工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照

外文文献：

Project Cost Control: The Way it Works

By R. Max Wideman

In a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.

First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.

But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.

And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.

Footnote

I am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.

The Business Case and Application for (execution) Funding

It is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points

between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.

In the project's Concept Phase

? Every project starts with someone identifying an opportun ity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.

? To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.

? The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?

? If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.

In the project's Development or Definition Phase

? The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.

? In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).

? This requires the collection of mor e detailed requirements and data to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.

? In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.

Work Packages and the WBS

The Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter

? If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). ? Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level, and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.

? This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".

? The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.

Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.

Request for capital

Converting the estimate

? However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.

? In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.

? In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available. In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:

Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase only

Analogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects

Parametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data

? Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project

Note: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.

Ownership of approved capital

? If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the su m in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.

? For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.

? The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.

Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.

The Project's Execution Phase

The project manager's Project Budget responsibility

? Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.

? O n a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.

? Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.

? In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.

? Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.

? This provides u s with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.

Use of the Earned Value technique

? If we hav e the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.

? But essentially, you ta ke the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.

The Cost Baseline

? This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).

? Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.

? Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).

? You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".

Commentary

This whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".

As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!

But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?

中文译文：

项目成本控制：它的工作方式

R.马克斯怀德曼

我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。因此，我们决定写出它是如何工作的说明。从理论上讲，项目成本控制并不难。

首先，建立一套参考基准。然后，按照工作的进展，监察工作，分析结果显示，预测最终结果并与参考基线作比较。如果最终结果不令人满意，那么你要对正在进行中的必要的工作进行调整，并在适当的时间间隔内重复循环。如果最终结果已经与基线计划脱节，你可能不得不改变计划。更有可能的是，将会有（或已经）变化的范围改变参考基线，这意味着，每一次范围发生变化，无论如何你都必须改变基线计划。

但是通过项目数量未能控制成本，证明在实践中，项目成本控制是很难真正实施的。我们将看到，它还涉及到相当数量的工作，因此，我们不妨在一开始就启动它，通过整个项目的线程寿命来进行工程造价控制。

同时，我们将借此机会指出几个显著的适当的地方文件。这些措施包括商业案例，（资本）请求拨款（执行），工作包和工作分解结构，项目章程（或摘要），项目预算或成本计划，获得的价值和成本基准。所有这些都有助于提高该组织有效地控制项目成本的能力。脚注

我要感谢我的朋友，大师昆汀?弗莱明，检查和纠正我关于这一主题的工作。

（执行）资助的商业案例和应用

重要的是要注意，当负责的执行管理者对项目应如何通过项目寿命展开这个问题有很好的理解时，项目的成本控制是最有效的。这意味着，他们在主要阶段的关键决策点之间行使自己的责任。他们还必须认识到，至少对最明显的潜在危险事件，用于查明和规划掌管关闭的项目风险管理的的重要性。

在项目的概念阶段

?每一个项目都由确定的机会或需要的人开始。通常是有一定重要性或影响力的人，如果该项目继续进行，这个人往往成为该项目的赞助者。

?为了确定潜在项目的适用性，大多数组织呼吁编制“商业案例”和“量级”的成本，以证明该项目的价值，使其可以与所有其他项目竞争。

?企业的商业案例的准备工作成本通常包括管理开销，但它可结转为最终项目的会计成本。毫无疑问，因为这将为该组织提供一个税务利益。问题是，你如何再占有所有不结转项目？

?如果有足够的商业案例的优点，赞助者将继续发展和定义阶段。

在该项目的发展或定义阶段

?在开发阶段的目标是建立一种涉及到生产所需的产品，估计成本，并为该项目的实际执行寻求资本资金的良好的工作的认识。

?在正式的设置，尤其是在涉及大项目中，这个拨款申请通常简称为（大写）（RFA）拨款或资本拨款请求（CAR）。

?这需要更详细的要求和数据的收集，建立什么工作需要来完成生产所需的产品或“交付”。从这个信息来看，一个准备足够的细节计划在一美元的数字请求上给予足够的信心。

?在一个不太正式的设置中，每个人都只是试图蒙混过关

工作包和WBS

项目管理计划，项目简介或项目宪章

?如果可交付的成果由一些不同元素组成，这些都是确定和组装工作包（WPS），并在工作分解结构（WBS）的形式提交。

?每个的WP涉及的一系列活动，计划和计划的一部分作为“工作”项目管理计划。但是请注意，如果该项目在执行过程中前进，将该规划水平变得更高，更详细，将是必要的。

?该项目管理计划的方式，应该成为该项目“圣经”的执行阶段，同时它有时被称为“项目简介”或“项目宪章”。

?然后估计各种活动的成本，这些估计费用汇总以确定的WP的估计成本。这种方法作为“详细估算”或“自下而上估算”而为人知晓。还有其他的方法来估算，我们将在一分钟内到达。无论哪种方式，结果都是该项目的总工作的估计费用。

注：该项目的风险管理规划，是这次演习的一个重要组成部分。这应该检查该项目的假设和环境条件，以确定该计划中的任何弱点，到目前为止，并找出值得注意缓解这些潜在的风险事件。这可能采取具体的应急计划的形式和/或预审慎的资金储备。

资本要求

转换的估计

?然而，单独的工作的一个估计是没有足够资本要求的。为到达一定的资本要求，一些转换是必要的，例如，通过加入审慎津贴如开销，一个应急的津贴，以弥补包括未知和可

能的范围变化的正常的项目风险和管理储备。

?此外，财务会计格式转换成估算数据可能是必要的，以满足有目的的企业或赞助商的形式与其他项目比较和随之而来的拨款。

?刚才所描述的方法中，所有的数据类型为“自下而上”，在实践中可能无法使用。在这种情况下，替代的估算方法是在时尚中通过提供不同程度的“自上而下”的可靠性。例如：

订购数量级的估计 - “球公园”估计，通常只为概念预留

类似的估计 - 根据以前类似项目的预算

参数估计 -基于对历史数据的统计关系估计

?无论采用哪种方法，这种希望总和能被全面批准和证明是令人满意的！这是启动该项目的执行阶段。

注：有些管理层将批准错误地认为，大家以“提升他们的铅笔”和“更聪明地工作”为组织的利益，这将有助于较小的总和。这是一个因为在项目工作中，管理无法理解的不确定性和风险的性质错误的信念。因此，其效果是更有可能导致对产品质量，降低产品范围或功能不利影响的“切角”。

这往往导致一个“游戏”中的估计被夸大，从而使管理人员可以调整他们向下。但说句公道话，管理者也很清楚，如果超过分配资金，无论如何它会得到花费。智能管理做的事情是根据不同项目的风险预留队伍的储备基金，并谨慎控制资金。

核准资本的所有权

?如果高级管理层批准的RFA消融，提出问题的总和成为指定项目发起人的责任。但是，如果批准的资本要求包括津贴，如“储备管理”，根据该组织的政策，这可能会，也可能不会被传递到项目的赞助商。

?对于所批准的RFA消融，反过来，项目发起人会进一步委托该项目的项目经理行使开支的权力，并可能将不包括任何津贴。一种异常可能涵盖工作表现正常变化的应急准备。

?因此净总和抵达构成了项目经理的核准项目预算。

注：如果管理不批准RFA消融，你不应该考虑这个项目的失败，或这个目标的目的，而规划需要重新考虑，以增加交付项目的价值。

该项目的执行阶段

项目经理的项目预算的责任

?该批准的项目预算一旦被释放到项目经理，一个反向的过程中必须转换成一个工作的

控制文件的地方。也就是说，可用的钱必须是分到各WBS的方式之间，可能现在已经升级。这个结果作用于项目执行控制预算或项目基线预算，或简单地说，项目预算。在一些项目管理的应用领域，它被称为一个项目成本计划。

?在不同的企业生产部门都参与其中的大型项目中，可能有进一步创建“控制账户”为独立的部门的中间步骤，让他们的钱分到到自己的WBS WPS。

?通过观察发现，自从正式收到批准长官管理该项目总预算，你，作为项目经理，同样也必须寻求并获得执行管理，通过该项目的赞助商，正式批准任何更改项目总预算。通常这是在改变产品范围的基础上唯一合理可接受的要求。

?在这种情况下，该项目的赞助商将降低他的管理储备，或提交给上层管理人员补充消融。

?现在，我们有项目预算资金分配工作包，我们可以进一步把它分发到每个WP的各项活动之中，让我们知道作为一个“基准”，每个活动的成本是多少。

?这为我们的成本控制功能提供了基础参考。当然，这取决于，做同样的事情可能在WP 的水平，但控制的能力在较高和粗糙的水平的情况下。

使用挣值技术

?如果我们有另一种控制工具的必要的细节，我们可以采取的持续监测工作是“挣值（EV）技术”。这是一个你必须致力于了解主题文本的艺术和科学。

?但基本上，你掌管日程安排活动的费用，并在适当的时候绘制他们作为累计。再次，你可以做的活动水平，或整个项目的水平越低，您可用的控制信息就越多。

成本基线

?这个计划的参考S-曲线有时被称为“成本基准”，这通常是在EV说法。也就是说，它是“预算成本计划的工作”（BCWS），或者更简单的“计划价值”（光伏）。

?你需要修改这个成本基线，每次有一个改变成本和/或时间表的影响批准的范围，从而改变了该项目的核准项目预算。

?现在，随着工作的进展，你可以绘制“执行工作的实际成本”（ACWP或简单的“实际成本” - 交流）。

?您可以绘制其他的事情，如上面提到的图，如果你不喜欢你看到的，那么你就需要采取“纠正行动”。

评论

这整个过程是一个循环，运行态势，这可能是普遍名不副实“项目的生命周期”中“循

环”一词的来源”。

顺便说一句，挣值权威人士提供的EV过程中的各种其他技术设计能帮助预测最后的结果，也就是说，“估计在完成”（“选管会”）。选管会是你真正应该感兴趣的，因为在运动项目中，它是唯一不变的。因此，这些作为自上而下的估算精度相同的境界的扩展的EV技术必须被考虑到。他们是有用的，除非你能认识到它的限制和知道你在做什么！

但是，正如我们在开始时说的，它在实践中是很困难实施的，同时涉及大量的工作。但是，让我们面对它，这就是被聘用的项目经理，不是吗？

中英文文献翻译

毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献及译文 英文题目Component-based Safety Computer of Railway Signal Interlocking System 中文题目模块化安全铁路信号计算机联锁系统 学院自动化与电气工程学院 专业自动控制 姓名葛彦宁 学号 200808746 指导教师贺清 2012年5月30日

Component-based Safety Computer of Railway Signal Interlocking System 1 Introduction Signal Interlocking System is the critical equipment which can guarantee traffic safety and enhance operational efficiency in railway transportation. For a long time, the core control computer adopts in interlocking system is the special customized high-grade safety computer, for example, the SIMIS of Siemens, the EI32 of Nippon Signal, and so on. Along with the rapid development of electronic technology, the customized safety computer is facing severe challenges, for instance, the high development costs, poor usability, weak expansibility and slow technology update. To overcome the flaws of the high-grade special customized computer, the U.S. Department of Defense has put forward the concept：we should adopt commercial standards to replace military norms and standards for meeting consumers’demand [1]. In the meantime, there are several explorations and practices about adopting open system architecture in avionics. The United Stated and Europe have do much research about utilizing cost-effective fault-tolerant computer to replace the dedicated computer in aerospace and other safety-critical fields. In recent years, it is gradually becoming a new trend that the utilization of standardized components in aerospace, industry, transportation and other safety-critical fields. 2 Railways signal interlocking system 2.1 Functions of signal interlocking system The basic function of signal interlocking system is to protect train safety by controlling signal equipments, such as switch points, signals and track units in a station, and it handles routes via a certain interlocking regulation. Since the birth of the railway transportation, signal interlocking system has gone through manual signal, mechanical signal, relay-based interlocking, and the modern computer-based Interlocking System. 2.2 Architecture of signal interlocking system Generally, the Interlocking System has a hierarchical structure. According to the function of equipments, the system can be divided to the function of equipments; the system

建筑类外文文献及中文翻译

forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.

文献翻译英文原文

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html,/finance/company/consumer.html Consumer finance company The consumer finance division of the SG group of France has become highly active within India. They plan to offer finance for vehicles and two-wheelers to consumers, aiming to provide close to Rs. 400 billion in India in the next few years of its operations. The SG group is also dealing in stock broking, asset management, investment banking, private banking, information technology and business processing. SG group has ventured into the rapidly growing consumer credit market in India, and have plans to construct a headquarters at Kolkata. The AIG Group has been approved by the RBI to set up a non-banking finance company (NBFC). AIG seeks to introduce its consumer finance and asset management businesses in India. AIG Capital India plans to emphasize credit cards, mortgage financing, consumer durable financing and personal loans. Leading Indian and international concerns like the HSBC, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Barclays and HDFC Bank are also waiting to be approved by the Reserve Bank of India to initiate similar operations. AIG is presently involved in insurance and financial services in more than one hundred countries. The affiliates of the AIG Group also provide retirement and asset management services all over the world. Many international companies have been looking at NBFC business because of the growing consumer finance market. Unlike foreign banks, there are no strictures on branch openings for the NBFCs. GE Consumer Finance is a section of General Electric. It is responsible for looking after the retail finance operations. GE Consumer Finance also governs the GE Capital Asia. Outside the United States, GE Consumer Finance performs its operations under the GE Money brand. GE Consumer Finance currently offers financial services in more than fifty countries. The company deals in credit cards, personal finance, mortgages and automobile solutions. It has a client base of more than 118 million customers throughout the world

工程成本预算 毕业论文外文文献翻译

外文翻译 Construction projects, private and public alike, have a long history of cost escalation. Transportation projects, which typically have long lead times between planning and construction, are historically underestimated, as shown through a review of the cost growth experienced with the Holland Tunnel. Approximately 50% of the active large transportation projects in the United States have overrun their initial budgets. A large number of studies and research projects have identified individual factors that lead to increased project cost. Although the factors identified can influence privately funded projects the effects are particularly detrimental to publicly funded projects. The public funds available for a pool of projects are limited and there is a backlog of critical infrastructure needs. Therefore, if any project exceeds its budget other projects are dropped from the program or the scope is reduced to provide the funds necessary to cover the cost growth. Such actions exacerbate the deterioration of a state’s transportation infrastructure. This study is an anthology and categorization of individual cost increase factors that were identified through an in-depth literature review. This categorization of 18 primary factors which impact the cost of all types of construction projects was verified by interviews with over 20 state highway agencies. These factors represent documented causes behind cost escalation problems. Engineers who address these escalation factors when assessing future project cost and who seek to mitigate the influence of these factors can improve the accuracy of their cost estimates and program budgets Historically large construction projects have been plagued by cost and schedule overruns Flyvbjerg et al. 2002. In too many cases, the final project cost has been higher than the cost estimates prepared and released during initial planning, preliminary engineering, final design, or even at the start of construction “Mega projects need more study up front to avoid cost overruns.” The ramifica tions of differences between early project cost estimates and bid prices or the final cost of a project can be significant. Over the time span between project initiation concept development and the completion of construction many factors may influence the final project costs. This time span is normally several years in duration but for the highly

工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照94645

外文文献： Project Cost Control: The Way it Works By R. Max Wideman In a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of thewholesystem of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up adescription ofhow it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory. First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyzethe findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end resultsare not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycleat suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have tochange the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the referencebaselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway. But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projectsthat fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might aswell start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire projectlife span. And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significantdocuments. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution),Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget orCost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability toeffectively control project costs. Footnote I am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting mywork on this topic. The Business Case and Application for (execution) Funding It is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive managementresponsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. Thismeans that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points

英文文献翻译

中等分辨率制备分离的 快速色谱技术 W. Clark Still,* Michael K a h n , and Abhijit Mitra Departm(7nt o/ Chemistry, Columbia Uniuersity,1Veu York, Neu; York 10027 ReceiLied January 26, 1978 我们希望找到一种简单的吸附色谱技术用于有机化合物的常规净化。这种技术是适于传统的有机物大规模制备分离，该技术需使用长柱色谱法。尽管这种技术得到的效果非常好，但是其需要消耗大量的时间，并且由于频带拖尾经常出现低复原率。当分离的样本剂量大于1或者2g时，这些问题显得更加突出。近年来，几种制备系统已经进行了改进，能将分离时间减少到1-3h，并允许各成分的分辨率ΔR f≥（使用薄层色谱分析进行分析）。在这些方法中，在我们的实验室中，媒介压力色谱法1和短柱色谱法2是最成功的。最近，我们发现一种可以将分离速度大幅度提升的技术，可用于反应产物的常规提纯，我们将这种技术称为急骤色谱法。虽然这种技术的分辨率只是中等（ΔR f≥），而且构建这个系统花费非常低，并且能在10-15min内分离重量在的样本。4 急骤色谱法是以空气压力驱动的混合介质压力以及短柱色谱法为基础，专门针对快速分离，介质压力以及短柱色谱已经进行了优化。优化实验是在一组标准条件5下进行的，优化实验使用苯甲醇作为样本，放在一个20mm*5in.的硅胶柱60内，使用Tracor 970紫外检测器监测圆柱的输出。分辨率通过持续时间（r）和峰宽（w,w/2）的比率进行测定的（Figure 1），结果如图2-4所示，图2-4分别放映分辨率随着硅胶颗粒大小、洗脱液流速和样本大小的变化。

土木工程外文文献翻译

专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并

不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。

工程管理专业研究建设项目的工程造价大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14

科技文献翻译 题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 研究建设项目的工程造价 摘要 在工程建设中，中国是拥有世界最大投资金额和具有最多建设项目的国家。它是一 项在建设项目管理上可以为广泛的工程管理人员进行有效的工程造价管理，并合理 确定和保证施工质量和工期的条件控制施工成本的重要课题。 在失去了中国建筑的投资和技术经济工程，分离的控制现状的基础上，通过建设成 本控制的基本理论为指导，探讨控制方法和施工成本的应用，阐述了存在的问题在 施工成本控制和对决心和施工成本的控制这些问题的影响，提出了建设成本控制应 体现在施工前期，整个施工过程中的成本控制，然后介绍了一些程序和应用价值工 程造价的方法在控制建设项目的所有阶段。 关键词：建设成本，成本控制，项目 1.研究的意义 在中国，现有的工程造价管理体系是20世纪50年代制定的，并在1980s.Traditional 施工成本管理方法改进是根据国家统一的配额，从原苏联引进的一种方法。它的特 点是建设成本的计划经济的管理方法，这决定了它无法适应当前市场经济的要求。 在中国传统建筑成本管理方法主要包括两个方面，即建设成本和施工成本控制方法 的测定方法。工程造价的确定传统的主要做法生搬硬套国家或地方统一的配额数量 来确定一个建设项目的成本。虽然这种方法已经历了20多年的改革，到现在为止，计划经济管理模式的影响仍然有已经存在在许多地区。我们传统的工程造价控制的

外文翻译--工程造价管理全过程控制的重要性

The significance of control construction costs manages on entire process First, The necessary of control construction costs manages on entire process Talk about the management and the control on construction costs, that the field we are just accustomed to is thought of is a project advance in final account. Indeed , right away at present system and reality,what the job of that the management and the control on construction costs is advance in final account. Be that in advance, the people who work on final account according that already be ascertaied of the working drawing to calculate project amounts，apply a quota mechanically, the meter mechanically fetching cost, or designing that according to the drawing sheet and construction organization after construction is over as well as the scene construction visa takes notes weaves the final account being completed. This is necessary , useful no doubt. But we must see that when pre-final accounts personnel weave working drawing budget or the final account being completed, the construction plan and the design paper already determined. But construction being to take according to picture as principle, so then in advance, job done by final account personnel is only the change secretly scheming against cost produced by design alteration and prevents upvaluation from calculating boldly. But suppose the project is unreasonable on economy, there is a fault in decision-making; suppose designing a scheme feasible or be not optimum on the technology; the final account

英文文献及中文翻译

毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Overview https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, is a unified Web development model that includes the services necessary for you to build enterprise-class Web applications with a minimum of https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, is part of https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Framework,and when coding https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, applications you have access to classes in https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Framework.You can code your applications in any language compatible with the common language runtime(CLR), including Microsoft Visual Basic and C#.These languages enable you to develop https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, applications that benefit from the common language runtime,type safety, inheritance,and so on. If you want to try https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html,,you can install Visual Web Developer Express using the Microsoft Web Platform Installer,which is a free tool that makes it simple to download,install,and service components of the Microsoft Web Platform.These components include Visual Web Developer Express,Internet Information Services (IIS),SQL Server Express,and https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Framework.All of these are tools that you use to create https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Web applications.You can also use the Microsoft Web Platform Installer to install open-source https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, and PHP Web applications. Visual Web Developer Visual Web Developer is a full-featured development environment for creating https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Web applications.Visual Web Developer provides an ideal environment in which to build Web sites and then publish them to a hosting https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html,ing the development tools in Visual Web Developer,you can develop https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Web pages on your own computer.Visual Web Developer includes a local Web server that provides all the features you need to test and debug https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Web pages,without requiring Internet Information Services(IIS)to be installed. Visual Web Developer provides an ideal environment in which to build Web sites and then publish them to a hosting https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html,ing the development tools in Visual Web Developer,you can develop https://www.sodocs.net/doc/961789877.html, Web pages on your own computer.

土木工程专业外文文献及翻译

（ 二 〇 一 二 年 六 月 外文文献及翻译 题 目： About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名： 学 院：土木工程学院 系 别：建筑工程系 专 业：土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班 级：土木08-4班 指导教师：

英文原文： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing Abstract The crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing Foreword Concrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the