(完整版)传播学经典理论英文翻译
1.Opinion Leaders
Active in information networks, have many information channels ,so they can often provide information and advice for others and can influence others.
2.The Spiral of Silence
For a controversial issue, people will watch the "climate of opinion" before they make comments . judging their opinion whether the "majority opinion", when people feel that their views are "majority" or in the "advantage" , it will tend to boldly express this opinion; when found his views are "a few" or in a "disadvantage" they often remain "silent." The more people remain silent, the more feel that their views are not well accepted, thus a result, the more they tend to remain silent. Repeated several times, they form representing "dominant" status views and more powerful, while holding "inferior" opinions of people sound more and more weak, such a cycle, forming a "one more loudly, and the other more and more silent spiral down the process. "
3.Gatekeeper
Lewin was first proposed this idea.
The information was screened and filtered by communicator. Communicators decide what we can see and how we can see .
4.Selective exposure hypothesis
Audience in the contact information of the mass media is not
indiscriminate, but more willing to choose the contents that are the same or similar to their opinion, and for the contents of this confrontation or conflict, there is a tendency to avoid.
5.Knowledge Gap Theory
Because the people who have higher economic status is usually much faster to get information than those of low socioeconomic status, therefore, the more information is transmitted by the mass media , the knowledge gap between the two types of people is more tend to expand.
6.Agenda Setting Theory
Mass media report an issue or not directly affect people's perception on the subject.
Mass media highlights an issue will cause people to pay more attention to the issue.
Mass media on a range of topics give different levels of coverage according to a certain order of priority, it will affect people’s judgment about importance of these issues .
7.Magic bullet theory
The message sent by the mass media is like a magic bullet, but the audience as the target without protection ,so the audience can easily be knocked down by the message sent by the mass media.
The theory is that mass media have powerful force which can directly affect audience.
Text One An Introduction to Communication
ii) Key Words & Expressions:
communication n. 传播
journalism n. 新闻学
transfer n.& v. 传递，迁移
information n. 信息
circulation n. 流通，运行，循环，传播
convey v. 传送，传递
feedback n. 反馈，反应
medium n. 媒体，媒介，中介
II. Text Study
STUDY PREVIEW communication is an important word in our today’s academic study in journalism, sociology, psychology, economics & politics. It’s also heard more & more often in our daily life. So what is communication?
Communication:
The transfer of social information & the circulation of social information systems.
Social:
When we say “communication”in our study, we usually mean human communication, not animal communication; a “communication”happening in a society, not in other environments such as natural, physical or biological ones.
Why we study “human communication”?
Communication is the tool that makes societies possible. It is no accident that communication and community have the same word root.
Without communication, there would be no communities; and without community, there could be no communication.
The sociologist Charles Cooley called communication “the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop_ all the symbols of the mind, together with the means of conveying them through space and preserving them in time”.
Transfer of information:
When “communication”happens, information flows from one person to another, and then the receiver may give some feedback to the giver. During this process, the information is shared, and the giver and receiver can play the opposite role.
Also, communication needs some medium, which is something both parts of a communication can understand. For example, two or more people come together, trying to share some information. But they are from different countries and have different life experiences. So if they want to understand one another, they must use some medium such as English language, or even body language.
In modern times, words are important tools or media for communication. But communication is not conducted entirely, or even mostly, in words. A gesture, a facial expression, a pitch pattern, a level of loudness, an emphasis, a kiss, a hand on the shoulder, a haircut or lack of one _ all these carry information.
Text Two Types of Communication
ii) Key Words & Expressions:
mass media 大众传播媒体
mass communication 大众传播
intrapersonal communication 自我传播
interpersonal communication 人际传播
group communication 群体传播
audience 受众，观众，听众
encode 编码
code 代码
transmit 传输，传达，传播
decode 解码
internalize 使内在化
II. Text Study
STUDY PREVIEW The communication in which the mass media engage is only one form of communication. One way to begin understanding the process of mass communication is to differentiate it from other forms of communication.
Intrapersonal Communication
We engage in intrapersonal communication when we talk to ourselves to develop our thoughts and ideas. This intrapersonal communication precedes our speaking or acting.
Intrapersonal communication is an exchange of information we have with ourselves, such as when we think over our next move in a video game or sing to ourselves in the shower. Typing into a computer is electronically mediated intrapersonal communication.
Interpersonal Communication
When people talk to each other, they are engaging in interpersonal communication. In this simplest form, interpersonal communication is between two people physically located in the same place. It can occur, however, if they are physically separated but emotionally connected, like lovers on cell phones.
The difference between the prefixes intra- and inter- is the key difference between intrapersonal and interpersonal communication. Just as intrasquad athletic games are within a team, intrapersonal communication is within one’s self. Just as intercollegiate games are between schools, interpersonal communication is between individuals.
Interpersonal communication includes exchanges in which two or more people take part, but the term is usually reserved for situations in which just two people are communicating. Having a face-to-face conversation over lunch and writing a letter to a friend are everyday examples. When interpersonal communication is electronically mediated, as in a telephone conversation, the term point-to-point communication is sometimes used.
Group Communication
There comes a point when the number of people involved reduces the intimacy of the communication process. That’s when the situation becomes group communication. A club meeting is an example. So is a speech to an audience in an auditorium.
Mass Communication
Capable of reaching thousands, even millions, of people is mass communication, which is accomplished through a mass medium like television or newspapers. Mass communication can be defined as the process of using a mass medium to send messages to large audiences for the purpose of informing, entertaining or persuading.
In many respects the process of mass communication and other communication forms is the same: Someone conceives a message, essentially an intrapersonal act. The message then is encoded into a common code, such as language. Then it’s transmitted. Another person receives the message, decodes it and internalizes it. Internalizing a message is also an intrapersonal act.
In other respects, mass communication is distinctive. Crafting an effective message for thousands of people of diverse backgrounds and interests requires different skills than chatting with a friend across the table. Encoding the message is more complex because a device is always used-for example, a printing press, a camera or a recorder.
One aspect of mass communication that should not be a mystery is the spelling of the often-misused word communication. The word takes no “s” if you are using it to refer to a process. If you are referring to a communication as a thing, such as a letter, a movie, a telegram or a television program, rather than a process, the word is communication in
singular form and communication in plural. When the term mass communication refers to a process, it is spelled without the “s”.
Review:
communication: Exchange of ideas，information.
intrapersonal Communication: Talking to oneself.
interpersonal Communication: Usually two people face to face.
group Communication: More than two people; in person.
mass Communication: Many recipients; not face to face; a process.
Text Three Components of Mass Communication
STUDY PREVIEW Mass communication is the process that mass communicators use to send their mass messages to mass audiences. They do this through the mass media. Think of these as the Five Ms: mass communicators, mass messages, mass media, mass communication and mass audience.
Mass Communicators
The heart of mass communication is the people who produce the messages that are carried in the mass media. These people include journalists, scriptwriters, lyricists, television anchors, radio disc jockeys, public relations practitioners and advertising copywriters. The list could go on and on.
Mass communicators are unlike other communicators because they cannot see their audience. David Letterman knows that hundreds of thousands of people are watching as he unveils his latest Top 10 list, but he can’t see them or hear them chuckle and laugh. He receives no immediate feedback from his mass audience. This communicating with an unseen audience distinguishes mass communication from other forms of communication. Storytellers of yore told their vocabulary according to how they sensed they were being received. Mass communicators don’t have that advantage, although a studio audience.
Mass Messages
A news item is a mass message, as are a movie, a novel, a recorded song and a billboard advertisement. The message is the most apparent part of our relationship to the mass media. It is for the messages that we pay attention to the media. We don’t listen to the radio, for example, to marvel at the technology. We listen to hear the music.
Mass Media
The mass media are the vehicles that carry messages. The primary mass media are books, magazines, newspapers, television, radio, sound recordings, movies and the web. Most theories view media as neutral carriers of messages. The people who are experts at media include technicians who keep the presses running and who keep the television transmitters on the air. Media experts also are tinkers and inventors who
come up with technical improvements, such as compact discs, DVDs, AM stereo radio and newspaper presses that can produce high-quality color.
Mass Communication
The process through which messages reach the audience via the mass media is called mass communication. This is a mysterious process about which we know far less than we should. Researchers and scholars have unraveled some of the mystery, but most of how it works remains a matters of wonderment. For example, why do people pay more attention to some messages than to others? How does one advertisement generate more sales than another? Is behavior, including violent behavior, triggered through the mass communication process? There is reason to believe that mass communication affects voting behavior, but how does this work? Which is most correct-to say that people can be controlled by mass communication? Or manipulated? Or merely influenced? Nobody has the answer.
Mass Audiences
The size and diversity of mass audiences add complexity to mass communication. Only indirectly do mass communicators learn whether their messages have been received. Mass communicators are never sure exactly of the size of audiences, let alone of the effect of their messages. Mass audiences are fickle. What attracts great attention one day may not
the next. The challenge of trying to communicate to a mass audience is even more complex because people are tuning in and tuning out all the time, and when they are tuned in, it is with varying degrees of attentiveness.
Review:
mass Communicators: Message crafters.
mass Message: What is communicated.
mass Media: Vehicles that carry messages.
mass Audiences: Recipients of mass messages.
Text Four Communication Models
ii) Key Words & Expressions:
communication model 传播模式
narrative model 线性模式
system model 系统模式
the SMCR model 施拉姆模式
concentric circle model 同心圆模式
Claude Shannon 香农
Warren Weaver 韦弗
Harold Lasswell 拉斯韦尔
Wilbur Schramm 施拉姆
Thomas Bohn 波恩
II. Text Study
STUDY PREVIEW Scholars have devised models of the communication
process in an attempt to understand how the process works. Like all models, these are simplifications and are imperfect. Even so, these models bring some illumination to the mysterious communication process.
Role of Communication Models
Hobbyists build models of ships, planes, automobiles and all kinds of other things. These models help them see whatever they are modeling in different ways. Industrial engineers and scientists do the same thing, learning lessons from models before they actually build something to full scale. Communication models are similar. By creating a facsimile of the process, we hope to better understand the process.
A reality about models is that they are never perfect. This reality is especially true when the subject being modeled is complex. An architect, for example, may have a model of what the building will look like to passersby, but there also will be models of the building’s heating system, traffic patterns, and electrical, plumbing and ventilation systems. None of these models is complete or accurate in every detail, but all nonetheless are useful.
Communication models are like that. Different models illustrate different aspects of the process. The process itself is so complex that no single model can adequately cover it.
Basic Model
Two Bell telephone engineers, Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, laid out a basic communication model in 1948. They were working on advanced switching systems. The model, fundamentally a simple diagram, gave them a reference point for their work. That model has become a standard baseline for describing the communication process. The Shannon-Weaver model identifies five fundamental steps in the communication process:
○The human stimulation that results in a thought.
○The encoding of the thought into a message.
○The transmission of the message.
○The decoding of the message by the recipient into a thought.
○The internalization of the message by the recipient.
Narrative Model
Yale professor Harold Lasswell, an early mass communication theorist, developed a useful yet simple model that was all words-no diagram. Lasswell’s narrative model poses four questions: Who says what? In which channel? To whom? With what effect?
You can easily apply the model. Pick any bylined story from the front page of a newspaper.
○Who says what? The newspaper reporter tells a story, often quoting someone who is especially knowledgeable4 on the subject.
○In which channel? In this case the story is told through the
newspaper, a mass medium.
○To whom? The story is told to a newspaper reader.
○With what effect? The reader decides to vote for Candidate A or B, or perhaps readers just add the information to their reservoir of knowledge.
The SMCR Model
The classic model that stresses the dominance of the media was developed by Wilbur Schramm (1982), often credited as the founder of mass communication studies. He created what is known as the Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model.
The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver(SMCR) model describes the exchange of information as the message passes from the source to the channel to the receiver, with feedback to the source.
The source is the originator of the communication.
The message is the content of the communication, the information that is to be exchanged.
An encoder translates the message into a form that can be communicated-often a form that is not directly interpretable by human senses.
A channel is the medium or transmission system used to convey the message from one place to another.
A decoder reverses the encoding process.
The receiver is the destination of the communication.
A feedback mechanism between the source and the receiver regulates the flow of communication.
Noise is any distortion or errors that may be introduced during the information exchange.
This model can be applied to all forms of human communication, but here we will just illustrate it with mass communication examples. When you are at home watching a television program, the television network (a corporate source) originates the message, which is encoded by the microphones and television cameras in the television studio. The channel is not literally the number on the television dial to which you are tuned, but rather the entire chain of transmitters, satellite links, and cable television equipment required to convey the message to your home. Although we sometimes call a TV set a “receiver,” it is really the decoder and the viewer is the receiver. Feedback from viewers is via television rating services. Electronic interference with the broadcast and the distractions of barking dogs are possible noise components in this situation. The source of a message, which the author encoded with the software she used to compose the page’s content. The channel is the Internet, including the computer that the Web page is stored on, and the network connections between that computer, called a server, and your own. Your computer acts as the decoder. It decodes the message with
your browser software (such as Netscape or Internet Explorer), and you are the receiver.
In this classic view, mass communication is one-to-many communication, and the mass media are the various channels through which mass communication is delivered. That is, through newspapers, radio, TV, or film, the message is communicated from a single source to many receivers at about the same time, with limited opportunities for the audience to communicate back to the source.
Concentric Circle Model
The Shannon-Weaver model can be applied to all communication, but it misses some things that are unique to mass communication. In 1974 scholars Ray Hiebert, Donald Ungurait and Thomas Bohn presented an important new model-a series of concentric circles with the encoding source at the center. One of the outer rings was the receiving audience. In between were several elements that are important in the mass communication process but less so in other communication processes.
The concentric circle model is one of the most complete models for identifying elements in the mass communication process, but it misses many complexities. It takes only one message from its point of origin, but in reality thousands of messages are being issued simultaneously. Audiences receive many of these messages, but not all of them, and the messages are received imperfectly. Feedback resonates back to
communicators unevenly, often ill-based. Gatekeeping too is uneven. In short, there are so many variables that it is impossible to track what happens in any kind of comprehensive way.
III．Review:
Claude Shannon: Devised a basic communication model, with Warren Weaver.
Warren Weaver: Devised a basic communication model, with Claude Shannon.
basic communication model: Shows sender, encoding, transmission, decoding, receiver.
Harold Lasswell: Devised the narrative model.
narrative model: Describes process in words, not schematic.
Thomas Bohn: Devised the concentric circle model, with Ray Hiebert, Donald Ungurait.
concentric circle model: Useful radiating model of the mass communication process.
Text Five Fundamentals in the Process
ii) Key Words & Expressions:
homophyly n. 类似性
tabloid n. 小报
stimulation n. 刺激
encoding n. 编码
transmission n. 传递
decoding n. 解码
internalization n. 内化
STUDY PREVIEW Most models for mass communication as well as other communication forms share some fundamental elements. The elements are sequential, beginning with whatever stimulates a person to want to communicate and continuing through encoding and transmission. To complete the communication process, the recipient of the message must decode and internalize it.
Stimulation
Both the Shannon-Weaver model and the concentric circle model begin with a source who is stimulated to want to communicate a message. The stimulation can result from many things. Emotions can be stimuli, as can something that is sensed. The stimulation can be as diverse as seeing a beautiful panorama or hearing a child cry.
Encoding
The second step is encoding. The source puts thoughts into symbols that can be understood by whomever is destined to receive the message. The symbols take many forms-for example, the written word, smoke signals or pictographs.
Transmission
The message is the representation of the thought. In interpersonal communication the message is almost always delivered face to face. In mass communication, however, the message is encoded so that it is suitable for the equipment being used for transmission. Shannon and
Weaver, being telephone engineers in the 1940s, offered the example of the sound pressure of a voice being changed into proportional electrical current for transmission over telephone lines. In technical terms, telephone lines were channels for Shannon and Weaver’s messages. On a more conceptual basis the telephone lines were the media, in the same way that the printed page or a broadcast signal is.
Decoding
The receiver picks up signals sent by the transmitter. In interpersonal communication the receiver is a person who hears the message, sees it, or both. An angry message encoded as a fist banging a table is heard and perhaps felt. An insulting message encoded as a puff of cigar smoke in the face is smelled. In mass communication the first receiver of the message is not a person but the equipment that picks up and then reconstructs the message from the signal. This mechanical decoding is necessary so that the human receiver of the message can understand it. As Shannon and Weaver put it: “The receiver ordinarily performs the inverse operation that was done by the transmitter. ”
Internalization
In mass communication a second kind of decoding occurs with the person who receives the message from the receiving equipment. This is an intrapersonal act, internalizing the message. For this second kind of decoding to work, the receiver must understand the communication form
chosen by the source in encoding. Someone who reads only English will not be able to decode a message in Greek. Someone whose sensitivities are limited to punk rock will not understand Handel’s “Water Music.” In other words, the source and the receiver must have enough in common for communication to occur. This common experience, which can be as simple as speaking the same tongue, is called homophyly. In mass communication the encoder must know the audience well enough to shape messages that can be decode accurately and with the intended effect.
The audience and how it perceives a message are essential in the mass communication process. This is no better illustrated than in a front-page headline in the National Examiner, a sensationalizing weekly tabloid: “Cops Think Kato Did It!” Brain “Kato” Kaelin was a pal of O. J. Simpson and had been subjected to police interviewing off and on for months before the Simpson murder trial. Kaelin sued the Examiner over the headline. In court, the Examiner said the “it” in the headline didn’t refer to the murders but to possible perjury. The Examiner argued that “it”was explained in a secondary head on Page 1: “…He Fears They Want Him for Perjury. ”
A three-judge federal appeals court sided with Kaelin, saying that Examiner readers were likely to infer that the police thought he was a murder. This was despite the fact that the story made it clear that “it” was