Cultural Differences in International Business Negotiations

国际商务谈判中的文化差异

Cultural Differences in International Business Negotiations Thesis statement: In short, at no time in history has there been so great a need for international business negotiation skills

I. Introduction

II. Culture and international business negotiations

A. Characteristics of culture

B. An introduction to business negotiations

III. Cultural differences in international business negotiation

A. Personal space

B. Time orientation

C. Interpersonal relationship

Acknowledgement

Abstract: Wi th economic globalization and China’s entry into WTO, commercial contacts among various countries are bound to be increasingly substantial. How to negotiate with people from different cultural backgrounds and who come to work with different work-related values effectively? In short, at no time in history has there been so great a need for international business negotiation skills

Key words: culture, negotiation, orientation, monochromic,polychromic Cultural Differences in International Business Negotiations

1. Introduction

With economic globalization and China’s entry into WTO, commercial contacts among various countries are bound to be increasingly substantial. As a result,

negotiation among people who come from different cultural backgrounds will certainly become a universal issue that arouses concern among people in different countries. A great number of multinational corporations and international companies have been mushrooming in our country. The fast changing international economic environment brings domestic corporations great business chances and challenges. How to negotiate with people from different cultural backgrounds and who come to work with different work-related values effectively? Misunderstanding gives rise to conflict and dispute. Hence, enhancing cross-cultural sensitivity as well as improving cross-cultural negotiation and cooperation becomes crucially important. In short, at no time in history has there been so great a need for international business negotiation skills

Culture is a dynamic, multidimensional, complex, and all-pervasive phenomenon. Clearly, no shortage of definitions of this concept exists. As history keeps moving forward, so does culture. Of course, the process of change is gradual and difficult, sometimes painstaking, even revolutionary. But we should also keep in mind that the part of culture at the base of the iceberg that is deeply rooted in a nation’s tradition and ideology resists to any changes. It’s this relative stability of the core aspect of culture that both unifies and makes each culture unique, and that makes it possible to discuss the varieties of culture. Different value orientations exert great impact on perception of leadership, ways of management, and process of

decision-making as well as on negotiations.

2.Culture and international business negotiations

2.1 Characteristics of culture

Regardless of how many definitions of culture we could have examined, there would have been a great deal of agreement concerning the four major characteristics

of culture. Being aware of these characteristics will help one become a better communicator. One can notice the strong connection between culture and communication. More importantly, since most of culture is below the conscious level, learning about culture can therefore be a stimulating awakening as he gives meaning to his actions and the actions of others.

2.2An introduction to business negotiations

Negotiation is a kind of basic human activity that we are involved everyday. It is a process of giving and taking where both parties modify their offers and expectations in order to come closer to each other. It occurs on one of the two reasons: (1) to create something new that neither party could do on his or her own, or (2) to resolve a problem or dispute between the parties3. A modern definition of negotiation widely accepted is two or more parties with common and conflicting interests who enter into a process of interaction with the goal of reaching an agreement (preferably of mutual benefit).

Business negotiation refers to the negotiation that takes place in the business world and deals with business relationship. Business negotiation may be understood

as encounters between firms (or economic organizations) with the goal of reaching agreements to gain economic benefits.

In international business settings, the development of the negotiation process and how parties perceive the relationship are crucial. This process is influenced by some facts and factors beyond the negotiation process in question. Cultural difference is one of the most important factors. Culture is a major determinant of strategies and tactics in international business negotiations, because negotiations involve communicateon, time, and power and these variables differ across cultures. Cultural differences create a challenge to the negotiators involved, and demand understanding as well as flexibility. An ability to assess these differences and properly handle the consequences is essential for success in international business negotiations.

3. Cultural differences in international business negotiation

In international business settings, the development of the negotiation process and how parties perceive the relationship are crucial. This process is influenced by some facts and factors beyond the negotiation process in question. Cultural difference is one of the most important factors. Culture is a major determinant of strategies and tactics in international business negotiations, because negotiations involve communication, time, and power and these variables differ across cultures. Cultural differences create a challenge to the negotiators involved, and demand understanding as well as flexibility. An ability to assess these differences and properly handle the consequences is essential for success in international business negotiations.

3.1Personal space

Our Personal space, that piece of the universe we occupy is contained within an invisible boundary surrounding our body. Edward Hall’s work has demonstrated clearly that cultures differ substantially in their use of personal space. Cultures that stress individualism generally demand more space than do communal cultures.

A culture’s use of space is directly linked to its value system. In some Asia cultures, for example, students do not sit close to their teachers or stand near their bosses; the extended distance demonstrates deference and esteem. In Germany, private space is sacred. You cannot go inside your neighbor’s fence to get your ball, which was thrown in by accident. But in Greek, African, Italian, and Arab where privacy is less important, people demands less space.

In Western countries husband and wife share their personal space, they walk side by side in the street, but in Arab countries, husband always walk ahead of their wives, even at the dinner stable, husband and wife do not sit together. In those countries, a man’s personal space is his alone.

In some Middle Eastern and Asia countries, you will see it is very crowed in buses, banks and other public places, for these cultures demand very little society distance. They have unique orientations towards space and privacy. A mixing of these orientations can cause communication problems. In China, many public places such as bank has “one meter line”, but Chinese don’t always pay attention to it. If a Western is in front of you in a bank, you pass the “one meter line” and are close to

him or her. You may cause a misunderstanding, you will be said to invade his personal space.

3.2 Time orientation

Time orientation refers to some cultures’ pref erence for a long-term or a

short-term outlook on life and work (Rouses, 2002). Some cultures are much more future-oriented than others. For example, Hong Kong, Japan and Taiwan have a future orientation. At the other end of the continuum we find those such as Pakistan and some West African cultures where the focus is more present and past-oriented than oriented towards the future. These cultures tend to have a great respect for tradition. Canada, Germany, and the United States are in the middle. Compared to North Americana the British tend to emphasize the past much more.

Time has other dimensions, too. Time has been characterized by Hall and Hall (1987) as either monochromic or polychromic. “Monochromic time” refers to the preference in some cultures for only doing one thing at a time. “Polychromic time”, on the other hand, refers doing or paying attention to many things at once (Rouses, 2002).

In cultures characterized as monochromic, time is assumed to be linear ? it is like an arrow, straight and clearly pointing in one direction. Time is divided into segments that can be modularized and scheduled so that only one thing needs to be handled at one time. Any change or turbulence in this sequence will make the sequential person more uncertain. Time is perceived as a resource that can be spent and saved, wasted or lost，and lateness deprives the other of precious minutes in a world where “time is money”. Many western cultures such as those of Germany, Canada, the United States and the Scandinavian countries tend to be predominantly monochromic cultures. For example, Americans tend to make their schedules very tight, squeezing a lot of activities into thin time slots. It is rude to be even a few minutes late because the whole day’s schedule of events is affecte d.

Polychromic cultures perceive time in the opposite way. People hold a cyclical view of time and conduct various activities in parallel. Many things can and do happen at the same time. They tend to put more importance on completing their current business or communication than in terminating it abruptly in order to start the next. Time commitments are more of an objective to be achieved if possible than a rigid schedule to which one must stick. Plans change frequently and relatively easily compared to monochromic cultures. Many Latin American cultures are characterized by a tendency towards polychromic time. Interestingly, according to Hall and Hall (1987), Japanese culture tends to be divided between monochromic time that is used when dealing with foreigners, and polychromic time that is invoked when dealing with other Japanese.

3.3Interpersonal relationship

This cultural dimension deals with the manner in which people “present” themselves to others. On the negotiating table, Chinese people, as they put a strong emphasis on maintaining relationships, are expected to be particularly motivated to

protect face of others as well as be concerned that their own face be accepted. Given this sensitivity, they seek harmony and communicate that they respect partners as capable and worthy. Their collectivism in general and their understanding of social face lead them to be hesitant about engaging in aggressive interaction that may challenge the face of others. They regard conflict and confrontation as unpleasant and undesirable. So they want to avoid conflict and, once engaged, use compromise and accommodation to deal with conflict. In contrast, people in the English?speaking societies, like United States, value frankness, freedom of expression, independence and the traditions of debate as the way to foster direct and straightforward e xpression. For example, American culture is known for its assertive and aggressive communication style because it has a long history of valuing non-conformity, individualism, competition, and freedom of expression is bound to encourage assertive behavior. They tend to express their points directly and frankly without thinking about the ensuing confrontation to the Chinese party.

During negotiation, if conflict arises, aggressive behavior from either party can damage the face of the other. Since not giving face to a person is perceived as denying that person’s pride and dignity, the Chinese are mindful about the implications of antagonism and aggression and will normally be hesitant about engaging in such behavior. In addition, the adoption of “face-giving” and “face-saving” behaviors in conflict situations is valued as a means to maintain a sense of harmony.

4.Analysis of the factors of cultural differences

The culture restricts the beha vior and manner of enterprises’ international business negotiations and their method and means for controlling the progress of the negotiation. The impaction of different cultures will increase the uncertainty of the international business negotiations and the difficulty of reaching an agreement. And understanding the cultural differences and surmounting the cultural obstacles become the core links of lifting the effect of enterprises’ international business negotiations.

In international business negotiations, culture plays an important part in terms

of values, language and thought patterns.

Firstly, values are one of the most important factors, which conclude six elements. The first dimension is individualism and collectivism which describes the relationship between the individual and the collectivity that prevails in a given society. They impact the negotiators’ thinking, methods and patterns of negotiation, as well as the result of the negotiations. The second is power distance which defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally. People from different countries put different weights on status consistency among prestige, wealth, and power. It impacts the negotiators’ d ecision-making process, and the atmosphere of the negotiation. The third is personal space. The piece of the universe we occupy is contained within an invisible boundary surrounding our body. The forth is time orientation which refers to some cultures’ pre ference for a long-term or a short-term outlook on life and work. It has been characterized by Hall and Hall (1987) as either monochromic or polychromic. They also impact the process and patterns of the negotiations. The fifth

is interpersonal relationship which deals with the manner in which people “present” themselves to others. The last one is uncertainty avoidance which is defined as the extent to which people within a culture are made nervous by situations which they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable, situations which they therefore try to avoid by maintaining strict codes of behavior and belief in absolute truths. High and low uncertainty avoidance cultures impact the result of the negotiation.

Secondly, language is the basic tool of the negotiation. Language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. It impacts the negotiation in terms of verbal and nonverbal language. The high and low-context orientations influence the whole process of the negotiation. Adding the nonverbal language factor, the three factors resolve the success of the negotiation.

The last but not the least is the thought patterns, which are termed ways of thinking. Under the same circumstances, each individual in one culture may think in a slightly different way on the same question. Furthermore, the same individual may also think in a slight different way in the same question under different circumstances. It concludes linear and linkage thought patterns. They make impacts on negotiating styles and the result of the negotiation. Therefore, it is somewhat important to localize international business negotiations, learn to think on the side of others, and promote mutual understanding. Through the elimination of cultural barriers, the favorable cultural conditions can be created by the concerned efforts so that business negotiations can be effectively carried out.

References

Edward T. Hall. Beyond CultureGarden City, NY: Anchor, Doubleday, 1977. Foster, D. A. Bargaining across Borders: How to Negotiate Business Successfully Anywhere in the World. New York: McGraw-Hill，1992.

Gudykunst William B. Communicating with Strangers: An Approach to Intercultural Communication.Reading, Mass: Sddison-Wesley, 1984.

Hoebel E. A. & Frost E. L. 1976. Culture and Social Anthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill,1976 .331.

Keesing, F. M. Cultural Anthropology: The Science of Custom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.1965.18

Lewicki, Roy J., Barry, B., Saunders, David M. & Minton, John W. Negotiation. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2003.36.

Paden, W. E. Religious Worlds: The Comparative Study of Religion. BostonMA: Beacon,1994.26.

Rouse, M. J. & Rouse, S. Business Communication: A Cultural and Strategic Approach. London: Thomson Learning, 2002.

Samovar Larry A., Porter, Richard E. & Stefani, Lisa. A Communication Between Cultures (3rd Ed.) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press，2000. Williams, Robin M., Jr. American Society: A Sociological Interpretation (3rd Ed.). New York: Knopf. 1970.

Zhang Jiarui, The Promotion of Cultural Relativism in Sino-US Business Negotiations. Cheng Du, China: Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, 2004.3. Zhang Xingzhen. A Comparative Analysis of Politeness Strategies in Chinese and English Culture . Shanghai, China: ShanghaiNormalUniversity, 2005.

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chopst i cks d i ff i cult dr i nk dumpl i ng f i fteen f i fty h i ll k i d l i sten l i ttle l i ve p i cture P i nk s i xteen s i xty sw i m v i sit w i n w i nner s i t g i ve w i nd w i th sk i p m i ss ch i ck f i n i sh f i nger fam i ly s i ster pol i cemen Oo: o x o n o f n o t d o g o n h o t g o t b o x d o ll d o ctor b o dy s o ng p o p pr o ject st o p o range cl o ck fr o g fr o m l o st s o rry b o x h o t l o st dr o p cr o ss b o ttle c o ffee sh o pping Uu： u p b u s m u m b u mp l u nch s u mmer s u nny u nder r u n r u nning l u ck d u mpling h u ndred h u ngry j u mp j u mping m u ch m u m j u st h u rry

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( )1. A. gave B. giraffe C. garden ( )2. A. great B. rage C. large ( )3. A. guitar B. grapes C. page ( )4. A. tiger B. orange C. green ( )5. A. circus B. circle C. cent ( )6. A. cane B. cite C. camera ( )7. A. snake B. crab C. plate ( )8. A. beans B. head C. these ( )9. A. cage B. gray C. black ( )10. A. radio B. thirteen C. video ( )11. A. smile B. listen C. hire ( )12. A. boat B. sock C. loaf ( )13. A. crocodile B. yogurt C. goat ( )14. A. butter B. ruler C. puppet ( )15. A. rage B. giraffe C. guitar ( )16. A. circle B. cane C. cite ( )17. A. candy B. catch C. circus D. corn ( )18. A. page B. orange C. bag D. gate ( )19. A. girl B. good C. giraffe D. cabbage ( )20. A. crocodile B. goat C. yogurt ave B. plate C. crab ( )21. A. g ( )22. A. cane B. cite C. climb ( )23 A. hire B. listen C. smile ( )24. A. ruler B. butter C. puppet ( )25. A. Ann B. cat C. potato D. carrot ( )26. A. three B. these C. key D. pencil ( )27. A. listen B. crocodile C. fifteen D. litter ( )28. A. snake B. sorry C. zoo D. salad ( )29. A. fish B. five C. fifeen D. gift ( )30. A. jump B. lulu C. run D. butterfly ( )31. A. blue B. flute C. sun D. Sue ( )32. A. these B. bean C. insect D. tea ( )33. A. potato B. tomato C. bag ( )34. A. egg B. see C. fourteen ( )35. A. nut B. flute C. jump