Cultural Influences on Leadership and Management Practice

3 Reflections ■ Volume 7, Number

4 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

therefore, is treated merely as something accidental that could have been different.

the divergence perspective,on the other hand, recognizes national and cultural differences. Its pro-ponents maintain that culture is deeply rooted and drives the values of any society beyond economic ideology. the divergence perspective is consistent with the dominant view of some cross-cultural theo-rists (e.g., hofstede, 1980, 1991; adler, 2002) who emphasize that all management practices are in large part culturally determined, although there is little consensus on the significance of particular cultural variables.

hence a third perspective has developed: crossver-gence, based on acculturation theory within the field of anthropology. ward et al. (1999) and ralston et al. (1993) proposed that when two cultures meet, a blending of values may result. the crossvergence perspective therefore recognizes the importance of economic ideology and national culture, as well as the importance of the synergetic interaction between the two. Moreover, it is consistent with a more bal-anced perspective of global integration and local responsiveness. country-specific characteristics, such as culture, socioeconomics, political-legal climate, and technological factors, however, influence the meaning, interpretation, and implementation of the foreign p ractices i n t hese o rganizations. u nderstanding these characteristics is necessary before crossver-gence can be achieved. the influences of other cul-tures tend to lead to the development of a new hybrid value system, rather than a convergence of value systems.

a common sense of identity within the emerging hybrid culture may be manifested as agreement on what the current situation in the organization is, in terms of organizational and management attributes; what the ideal situation is, in terms of management style and such organizational factors as hierarchy, decision-making process, and control; and how the ideal contrasts with the way these aspects are likely to change. logically, organizations are likely to evolve in a positive way if the various stakeholders concur on these fundamental matters. Creating a hybrid from

Different roots

the root difference between western and african cultural perspectives stems from the principles on which they learn and develop throughout their lives. the western world adopts a primarily scholastic approach based on facts, logic, and the nature of reality, whereas the african approach is based in humanism.

In western europe, humanism originated in the study of classical culture and was part of the renaissance that took place in the 14th and 15th centuries. It got its name from one of the era’s most important goals: the promotion of a new educational curriculum. this curriculum consisted of studia humanitatis, or the humanities, a group of academic subjects concerning the human condition. humanities subjects included grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and ethics. these disciplines were all studied, when-ever possible, in the original classical texts and with a qualitative approach. the humanities curriculum conflicted with more traditional education that was based on scholasticism. scholastic education concen-trated on more “factual” subjects, such as logic, natural philosophy (science), and metaphysics, or the nature of reality. scholars often clashed sharply over these two systems of education. a lot was at stake in these academic controversies, which were, and still are, related to the question “what is education for?”

african humanism is embodied in ritual, story, cultural practices, symbolism, and myth, and takes the human being as the starting point, emphasizing the dignity and worth of the individual. a basic premise of humanism is that human beings possess within themselves the capacity for truth and goodness.

we are currently in a perverse situation in which the west is traversing a path toward a more human-istic approach, particularly in business and govern-ment, while africa is being criticized for not being scholastic enough, be it in business, government, or society. Modern africa still stresses the importance of human needs, both on an individual basis and, more importantly, on a collective basis. african

humanism requires interconnected individuals to contribute to the welfare of the society in which they reside. this is africa’s gift to the world: social leader-ship within a context of humanistic citizenship. this approach may not be the most expedient or efficient, but it promises a more sustainable society.

this is unlikely to be a purely african phenome-non. there is evidence, from India (Jackson, 2002), for example, that hybrid human resource develop-ment systems are being designed to manage western (instrumental) and Indian (humanistic) orientations in organizations. their applicability in other regions, such as sub-saharan africa, needs to be investigated. the Japanese (holistic) management approach has also provided systems of management in east asia that appear to be successful in collectivist societies, and they, too, may have some parallels with african societies. the influence of asian management col-lectivist philosophy has to be taken into consider-ation, since asian businsess have made significant investments (particularly in south africa) in recent years. ahiauzu (1986, p. 54) points out that “though he may work in industry, the african lives in a wider society; and it is from this society outside the work-place that the elements that constitute the framework within which the african indigenous thought-system operates derive.” this “thought system” includes features like a high degree of harmony between humans and the world around them, the use of symbolism to make sense of the world, a spiritual connection to something larger than the individual, the use of an oral tradition for passing on collective wisdom, and a strong emphasis on family and the immediate community. the importance of family is visible in the network of interrelationships, extended family and mutual obligations, similar to the pater-nalism found in thai organizations (Kamoche, 2000). this results in a sense of communalism and tradi-tionalism (nzelibe, 1986; onyemelukwe, 1973), which is not unlike the confucian influence on asian cul-tures (horwitz, Kamoche & chew, 2002).

what do such hybrid models look like in practice? how do they differ from the western management models? Jackson (2004) identified three dominant types of management organizations in africa: (1) post-colonial, (2) post-instrumental, and (3) african renaissance. By analyzing each of these three sys-tems, we will illustrate how they can lead to poten-tial and actual conflicts in the workplace. the analysis will address issues of cross-cultural manage-ment in african countries, while demonstrating how a combination of features from the three models could give rise to hybrid management models. Post-Colonial Leadership and Management Systems

leadership/management in africa is typically repre-sented in the literature as fatalistic, resistant to change, reactive, short-term-oriented, authoritarian, risk-reducing, and context-dependent, with decision making based on external criteria. Kiggundu (1989), for example, describes organizations as typically having these characteristics: understaffing of compe-tent people; poor motivation; risk aversion; workers unwilling to take independent action; close super-vision of subordinates with little delegation; inef-ficient operations; overstaffing of nonqualified per-sonnel; underutilization of capacity; poor pay; and low morale, indicated by high turnover and absen-

During the colonial period in Africa, people and employees were treated in a trans-

actional or instrumental manner. They were seen as cogs in the machinery of business,

a means to an end, to be exploited solely for the betterment of business (exemplified in

the term: “human resources”). A new “post-instrumental” form of communal humanism

(different from the individualism and transactional approaches so dominant during

colonial times) has the potential to build an inclusive competitive advantage.

40 Reflections ■ Volume 7, Number 4 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

teeism. top leaders and managers are likely to be overworked, while reluctant to delegate work, and are generally learned, articulate, and well traveled. however, at the middle-management level is inade-quate managerial expertise and skills, combined with a lack of industrial knowledge. Blunt & Jones (1992, 1997) also represent such a system.

Jackson (2004) argues that this representation of african management in the literature is mostly rep-resentative of a post-colonial heritage, reflecting a theory X style of management, in McGregor’s (1960) terminology, which generally mistrusts human nature and asserts a need to impose controls on workers, allowing little worker initiative and indi-vidually rewarding a narrow set of skills simply by financial means. this system was imposed on african society originally by the colonial powers, and has been perpetuated since africa gained political inde-pendence (but often not economic independence), perhaps as a result of vested political and economic interests, or perhaps purely because this was the way managers in the colonial era were trained. this kind of system typically lacks clear, community/stake-holder-endorsed mission statements or any sense of shared direction. poor business results follow, and leadership is viewed as detached, highly centralized, hierarchical, and authoritarian. table 1 illustrates how this western ideal of leadership is viewed by the authors as operating in its “ideal” state, in east asia, and in africa.

In the african context, “leadership” and “man-agement” are socially constructed concepts that contrast with the individual western construct of “the leader/manager,” as explained by hogg’s (2001) “social identity theory of leadership.” according to hogg (p. 184), “group identification, as self-catego-

rization, constructs an intra-group pro-

totypicality gradient that invests the

most prototypical member with the

appearance of having influence; the

appearance arises because members

cognitively and behaviorally conform

to the prototype” (i.e., the person who

behaves the most to “type” is deemed

to be the leader of that type). Because

most multinational managers and high-

ly skilled africans take their intra-group

norms from the previously colonial

west, it is they who are ascribed the

apparent influence as leaders. african

employees then seek to emulate them in

culture and behavior, often suppressing

or denying their authentic selves (at a

cost). hence the belief in modern, urban

africa that the “work person” is sepa-

rate from the “home person” – a belief

that undermines the roots of african

humanistic society.

hogg further argues that the group becomes divided by status into leader/

managers and followers. In time, a char-

ismatic leadership/managerial personality

42 Reflections ■ Volume 7, Number 4

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

is attributed to the leader/manager group, which further empowers them and sharpens the status dif-ferential. hence the leader/manager develops a view of the “followers” (employees) as a dependent group hanging on their commands and knowledge. this results in leaders’ seeking to limit organizational risk, which in practice means the implementation of controls. hence, in africa, the emphasis is on control mechanisms, rules, and procedures, rather than per-formance. Indeed, there is a high reluctance to judge individual performance.

table 2 illustrates how this post-colonial perspec-tive on african management differs from the post-instrumental, african renaissance, and east asian perspectives. a spiral of copying western behavior in a culture that values leadership differently leads to a strong control element, as can be seen in the table.

the character of such overly controlled organiza-tions is also reflected in the local public sector, or recently privatized local organizations that are not foreign-owned. this stems from the fact that much of the public sector is led by the ex–war heroes/ political prisoners/exiles, etc., who led the political revolutions for democracies in their home states. unfortunately, most of these people did not receive any formal education in managing organizations. when they have acquired such education, they have rarely had sufficient time to practice their skills and competencies. as a result, many are “learning-by-doing” (Gorelick et al., 2004). In addition, the pub-lic sector often finds it difficult to lure the most talented local employees away from the multination-als and the private sector.

Managers who fit in well in a post-colonial system are expected to be motivated by power and eco-nomic security. Decisions are typically focused on the past and present, rather than the future. Management practices follow an authoritarian lead-ership style with reliance on hierarchy and a lack of openness in communication and information giving. within post-colonial systems, management is oriented toward internal processes and power relations.

Individuals’ perception about the control they have over what happens to them is vital to their understanding of how they live and what their mean-ing in the world is (shapiro, schwartz, & astin, 1996), and can affect how new experiences change the individual’s behavior. this perception is referred to as “locus of control” and stems from their expec-tations about what will happen following a particu-lar behavior (rotter, seeman, & liverant, 1962). western culture promotes an internal locus-of-con-trol orientation; people are expected to perceive themselves as the active determiners of their fates and accept full responsibility for their outcomes. over the years in western society, the locus of con-trol has become “good guys/bad guys,” with inter-nality being substituted for “desirable, intelligent, and bright” and externality for “failure, dull, and inadequate” (lefcourt, 1982, p. 182). the research and practice in the area has been biased by the popu-lar assumption that internal locus of control is a positive asset and externality is a deficit (evans, shapiro, & lewis, 1993). an internal locus of con-trol became the “moral vision” of western cultural ideology (christopher, 1996), whereas african cul-ture generally features an external locus of control.

a useful alternative conceptualization of locus of control, in our attempt to find a crossvergence way forward, is provided by wong & sproule (1984). In their study, they noted the importance of distinguish-ing “realism” from “idealism,” suggesting that peo-ple’s reality tended to account for their external scores, and their ideals tended to account for their internal scores. Building on this, it is possible to view locus of control as involving a two-dimensional view, such that dual control (or shared responsibili-ty) can be described in terms of both internal and external control. Individuals who understand con-trol to be from both internal and external sources could be considered to be “bilocals,” individuals who strike a healthy balance between beliefs in inter-nal and external control. wong & sproule (1984) hypothesized that bilocals cope more effectively because they observe an optimal mix between per-sonal responsibility (internal control) and reliance on appropriate outside resources (external control).

Indeed, Gurin et al. (1978, p. 292) argued that

44 Reflections ■ Volume 7, Number 4

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

scores of greater externality on measures of locus of control among minority (oppressed) groups were incorrectly interpreted in several reports as demon-strating that “cultural values and beliefs in external forces needed to be altered, when in fact [subjects’] sense of low personal control reflected a correct per-ception of a harsh environment over which they had little control.” hence the importance of emphasizing both internal and external aspects of control, instead of only the benefits of internal (ascribed to western leaders/managers) or the distresses associated with external (ascribed mainly to african employees). this is a sensible alternative to prevailing discussions of locus of control, and fits within a crossvergence perspective. In multicultural environments, bilocals are expected to be better adjusted than controllers (those with internal control beliefs) and controllees (those with external control beliefs) in many ways (wong & sproule, 1984).

others (e.g., hannerz, 1969; valentine, 1971; lafromboise et al., 1993) have referred to the impact of cultural acquisition and the creative ten-sion between maintaining a balance between internal and external control as “biculturalism.” the con-cepts of bilocals and biculturalism are key to making sense of the collective behavior and social life, as well as the individual and work life, of the african community. Members of the community draw upon both a distinctive repertoire of standardized african group behavior and, simultaneously, patterns derived from the mainstream cultural system of western derivation. for most africans, socialization in both of the systems begins at an early age, at home and in school and through the mass media, and continues throughout life – and therefore the two are of equal importance.

Post-Instrumental Management Systems

when western human resource practices are imple-mented in cultures that have a different regard for people in organizations, these incompatibilities can result in a lack of motivation in the workplace, lead-ing to low productivity and labor strife. followers may prefer a leader who is kindly, considerate, and understanding to one who is overly dynamic and productive, and possibly too demanding. there is no assumption here (as there is with the post-colonial management systems) that the followers are lazy, need controlling, and have an external focus. here the assumption is that the objective of development is to make the “developing” world more like the “developed” one through industrialization, and that this goal should be reflected in the direction of orga-nizational change and the way people are managed. “Most organizations have been primarily shaped by the narrow range of perspectives and experiences of western european, white, heterosexual, physically able-bodied males” (weber, 1993, p. 93). this is reflected in a trend wherein western approaches to management are imported into african countries either through multinational companies; western-governed institutions like the wto, IMf, and world Bank; or african managers who are increasingly being educated with western-style leadership and management curricula (in africa and abroad). this view is quite different from that of african culture, and the contrast between the two views of training and development are illustrated in table 3.

an opportunity exists within the post-instrumen-tal management system for a crossvergence hybrid model to emerge. africans can extract useful western knowledge while discarding dysfunctional practices, and combine the result with context-appropriate native insights and knowledge, thereby creating a unique hybrid. this also affords the west, and its institutions, the opportunity to enrich its own per-spectives and reconstitute its organizations along the hybrid model, providing they are prepared “… to be shaped by more diverse cultures and perspectives, [then] there is every reason to expect that organiza-tions will change” (weber, 1993, p. 93).

valuing diversity in african workplaces seems to be compatible with stressing common goals and standards, provided the attention to diversity is not allowed to undermine the emphasis on community and what the community stands for. since african

4 Reflections ■ Volume 7, Number 4 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

on getting teamwork/communal behavior even though individuals are individually competent. africans need to be empowered with individual skills and competencies, in order to work for the benefit of all. however, the paradoxical nature of africa’s dilemma is that although there is a humanistic, com-munal focus, no wide-scale agreement exists as to what the common good or venture should be. so separate groups muddle along, each working toward its own goals and values, without either harming or contributing to the success of neighbor communities. this runs counter to the western market philoso-phies of survival of the fittest, mean and lean organi-zational paradigms, or pulling together for the common good of the organization. It is expected, almost taken for granted, that african organizations will not pull together because of ethnic or family-based rifts. hence what may appear to a western observer of african organizations to be “irrational” merely reflects a set of values that differ from those of the west. The African renaissance System taking a divergent stance and rejecting western ideals more or less completely, some african authors have called for a return to african values and indig-enous knowledge systems (stremlau, 1999; ajulu, 2001; Mbeki et al., 2004). this movement for an african renaissance follows the precepts of Ubuntu. literally translated, Ubuntu means “I am who I am through others.” Mbigi (1997) has more specifically set about defining and elaborating the management philosophy of Ubuntu, which is based on the sense of community.

Key values can be summarized as follows:

? Sharing: a need for security in the face of hard-ship has prompted a commitment to helping

one another. this value is not based on simple

exchange, but is a result of a network of social

obligations, based predominantly on kinship.

? Deference to rank: although traditional rulers

gained their titles by senior lineage, they had to

4 Reflections ■ Volume 7, Number 4 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

that have flatter hierarchies, consensus-seeking

decision making, an internal climate of partici-

pation and openness, and protection of rights.

Management practice also reflects a participa-

tive, egalitarian, and open approach.

? good social and personal relations:commitment to social solidarity. the tensions of manage-

ment/labor relations that have been a feature in

african organizations can be attributed largely

to a lack of human dimension and the adver-

sarial attitudes of colonial employment relations.

a comparison of the management attributes asso-ciated with each of the three african management systems and the east asian system are presented in table 4.

whereas the post-colonial system seeks to impose western ideals on african culture, the african renais-sance model seeks to reject such ideas and return to a cultural context untouched by industrialization and the expansion of capitalism. this may be appeal-ing to many in africa, but it is an unrealistic ambi-tion, as the colonial history and influence cannot be erased.

Where Do We go from here?

for a management system to operate successfully in the african context, it must take account of the cul-tural roots and history within which the organiza-tion is seeking to operate. we have outlined three approaches that can be taken: a post-colonial approach that seeks to impose western ideas on africa; the post-instrumental approach, which seeks to “improve” africa with western developments; and the african renaissance approach, which seeks to reject western ideas. such normative aims will never succeed if the community that is being “improved” does not welcome the intervention as improvement. equally, the african renaissance approach that seeks to remove the western influence and return to afri-can cultural roots will not succeed, because history cannot be erased, and the influence of the multina-tionals and globalization are not going to recede. this leaves us seeking a middle ground that consid-ers both the different and the overlapping systems stemming from the influence of diverse post-colonial systems and their different operating versions (por-tuguese, Belgian, french, Dutch, english, German, arabic, etc.) on the one hand, and the interaction with post-instrumental systems represented by vari-ous multinationals present on the african continent (north american, european, and asian companies) on the other hand – while first focusing on the african values and thought system in order to under-stand their impact on the working behavior of african leaders and managers. such a hybrid, cross-vergence management system not only could be the way forward for management in africa, but also may be the way forward for the developed world as it struggles to embrace the complexities of diversity that are arising from globalization. perhaps it is time for the canon of knowledge in management and leadership to shift to africa.

references

Adler, N.J. (2002) International Dimensions of Organisational Behavior, 4th Edition, Thomson Learning: South-Western.

Ahiauzu, A.I. (1 ) “The African Thought-System and the Work Behaviour of the African Industrial Man,”

International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 1 , No. 2, pp. 37-5 .

Ajulu, R. (2001) “Thabo Mbeki’s African Renaissance in a Globalising World Economy : The Struggle for the Soul of the Continent,” Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 2 , No. 7, pp. 27-42.

Blunt, P., & Jones, M.L. (1 7) “Exploring the Limits of Western Leadership Theory in East Asia and Africa,”

Personnel Review, Vol. 2 , Nos. 1-2, pp. -23.

Blunt, P., & Jones, M.L. (1 2) Managing Organisations in Africa, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Budhwar, P.S., & Debrah, Y.A. (2001) “Introduction,” in P.S. Budhwar & Y.A. Debrah (Eds.), Human Resource Management in Developing Countries, London: Routledge.

Christopher, J.C. (1 ) “Counseling’s Inescapable Moral Visions,” Journal of Counseling & Development, Vol. 75, pp. 17-25.

De Cieri, H., & Dowling, P.J. (1 ) “Strategic Human Resource Management in Multinational Enterprises,”

adapted from Schuler, R.S., Dowling, P.J., & De Cieri, H. (1 3) “An Integrative Framework of Strategic

International Human Resource Management,” Journal of Management, Vol. 1 , pp. 41 -45 .

Evans, G.W., Shapiro, D.H., & Lewis, M.A. (1 3) “Specifying Dysfunctional Mismatches between Different Control Dimensions,” British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 4,pp. 255-273.

Gorelick, C., Milton, N., & April, K. (2004) Performance Through Learning: Knowledge Management in Practice, Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.

Gurin, P., Gurin, G., & Morrison, B.M. (1 7 ) “Personal and Ideological Aspects of Internal and Externa l Control,”

Social Psychology, Vol. 41, pp. 275-2 .

Hannerz, U. (1 ) Soulside: Inquiries into Ghetto Culture and Community, Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell.

Hofstede, G. (1 1) Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind, London: McGraw-Hill.

Hofstede, G. (1 0) Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Hogg, M.A. (2001) “A Social Identity Theory of Leadership,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, Vol. 5, No.

3, pp. 1 4-200.

Horwitz, F., Kamoche, K., & Chew, I.K.H. (2002) Looking East: Diffusing High Performance Work Practices in the Southern Afro-Asian Context (Paper presented at the 3rd African Regional Congress of the International

Industrial Relations Association, Cape Town, South Africa, – March 2002, pp. 1-1 ).

Jackson, T. (2002) International HRM: A Cross-Cultural Approach, London: Sage.

Jackson, T. (2004) Management and Change in Africa: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, London: Routledge.

Jones, M.L. (1 ) “Management Development: An African Focus,” International Studies of Management and Organisation, Vol. 1 , No. 1, pp. 74- 0.

Kamoche, K. (2000) “From Boom to Bust: The Challenge of Managing People in Thailand,” International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 11, pp. 452-4 .

Kiggundu, M.N. (1 ) Managing Organisations in Developing Countries, West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press.

LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H.L.K., & Gerton, J. (1 3) “Psychological Impact of Biculturalism: Evidence and Theory,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 114, No. 3, pp. 3 5-412.

Lefcourt, H.M. (1 2) Locus of Control: Current Trends in Theory and Research, 2nd Edition, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mbeki, T., Diallo, G., Nehusi, K., Muchie, M., Friedman, S., & Lewis, R. (2004) African Renaissance 2nd Issue: Who is an African,” London: Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd.

Mbigi, L. (1 7) Ubuntu: The African Dream in Management, Randburg, S. Africa: Knowledge Resources.

McGregor, D. (1 0) The Human Side of Enterprise, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Nzelibe, C.O. (1 ) “The Evolution of African Management Thought,” International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 1 , No. 2, pp. -1 .

Onyemelukwe, C.C. (1 73) Men and Management in Contemporary Africa, London: Longman.

Quay, J. (1 1) “Center for the Common Good: A Concept Paper,” Vesper International Forum, San Leandro, CA: Vesper Society Group.

Ralston, D.A., Gustafson, D.J., Cheung, F.M., & Terpstra, R.H. (1 3) “Differences in Managerial Values: A Study of US, Hong Kong and PRC Managers,” Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 24 -275.

50 Reflections ■ Volume 7, Number 4 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

Ralston, D.A., Holt, D.H., Terpstra, R.H., & Kai-Cheng, Y. (1 7) “The Impact of National Culture and Economic Ideology on Managerial Work Values: A Study of the US,

Russia, Japan, and China,” Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 2 , No. 1, pp. 177-207.

Rotter, J.B. (1 ) “Generalized Expectancies for Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement,” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, Vol. 0, No. 1, pp. 0 .

Rotter, J.B., Seeman, M., & Liverant, S. (1 2) “Internal versus External Control of Reinforcements: A Major Variable in Behaviour Theory,” in N.E. Washburne (Ed.), Decisions, Values and Groups: Proceedings of a Conference held at the University of New Mexico, New York: Pergamon, pp. 473-51 .

Shapiro, D.H., Schwartz, C.E., & Astin, J.A. (1 ) “Controlling Ourselves, Controlling Our World: Psychology’s Role in Understanding Positive and Negative Consequences of

Seeking and Gaining Control,” American Psychologist, Vol. 51, pp. 1213-1230.

Stremlau, J. (1 ) “African Renaissance and International Relations,” South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol. , No. 2, pp. 4.

Valentine, C.A. (1 71) “Deficit, Difference, and Bicultural Models of Afro-American Behavior,” Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 137-157.

Ward, S., Pearson, C., Entrekin, L., & Winzar, H. (1 ) “The Fit between Cultural Values and Countries: Is there Evidence of Globalization, Nationalism, or Crossvergence?” International Journal of Management, Vol. 1 , No.

4, pp. 4 -473.

Weber, L.J. (1 3) “Ethics and the Praise of Diversity,” Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 7- . Wong, P.T.P., & Sproule, C.E. (1 4) “An Attributional Analysis of the Locus of Control Construct and the Trent Attribution Profile,” in H.M. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the Locus of Control Construct, Volume 3, New York: Academic Press, pp. 30 -3 0.

A B O u T T h E A u T h O r S

Dr. nadine Theimann gained extensive international experience as an economist and program

manager for the United Nations Development Program. She has lived in many different countries,

and completed case studies of intercultural change management in foreign-owned companies in

Senegal and the Ivory Coast. She is multicultural and multilingual with fluency in French, English,

Norwegian and Arabic, as well as a working knowledge of Portuguese.

ntheimann@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

Dr. Kurt April is the author of seven books, 70 academic articles and lectures on Leadership,

Diversity and Inclusion at the Graduate School of Business (University of Cape Town, SA). He is an

Associate Fellow of Sa?d Business School (University of Oxford, UK), Research Fellow of Ashridge

(UK) and Visiting Professor of RSM Erasmus University (Netherlands).

kapril@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

Dr. Eddie Blass is a senior researcher at the Ashridge Business School (Hertfordshire, UK), having

been a Senior Lecturer in Human Resource Management at the University of Derby, and a Research

Fellow at Cranfield University. She has been widely published in the academic press, and her

research focuses around two areas: education methods and processes, and the future of work.

eddie.blass@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

Connections Membership Order Form

Sign up online https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,/reflections/register/or fax this form to SoL at +1-617-354-2093

Connections Membership

Become a new Connections Member USD $125 US

USD $135 International & Canada Renew a Connections Membership or upgrade an expiring

Reflections Subscription USD $100 US USD $110 International & Canada

Connections Membership Benefits

.A subscription to Reflections.Full benefits listed at right..Discounts on SoL events and courses.

.The SoL FLASH quarterly,covering community events and news.

.Access to SoL’s online member directory,and the ability to create and update your own profile and easily connect with others who share your interests.

.

Access to select documents in SoL’s extensive online library.Reflections Subscription For individual subscribers only.

Institutions please contact us at publications@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,

Become a new Reflections Subscriber USD $75 US and receive the benefits listed below USD $85 International & Canada

Renew an existing Reflections Subscription USD $75 US

USD $85 International & Canada

Reflections Subscription Benefits

.Electronic Reflections issues including new feature articles,interviews,book excerpts,and “classic”articles written by leaders in the field..One hard copy of the Reflections Annual Compilation at the end of the next volume year.

.Online access to all current and past issues of Reflections.

.The opportunity to comment on feature articles on the Reflections website.

.

Access to contributed articles posted on the Reflections website.

Order the Reflections Volume 5 Compilation USD $35 US;USD $45 International & Canada

Order the Reflections Volume 6 Compilation USD $35 US;USD $45 International & Canada

Mailing Address

Name:______________________________________________Title:__________________________________________________Company:__________________________________________________________________________________________________Mailing Address:______________________________________________________________________________________________City:________________________________________________State/Province:__________________________________________Postal Code:________________________________________Country:________________________________________________Telephone:__________________________________________Fax:____________________________________________________Email (Required):____________________________________________________________________________________________Billing Address

same as mailing address

Name:______________________________________________Title:__________________________________________________Company:__________________________________________________________________________________________________Billing Address:______________________________________________________________________________________________City:________________________________________________State/Province:__________________________________________Postal Code:________________________________________Country:________________________________________________

Payment Options

Connections Membership with free Reflections subscription:USD $125 US;USD $135 International & Canada

Connections Membership Renewal or Reflections Renewal Upgrade discount:USD $100 US;USD $110 International & Canada Reflections Subscription or Renewal:USD $75 US;USD $85 International & Canada

Reflections Volume 5 Compilation ______copies at USD $35 US;USD $45 International & Canada

Reflections Volume 6 Compilation ______copies at USD $35 US;USD $45 International & Canada

Total:USD $________

Visa

MasterCard

American Express

Check (Please make all checks payable in U.S.dollars to Society for Organizational Learning.)

Credit Card Number:________________________________________________________________________________________________________Expiration Date:____________________________________________________________________________________________________________Name on Card:____________________________________________________________________________________________________________Signature:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Sign up online https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,/reflections/register/

or fax this form to SoL at +1-617-354-2093

SoL,The Society for Organizational Learning .25 First Street,Suite 414 .

Cambridge,MA 02141 USA

Telephone:+1-617-300-9500 .

Fax:+1-617-354-2093 .

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9610847012.html,