新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 整理

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)

2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.

(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9714153778.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.

5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.

i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.

6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory

7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time

3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）

These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9714153778.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.

It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.

9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9714153778.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language

11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)

traditional grammar and modern linguistics

1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive

2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.

3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language.

1.the descriptive function.

2. the expressive function

3.the social function

Chapter 2: Phonology音系学

phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;

it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.

The three branches of phonetics

(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)

(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）

(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）

2. Speech organs: three important areas

⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;

⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;

⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.

The principle source such modifications is the tongue.

The tongue is the most flexible.

International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.

Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.

Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.

Aspirated and unaspirated

1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form

patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

4. Phone, phoneme, allophone

A phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.

The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].

A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;

it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].

Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments

sequential rule,

⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in a

particular language.

⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another by

copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.

⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in a

certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.

6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）

⑴Stress

Word stress and sentence stress

⑵Tone声调

Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.

English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.

⑶Intonation语调

When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.

English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:

falling tone (matter of fact statement)

rising tone (doubts or question)

the fall-rise tone (implied message)

the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)

For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.

Chapter 3: Morphology

1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of words

and the rules by which words are formed

2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.

4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to another

one.

5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morpheme

Chapter 4: Syntax

Syntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that

govern the formation of sentences.

Word-level categories

1,Major lexical categories

2. minor lexical categories

To determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed

1.meaning

2.inflection

3.distribution.

Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizers

D-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties

S-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .

Chapter 5: Semantics

Semantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

1）The naming theory(命名论)

Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.

It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.

words are just names or labels for things.

2）The conceptualist view（意念论）

It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

3)Contextualism（语境论）

①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:

②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation

③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.

④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in me aning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the pre sident or presidency in different situation.

4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）

Bloomfield

①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

②The story of Jack and Jill:

Jill Jack

S_________r--------s_________R

3. Sense and reference

①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.

②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

4. Major sense relations

Synonymy（同义关系）

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.

Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词

complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare

Homonymy（同音/同形异义）

Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,

（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.

e.g. rain/reign.

（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.

e.g. tear v. / tear n.

（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.

e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.

Hyponymy（下义关系）

Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

eg.superordinate: flower

hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily

Antonymy（反义关系）

the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning

1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate forms

between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …

2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of

the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …

3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of the

relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …

2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:

1.grammatical meaning

2. semantic meaning, e.g.

selectional restrictions.

Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules

eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others

Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (B ritish G.

Leech).

Chapter 6: Pragmatics

1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to

effect successful communication.

Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.

What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning

If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;

if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

⑴Austin’s new model of speech acts

Utterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.

3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)

The maxim of quantity （数量准则）

Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。）

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. （不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。）

he maxim of quality （质量准则）

Do not say what you believe to be false.（不要说自己认为不真实的话。）

Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.（不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。）

The maxim of relation（关联准则）

Be relevant.（说话要贴切。）

The maxim of manner （方式准则）

Avoid obscurity of expression. （避免晦涩的词语。）

Avoid ambiguity. （避免歧义。）

Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) （说话要简短，避免累赘。）

Be orderly. （说话要有条理。）

Chapter 8

Sociolinguistics 社会语言学The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

speech variety 言语变体refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.

Linguistic repertoire语言库the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.

Halliday’s register theory.

according to Halliday (British), “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”

Register语域the type of language which is selected as apprppriate to the type of situation is a Register

field of discourse, 话语范围It can be either technical or non-technical. tenor of discourse,话语意旨It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question

mode of discourse话语方式It refers to the means of communication Five stages of formality

Intimate Casual Consultative Formal Frozen

Bilingualism双语现象

In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.

diglossia According to Ferguson (1959), refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism.

chapter 9

culture文化in a broad sense, reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.

the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.

discourse communities 话语社会the common ways in which members of the social group use similar language to meet their needs.

linguistic relativity 语言相对性to put it simply, different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently

an linguistic sign may simultaneously have a

denotativ meanings.e,

connotative meanings.,

iconic meanings.

three forms of culture contact are identified:

acculturation,

assimilation,

amalgamation

through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B,thus bringing about cultural diffusion

chapter 10

language acquisition语言习得refers to a child's acquisition of his mother tongue.

three different theories concerning ho language is learned:

the behaviorist,

the innatist,

the interationist.

Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability known known as language acquisition device or o https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9714153778.html,ter Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar.

the interactionisist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.

critical period Hypothesis 关键期假说Eric Lenneberg argued that the LAD, like other biological function, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time —a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. chapter 11

second language acquisition 第二语言习得refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language

interlanguage 中介语was established as learners 's independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.

among the three important characteristcs:systematicity, permeability, fossilization

input hypothesis输入假说: Krashen

Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving "comprehensible input "

chapter 12

neurlinguistics 神经语言学is the study of two related areas: language disorder and the relationship between the brain and language.

it includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stores, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language

it is the cerebral cortex 大脑皮层that accounts for the human distinctness in the animal world and it is within the human cortex that the secrets of language represention and prossing are to be found. animals, reptiles and amphibians, for example, have no cortex at all

most right-handed individuals are said to be left lateralized for language. the case with left-handed people are even more complex,few left-handers have language localization in the right hemisphere. rather they tend to show

significant language representation in both hemisphere. thus left-handers are generally less lateralized for language.

Broca's area

Psycholinguistics 心里语言学is the study of language processing. it is concerned with the process of language comprehension and production.

陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第8~11章【圣才出品】

第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin

C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标

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Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language

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