语言学导论复习资料

Chapter 1 Introduction

I. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.

1. If a study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be C

A. prescriptive

B. analytic

C. descriptive

D. linguistic

2. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? D

A. Arbitrariness

B. Displacement

C. Duality

D. Meaningfulness

3. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ___C_________.

A. primary

B. correct

C. secondary

D. stable

4. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because

______D_____.

A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing

B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information

conveyed.

C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother

tongue.

D. All of the above

5. A historical study of language is a __B__ study of language.

A. synchronic

B. diachronic

C. prescriptive

D. comparative

6. Saussure took a(n) ___A____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language

from a ________ point of view.

A. sociological, psychological

B. Psychological, sociological

C. applied, pragmatic

D. semantic, linguistic

7. According to F. de Saussure, _C___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared

by all the members of a speech community.

A. parole

B. performance

C. Langue

D. language

8. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between

__B____ and meanings.

A. sense

B. Sounds

C. objects

D. ideas

9. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations

of the speaker. This feature is called___A___.

A. displacement

B. duality

C. flexibility

D. cultural transmission

10. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next

through __D__ , rather than by instinct.

A. learning

B. teaching

C. books

D. both A and B

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1.

1.Duality is one of the design features of human language which refers to the

phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/a74357144.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human

communication.

3.The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into

permissible sentences in languages is called __syntax .

4.Human capacity for language has a genetic_basis, but the details of language

have to be taught and learned.

5.Parole_ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some

practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as applied _ linguistics.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/a74357144.html,nguage is productive_ in that it makes possible the construction and

interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.

III. Define the following terms.

1. Syntax:The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form

sentences is called syntax.

2. Applied linguistics:In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the

application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and

learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a

broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution

of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.

3. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there

is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.

4. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to

things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past,

present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be

used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the

speaker.

5. Duality:The duality nature of language means that language is a system,

which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the

other of meanings.

6. Design features:Design features refer to the defining properties of human

language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

IV. Answer the following questions.

1.A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man?s? If not, Why not?

答案1. No. Hint: Wolf?s way of expressing emotions does not present the defining features of human language. Examine them one by one.

2.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?

答案2. While speech is the vocal/spoken form of language, writing is the written form of language. They belong to different systems though they may

overlap.

That speech is primary over writing is a general principle of linguistic analysis. First, speech existed long before writing systems came into being.

Second, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.

Third, genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.

However, emphasizing the primacy of speech is by no means to deny the importance of writing, which gives language new scope and uses that

speech does not have. First, with writing, messages can be carried through

space and time. Second, oral message are subject to distortion, either

intentional or otherwise, causing misunderstanding, while written messages

remain exactly the same whether read a thousand years later or ten thousand

miles away.

Everything considered, speech is believed to more representative of human language than writing. Most modern linguistic analysis is thus

focused on speech, different from traditional grammar of the 19th century

and therebefore.

3.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?

答案3. First, linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.

Linguistics describes languages as they are and does not lay down rules of

correctness; traditional grammar emphasizes such matters as correctness

and aims to prescribe what is right.

Second, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.

Third, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages (Latin patterns and

categories, especially its case system and tense divisions of past, present

and future), while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.

Linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for the others. They are trying to set up a universal

framework, but that will be based on the features shared by most of the

languages used by mankind.

(Traditional grammar is usually based on earlier grammars of Latin and applied them, often inappropriately, to some other language. For

example, some grammarians stated that English had six cases because Latin

had six cases. )

4.Saussure?s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky?s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?

答案4. According to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the

realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and

rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete

use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it

is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to

the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does

not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from

situation to situation.

According to Chomsky, competence i s the ideal user?s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language

user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and

recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. However,

performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic

communication. Although the speaker?s knowledge of his mother tongue is

perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and

psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes

that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not

the performance, which is too haphazard.

Although Saussure?s distinction and Chomsky?s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and

his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at

language from a psychological point of views and to him, competence is a

property of the mind of each individual.

Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language

1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they

distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. F

2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. F

3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.F

4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. T

5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of

the amount of information conveyed. T

6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.T

7.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part

of the tongue that is raised the highest. F

8.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the

consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. F

9.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue

in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. T

10.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,

semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. F

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

1.Of all the speech organs, the t _1. tongue _ is the most flexible, and is responsible

for varieties of articulation than any other.

2.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms

of p__2. place_ of articulation.

3.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech

sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s_ 3. stop.

4.S__4. Suprasegmental_ features are the phonemic features that occur above the

level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.

5.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called

s_5. sequential_ rules.

6.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_6. narrow _ transcription.

7.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i__ 7. intonation _.

8.P_8. Phonology_ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.

9.T__9. Tone_ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.

10.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_10. sentence_ stress.

III. Define the terms below:

1 Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

2.Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

3.International phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.

4.Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.

5.Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.

6.Acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

7.Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

IV.1What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?

答案. They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds

in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

1.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.

答案1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: 'blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.

2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. are

pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stre ssed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.

3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When

spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.

2.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?

答案 A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.

Chapter 3 Morphology

Exercise and Discussion Questions

1. D

2. D

3. B

4. B

5. C

6. D

7. A

8. C

I. In each question there are four choices. Decide which one will be the best

answer to the question, or will best complete the sentence.

1.The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.

A. bound morpheme

B. bound form

C. inflectional morpheme

D. free morpheme

2. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.

A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components

B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes

C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase

D. None of the above

3. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.

A. the first element

B. the second element

C. either the first or the second element

D. both the first and the second elements

4. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with

other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

A. Free morphemes

B. Bound morphemes

C. Bound words

D. Words

5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.

A. lexical

B. morphemic

C. grammatical

D. semantic

6. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.

A. have to be used independently

B. cannot be combined with other morphemes

C. can either be free or bound

D. have to be combined with other morphemes

7. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.

A. Prefixes

B. Suffixes

C. Roots

D. Affixes

8. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.

A. a derivative affix

B. a stem

C. an inflectional affix

D. a root

1.T

2.T

3. F

4.T

5. F

6.T

7.T

8.T

9. F 10.F

II. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.

1.Although the vast majority of prefixes do not change the original word class, there

are prefixes that are class-changing: a-, be-, em-, en-.

2.Inflectional ending can be added to derivational ones, but not vice-versa.

3.The syllabic structure of a word and its morphemic structure must correspond.

4.Derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or

unchanged.

5.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.

6.The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free

morphemes.

7.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical

categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.

8.The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem,

which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

9.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning

of it.

10.There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form

a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are

acceptable words.

III. Define the following terms.

1.Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal

structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

2.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

3.Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units

of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.

4.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used

indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or

bound, to form a word.

5.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it

bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

6.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes

manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while

derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.

7.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the begin-ning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of

the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. 8.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the

original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

9.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes

are added to an existing form to create a word.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/a74357144.html,pounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or

sometimes more than two words to create new words.

V. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the main features of the English compounds?

Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress

of a compound usually falls on the first element.

2.Distinguish between phonologically and morphologically conditioned allomorphs.

Give examples.

Morphophonemics is an intermediary level of analysis between phonology and morphology in which the phonological regularities in the framework of morphology, especially the systematic phonological variants of morphemes and the conditions of their occurrence are described. 1) Phonological conditioning of allomorphs. The distribution of the allomorphs of a morpheme is stated in terms of their phonetic environment, e.g. the phonetic variations of the past tense morphemes, -ed, as /d/ in stayed, /t/ in heaped, and /id/ in needed. 2) Morphological conditioning of allomorphs. The morphologically conditioned allomorphs of a morpheme are regarded as irregular in contrast to the phonologically conditioned allomorphs which are regarded as regular. For instance, it is the particular morphemes rather than the sounds of the words that determine the plural forms of nouns. E.g. child: children, foot: feet.

3. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.

Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.

Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” i n the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.

4. What have you learned about the topic of morphology, can you put them into practice in you English learning?

(This is an open question. No answer is provided there.

Chapter 4 Syntax

l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T

8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T

1.Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the

combination of morphemes into words.

2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.

3.Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one

adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.

4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the

system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.

5.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of

sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

6.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.

7.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to

the same syntactic category.

8.Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are

allowed for.

9.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,

namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.

10.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.

11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and

phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.

12.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.

13.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences

at the level of D-structure.

14.WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to

interrogative.

15.simple 16.sentence 17.subject 18.predicate https://www.sodocs.net/doc/a74357144.html,plex 20.embedded 21.open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.

15.A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and

stands alone as its own sentence.

16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to

form a complete statement, question or command.

17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.

18.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says

something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.

19.A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the

other.

20.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an

e_______ clause.

21.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.

22.A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should

stay adjacent to each other.

23.P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or

another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.

24.The theory of C_____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and

object positions.

25.D26.D27.A28.29.A

30.A31.D32.C33.D34.B

25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.

A. right

B. wrong

C. grammatical

D. ungrammatical

26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.

A. coordinator

B. particle

C. preposition

D. subordinator

27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.

A. recursive

B. grammatical

C. social

D. functional

28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.

A. how words and phrases form sentences

B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words

C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences

D. All of the above.

29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.

A. transformational rules

B. generative rules

C. phrase structure rules

D. x-bar theory

30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.

A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions

B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase

C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions

D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary

31. The sentence structure is ________.

A. only linear

B. Only hierarchical

C. complex

D. both linear and hierarchical

32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.

A. large

B. small

C. finite

D. infinite

33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.

A. lexical

B. morphological

C. linguistic

D. combinational

34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.

A. Generative

B. Transformational

C. X-bar

D. Phrase structure

IV. Define the following terms.

35.Syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It

consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form

grammatical sentences.

36.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of

words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

37.Coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word

called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".

38.Syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to

a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a

particular grammatical function.

39.Grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are

called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.

40.Linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic

rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.

41.Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type

into another type.

42.D-structure: D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement

takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.

V. Answer the following questions.

43. What are the basic components of a sentence?

Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.

Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate (compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:

John reads extensively.

A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:

John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.

A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:

Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.

45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?

No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:

S

NP VP

Det N Vt NP

Det N

The boy likes the music.

46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?

The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.

47. What is NP movement? Illustrate it with examples.

NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:

(A) The man beat the child.

(B) The child was beaten by the man.

B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.

Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:

(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.

(D) They seem quite fit for the job.

These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.

Chapter 5 Semantics

1. Define the following terms briefly.

semantics naming theory truth-conditional semantics

behaviourist theory use theory sense

reference conceptual meaning connotative meaning

lexical field lexical gap componential analysis

semantic feature synonymy antonymy

hyponymy meronymy semantic role

entailment presupposition

2. Explain the semantic ambiguity of the following sentences by providing two or

more sentences that paraphrase the multiple meanings. Example: She can’t bear children can mean either She can’t give birth to children or She can’t tolerate children.

(1) He waited by the bank.

(2) Is he really that kind?

(3) We bought her dog biscuits.

(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.

(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.

(6) He saw her drawing pencils.

3. Two relations involving word meaning are antonymy and synonymy. Which

relation is illustrated in each of the pairs of words below?

(1) flourish—thrive (2) intelligent—stupid (3) casual—informal

(4) young—old (5) uncle—aunt (6) intelligent—able

(7) flog—whip (8) drunk—sober

4. What connotations or connotative meanings do you think the following nouns

have in English?

Charity iron mole snow street

5. Some of the sets of terms below form lexical fields. For each set:

a. Identify the words that do not belong to the same lexical field as the others in

the set.

b. Identify the superordinate term of the remaining lexical field, if there is one (it

may be a word in the set).

c. Determine whether some terms are less marked than others, and justify your

claim.

(1) acquire, buy, collect, hoard, win, inherit, steal

(2) whisper, talk, narrate, report, tell, harangue, scribble, instruct, brief

(3) road, path, barn, way, street, freeway, avenue, thoroughfare, interstate,

method

(4) stench, smell, reek, aroma, bouquet, odoriferous, perfume, fragrance,

scent, olfactory

6. Say which of the following may be considered to have or to be homographs,

homophones, homonyms or polysemy:

sea break line ear prayer mature trace house

7. What are the differences between less marked and more marked terms in the

same lexical field?

8. For each group of words given below, state what semantic feature or features

distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words. If asked, also indicate a semantic feature shared by both the (a) words and the (b) words.

Example: (a) widow, mother, sister, aunt, maid

(b) widower, father, brother, uncle, valet

The (a) and (b) words are “human”.

The (a) words are “female” and the (b) words are “male”.

(1) (a) bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chief

(b) bull, rooster, drake, ram

The (a) and (b) words are____________________

The (a) words are __________________________

The (b) words are __________________________

语言学概论复习大纲讲课讲稿

语言学概论复习大纲

导言 一、解释以下概念并指出其区别 语言学语文学小学 二、语言学理论在指导语言实践上有哪些作用？ 第一章第一节 一、名词解释 语言的主观性 二、举例说明 1、语言的两大社会功能 2、信息传递中接受存在的方式 三、论述：语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的、最重要的手段第一章第二节 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、举例说明：语言的民族性 三、简答 1、语言和思维的关系 2、语言思维功能的生理基础 3、聋哑人的语言问题与思维特点 四、论述 1、儿童语言习得与思维的发展过程基本一致

2、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性 第二章第一节 一、名词解释 1、征候 2、心理现实 二、辨析概念的区别与联系（定义区别相同点分点答题） 1、语言和言语 2、征候与符号 3、语言与符号 三、简答 1、语言符号与心理现实之间的关系（分点答题不举例） 2、怎么理解“人的心理现实是不断增量的” 第二章第二节 一、名词解释 1、语言符号的线条性 2、语言符号的组合关系 3、语言符号的聚合关系 二、举例说明：语言符号的任意性 三、论述 1、语言符号系统是一种分层装置 2、语言层级装置靠语言单位的组合和替换来运转

第二章第三章 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、简答 1、人的语言能力是先天具备的，但后天的语言环境决定着人的语言能力的现实和维持 2、语言是其他动物与人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟 三、论述 人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别 第三章第一节 一、名词解释 1、音标 2、国际音标 二、辨析区别和联系 语音学和音乐学 三、简答 1、语音与自然界声音的异同 2、语音学研究的诸方面 第三章第二节 一、名词解释 1、纯音

汉语言文学语言学概论复习要点

《语言学概论》复习要点 重点名词概念：语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同，语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。 四、语言学流派 各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，不作考试要求。 第一章言语的社会功能 本章须明确两个大的要点：语言的社会功能，即交际工具和思维工具；语言是一种社会现象。 主要名词概念：语言、社会、社会现象 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 一、语言是人类社会的交际工具 1．语言的交际功能：语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具，也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。 2．语言是一种社会现象：语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系，没有人类社会，就没有语言，人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。不同的民族有不同的语言，不同的地域有不同的语言，同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响，而离开了人类社会，就无所谓语言可言了。总之，语言就是一种社会现象，同社会的关系非常密切，其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。 语言不是自然现象，一方面，语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系，社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化，也就是说，语言的发展变化是受制于社会的；另一方面，从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象，而是社会约定俗成的，没有必然的本质的联系，如果语言是自然现象，世界上的语言应该一样的，没有区别的，而实际上世界上的语言多种多样，而且许多语言中还有方言，这说明语言决不是自然现象。 3．语言是一种特殊的社会现象：语言不但是社会现象，而且是一种特殊的社会现象。语言作为社会现象的特殊性主要表现在，社会现象可分为经济基础和上层建筑两大类，任何一种社会现象，要么属于经济基础，要么属于上层建筑，而语言既不属于经济基础，也不属于上层建筑，这两者的变化都不会从本质上影响语言。所以，从本质上看，语言是人类共同的交际工具，不分阶级、阶层，一视同仁地为全社会的成员服务，没有阶级性，具有全民性特点。4．语言没有阶级性：可从这样几个方面思考，首先是看语言工具的服务对象，是为特定的阶级服务还是为大众服务。其次是结合语言自身的结构考察，观察语言在哪一方面体现了阶级性特征没有。再次是看语言产生的社会环境，语言产生于没有阶级的社会，社会上连阶级都没有，语言作为社会的产物更谈不上有阶级性了。 二、语言是人类最重要的交际工具 人类传递信息，进行交际和交流思想，除了使用语言外，还可以使用文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号以及身势、表情等，在一定场合使用，可以弥补语言的一些不足，但是这些交际工具使用范围有限，有的仅用于特定的范围，最重要的是，这些交际工具，都离不开语言，都是在语言的基础上产生的，是辅助语言进行交际的，没有语言，这些手段的存在没有任何意义。 一般掌握：语言和说话的关系 第二节语言是思维的工具 一、语言和思维的关系 语言不但是人类的交际工具，同时也是人类思维的工具，是认识成果的贮存所。思维过程离不开语言，需要借助语言来进行比较、分析、综合等一系列活动，需要借助语言来形成思想，利用语言把它储存在头脑中，再借助语言把思想表达出来，传达给听话人，同时使听话人产生思想。而且人类思维的成果－概念，还可以通过词语固定下来。总之，思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行，思维离不开语言，必须借助语言材料才能进行。语言也离不开思维，二者是互相依存，共同发展的。 二、思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同 思维能力没有民族性，全人类都有，但不同民族的思维方式是不同的，有差别的，这从不同民族的语言的差异方面可以看出来。不同的语言之间很少有意义、功能、色彩等都完全对应等同的词语。第二章语言是符号系统 本章要注意语言是符号、语言符号的任意性特点、语言的层级体系三大要点。 主要名词概念：符号、语言符号、任意性、线条性、二层性、组合关系、聚合关系 第一节语言符号的性质和特点 一、什么是符号 1．符号的含义：符号就是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，包括形式和意义两个方面，其作用是指称现实现象。2．符号的构成：符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。形式就是符号外在的形状、结构，它是以某种物质的方式存在的，或者是声音，或者是线条，或者是色彩，等等。意义就是符号所代表的具体内容，任何一个符号，都有一定的意义，形式和意义在一定的符号系统中是密不可分的统一体，不能割裂二者之间的关系。形式和意义互相依存，谁也离不开谁。 二、语言符号及其特点 1．语言符号：从本质上看，语言也是一种符号，也有形式和意义两个方面，具有符号的一切特点。 语言符号又不同于一般符号。可从以下几个方面认识理解，首先，语言符号是声音和意义的结合体，是说的和听的；其次，一般符号的构成比较简单，而语言符号却是非常复杂的，可分不同的层级；再次，一般符号由于构造简单，因而只能表达有限的内容，而且这种内容是简单而固定的，语言符号则可以表达丰富多彩的意义；最后，语言符号具有以少驭多的生成机制，具有生成新的结构

27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on

语言学概论复习资料资料

语言学概论复习资料 1、人类的语言与动物的“语言”有何本质区别？ 动物之间也有相互用来交际的信号，但这跟人类的语言有本质的区别，人类语言具有如下特点： 1、功能开放：米、分米、厘米、微米、纳米 2、构造灵巧：音位，音节语素，词，句子 3、需要学习 2、人类语言构造灵巧的三个条件: 任意性：保证任何事物都能用语言表达 离散性：保证了语言单位自由拆装 层次性：电+影电影彩+色彩色 电影+彩色彩色电影 3、荀子说：“名无固宜，约之以命。约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。”你如何 理解？ 语言符号系统具有任意性，音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种人为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多动选择的可能性。因此说“名无固宜，约之以命”但命名一旦成立就具有强制性。因此说，“约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。” 4、什么是语言符号的任意性原则？你如何理解？请联系语言事实加以论述。 语言符号的任意性是指音义之间不具有内在的，本质的，必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高原则。1、形式内容的联系是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。如“马”“车”对这两个语素本身的例句，现代词源学还没有找到一致的认识，因此他们是任意约定的。2、一旦形成后对个人具有强制性。3、非本质的联系不意味

着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。人、鸡、鸭。布谷鸟。联系是成立的，但不是本质的。 5、关于幼儿是如何习得语言的有哪几种假说？试加评述。 1、模仿说：认为幼儿是通过摹仿听到的语句而学会说话的。通过成人的重复，更 正、赞许等反馈，正确的说法得到强化，由此而形成幼儿的说话习惯。 2、天赋说：以乔姆斯基为代表，认为有一种可遗传的“语言习得机制”，儿童在后 天具体语言输入刺激下，经过语言习得机制习得一种具体的语言。区分语言能力和语言行为，儿童习得母语学的是抽象的规则，即语言能力，虽然他们接触到的是具体的语言行为。 3、认知说：儿童的语言习得机制是伴随着认知能力而发展起来，语言习得能力仅 是认知能力的一部分。斯洛宾、皮亚杰认为，不能脱离智力发展的全局来考查语言习得。如先有判断事物大小的能力，然后才会有“狗比猫大”直螺纹ideas 语言表达。儿童学话的早期似有此种情况，但两者都比较发达后，关系就比较复杂，语言也可影响认知能力。 各学说局部真理，互相补充。 6、语言作为一个符号系统有哪些特性？ 1、任意性：音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的 联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高准则。 1）形式内容的恋歌是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。 2）一旦形成后对个人具有强制性 3）非本质的联系不意味着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。 2、线条性 3、层次性：语言单位具有层层“套装”的性质。小的组成大的，大的组成更大的： 我们学习语法。 4、系统性：语言符号相互联系、相互制约形成一个整体的性质。其中聚合关系和 组合关系是两种最重要最基本的关系。 7、简述语言和言语的关系？

(完整word版)语言学概论期末复习重点

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