 语义成分分析法——一种词义分析法
Predication analysis —a way to analyze sentence meaning 述谓结构分析——一种句义分析法superordinate 上义词hyponyms 下义词
co-hyponyms 并列下义词，具有同一个上义词的下义词叫做并列下义词
的。
1.2Pragmatics vs.semantics 语用学和语义学What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.If it is not considered,the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered,the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.语用学和语义学的根本区别在于是否考虑语境。不考虑语境，语义研究属于传统的语义学范围；考虑语境，语义研究就成了语用学的研究范围。
1.3Context 语境Context,it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.语境，一般认为它是由说话者和听者所共有的知识构成的。
1.4Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract,intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a prediction.句子意义是抽象的，是不依赖语境的；而话语意义是具体的，是依赖与语境的。The meaning of a sentence is abstract,and decontextualized,that of an utterance is concrete,and context dependent.话语意义基于句子意义，是句子意义在特定交际情境或者语境中的具体体现。
2.Speech act theory 语言行为理论
3.Principle of conversation
会话原则
Chapter 7Historical Linguistics 历史语言学
1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 对语言进行历史研究的目的和意义
2.The nature of language change 语言变化的本质
3.The historical development of English
英语的历史发展
3.1Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段
locutionary act 言内行为（表达字面意义的行为）
illocutionary act 言外行为（表达说话人意图）perlocutionary act 言后行为（由话语所带来的结果或变化）
representatives 阐述类directives 指令类
commissives 承诺类
expressives 表达类declarations 宣告类the maxim of quantity 数量准则the maxim of quality 质量准则the maxim of relation 关联准则the maxim of manner 方式准则
Diachronic 历时Synchronic 共时
Old English
古英语Middle English 中古英语Modern English 现代英语
3.2Linguistic change of English
英语语言系统的变化
https://www.sodocs.net/doc/8017648612.html,nguage family 语系
4.1Classifying genetically related languages 语系的划分
4.2The Indo-European Family
5.The causes of language change
语言变化的原因
Chapter 8Sociolinguistics 社会语言学
https://www.sodocs.net/doc/8017648612.html,nguage variation 语言变异1)sound change 语音系统的变化
2)morphological change 形态的变化
3)syntactic change 句法的变化
4)lexical change 词汇的变化
5)semantic change 语义的变化
vowel sound change 元音的变化sound loss 语音的丧失sound addition 语音的增加sound movement 语音的位移affix loss 词缀的丧失affix addition 词缀的添加
rule loss 规则的丧失rule addition 规则的添加rule change 规则方面的变化
lexical loss 词汇的丧失
lexical addition 词汇的添加
semantic broadening 语义的广义化
semantic narrowing 语义的狭义化semantic shift 语义的演变1)the Indo-European Family 印欧语系2)the Sino-Tibetan Family 汉藏语系3)the Anstronesian Family 南岛语系4)the Afroasiatic Family 亚欧语系
1)Sound assimilation 语音的同化
2)Rule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一3)Internal borrowing 内部借用4)Elaboration 规则的细化
5)Sociological triggers 社会因素6)Cultural transmission 文化传播
7)Children ’s approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童对成人语法的习得
1)Speech community 言语社区2)Speech variety 言语变体
3)Regional variation 地域变异
4)Social variation 社会变异
5)Stylistic variation 文体变异
6)Idiolectal variation 个人言语变异
2.Standard and nonstandard language
标准语与非标准语3.Diglossia and bilingualism
双言与双语现象4.Ethnic dialect 少数民族方言
5.Social dialect 社会方言
Chapter 9Psycholinguistics 心理语言学1.The biological foundations of language 语言的生理基础
2.Linguistic lateralization 语言侧化
3.The language centers 语言中枢
4.The critical period for language acquisition
语言习得关键期
1)standard and nonstandard language 标准语与非标准语2)lingua francas 通用语3)pidgins 洋泾滨语4)creoles 克里奥尔语
1)diglossia 双言现象2)bilingualism 双语现象
1)black English,a case study of ethnic dialect 黑人英语，少数民族方言的个案研究2)the social environment of black English 黑人英语的社会环境1)education varieties 教育变体2)age varieties 年龄变体3)gender varieties 性别变体4)register varieties 语域变体5)address terms 称谓语6)slang 俚语
7)linguistic taboo 禁忌语8)euphemism 委婉语
1)the case of Phineas Gage 盖奇案例2)the human brain 人的大脑
3)brain lateralization 大脑左右半球的侧化
1)left hemispheric dominance for language 左半球的语言优势2)dichotic listening research 两耳分听实验
1)Broca ’s area 布罗卡区2)Wernicke ’s area 韦尼克区3)the angular gyrus 角形脑回
4)language perception,comprehension and production 语言的感知、理解与表达
1)the critical period hypothesis 关键期建设
2)the case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age 吉尼案例与语言机制退化
https://www.sodocs.net/doc/8017648612.html,nguage and thought 语言与思维
Chapter 10Language Acquisition 语言习得
1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得
2.Stages of first language acquisition 第一语言习得的发展阶段
3.The development of the grammatical system
语法体系的发展
1)early views on language and thought 有关语言与思维的一些早期观点2)the Sapir Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设
3)arguments against the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
对萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设的批判
4)understanding the relation of language and thought
对语言与思维关系的再认识
1)words and meaning 词与意义2)grammatical structure 语法结构3)translation 翻译
4)second language acquisition 第二语言习得5)
language and world views 语言与世界观
1)major functions of language 语言的主要功能
2)the development and blending of language and thought 语言与思维的发展和融合3)thinking without language 无言而思
4)language as a conventional coding system to express thought 语言—表达思维之约定俗称的编码系统
5)the ways in which language affects thought 语言影响思维的方式
1)the biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础
2)language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得3)the role of input and interaction 语言输入与交流的作用4)the role of instruction 语言教学的作用
5)the role of correction and reinforcement 纠错与强化的作用6)the role of imitation 模仿的作用
1)the prelinguistic stage 前语言阶段2)the one-word stage 独词句阶段3)the two-word stage 双词句阶段4)the multiword stage 多词句阶段
1)the development of phonology 语音的发展2)the development of syntax 句法的发展
3)the development of morphology 词形的发展
4)the development of vocabulary and semantics 词汇与语义的发展
4.Second language acquisition 1)acquisition vs.learning习得与学习
2)transfer and interference转移与干扰
3)error Analysis and the natural route of SLA development错误分析与第二语言的自然发展轨道
4)inter-language and fossilization语际语与语言僵化现象
5)the role of input语言输入的作用
6)the role of formal instruction正规教学的作用
7)individual learner factors
学习者的个人因素
1)the optimum age for second language acquisition第二语言习得的最佳年龄
2)motivation学习第二语言的动机
3)acculturation语言文化深入
4)personality学习者的个性