A survey of life cycle approaches in waste management

LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT?SURVEY

A survey of life cycle approaches in waste management Adriana Del Borghi&Michela Gallo&Marco Del Borghi

Received:4February2009/Accepted:27May2009/Published online:25June2009

#Springer-Verlag2009

Abstract

Background,aim,and scope Life-cycle thinking and life-cycle approaches are concepts that are getting increased attention worldwide and in particular in EU Policies related to sustainability.The European Commission is launching a number of activities to strengthen life-cycle thinking in policy and business.EU policies aim to decrease waste generation through new waste prevention initiatives,better use of resources and shift to more sustainable consumption patterns.The approach to waste management is based on three principles:waste prevention,recycling and reuse and improving the final disposal and monitoring.In particular, concerning the prevention and recycling of waste,the definition of a waste hierarchy should be the basis for the prioritisation of waste management options.The benefit of using Life Cycle Assessment(LCA)in analysing waste management systems is the provision of a comprehensive view of the processes and impacts involved.However,it is also clear that the studies will always be open for criticism as they are simplifications of reality.Moreover,in order to become the LCA,a leading tool within businesses and government to understand and manage risks or opportuni-ties related to waste management and treatment technolo-gies,there are methodological choices required and a number of aspects that still need to be worked out.It is therefore important to review open and grey literatures,EU guidelines,relevant environmental indicators and databases for the waste sector and data easily usable in waste policy decision-making,with an agreed approach and methodology based on life-cycle thinking.The following survey gathers and describes the existing guidelines and methodologies based on life-cycle thinking and applicable in waste policy decision-making.

Main features This survey is focused on three main issues: definition and categorisation of waste streams and technol-ogies;review and interpretation of existing waste-specific guidelines and tools;identification of specific key environ-mental performance indicators for the waste sector.Con-sidering that a wide part of municipal solid waste is biodegradable and that their degradation is the main cause of greenhouse gas emissions in the waste management sector,considerable attention has been paid to biodegrad-able municipal waste.

Results The survey shows that general technical guidance documents should take into account the following key issues:how to categorise waste streams,how to develop a waste hierarchy from a life-cycle point of view,how to include any possible new waste treatment technologies and to take into account local and waste-related factors. Moreover,the survey summarises the generic/default values that could be used for waste-related key parameters when insufficient information/data are available.The survey identifies some key environmental performance indicators in the waste sector.The analysis of existing waste-specific guidelines and tools leads to a list of available methodol-ogies and foreground/background environmental data sour-ces that satisfy specific data constraints(origin,time-related coverage,geographical coverage,technology coverage). Discussion The survey points out the need for strategic guidance documents for policy makers with quantitative examples to define the waste hierarchy.Depending on the characteristics of the specific cluster or area,such as climate,population density,etc.,these documents should

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DOI10.1007/s11367-009-0111-7

A.Del Borghi(*)

:M.Gallo:M.Del Borghi

Department of Chemical and Process Engineering‘G.B.Bonino’, University of Genoa,

Via all’Opera Pia15,

16145Genoa,Italy

e-mail:adry@unige.it

be integrated with quantitative considerations related to cost and social dimension,as complementary information to the environmental aspects of sustainability in waste manage-ment in order to address the preferable options to be considered for the definition of a local waste hierarchy. Conclusions The survey shows that a considerable number of decision models and methodologies for the integration of life-cycle thinking into waste management have been developed for several waste streams and waste-management and treat-ment technologies.This leads to the need of a critical analysis of the existing guidelines and tools.

Perspectives A survey of life-cycle approaches in waste management has been presented in this paper.The analysis of specific waste streams and the integration of different environmental tools supporting the choice between different waste-treatment options could be taken into consideration for further work.

Keywords Biodegradable waste.Key environmental performance indicators(KEPIs).Life-cycle approaches. Methodology.Tool.Waste.Waste hierarchy

1Background,aim and scope

Life-cycle thinking and life-cycle approaches are concepts that are getting increased attention worldwide and in particular in EU policies related to sustainability.The European Commission is launching a number of activities to strengthen life-cycle thinking in policy and business:in 2001,the Commission adopted a Green Paper on Integrated Product Policy(IPP)(European Commission2001),and in 2003published its landmark communication on IPP (European Commission2003a),with the objective of launching a debate on the role and possible measures that could be taken at European Union level in order to improve the environmental performance of products,services or product service systems throughout their life-cycles.In 2005,the European Commission further strengthened the role of life-cycle thinking in the Commission's Thematic Strategies programmed by the Sixth Environment Action Programme on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste(European Commission2005a,b,c).In2008,finally,the Commission operationally launched the Sustainable Consumption and Production(SCP)Strategy by way of the publication of an Action Plan(European Commission2008).As concerns EU waste-related policies,the European Commission emphasised the importance of waste minimisation,the protection of the environment and human health as priorities and advocated the waste hierarchy.Waste mini-misation could be achieved through new waste-prevention initiatives,better use of resources and a shift to more sustainable consumption patterns.The approach to waste management is based on three principles:waste prevention, recycling and reuse and improving final disposal and monitoring.In particular,concerning the prevention and recycling of waste,a life-cycle perspective is considered essential by the EU for the sustainable management of wastes:life-cycle thinking can help reduce local pressures and waste management costs while considering the broader effects and trade-offs felt elsewhere across society.The European Commission's Directorate-General of the Joint Research Centre(DG JRC)conducted a series of life-cycle pilot studies in the context of municipal waste management (Koneczny et al.2007).In this framework,the definition of a waste hierarchy should be the basis for the prioritisation of waste-management options.According to this hierarchy, that should be developed from a life-cycle point of view, recycling ranks higher than incineration with energy recovery,while landfilling ranks lowest.The waste hierar-chy prioritises the prevention and reduction of waste, followed by reuse and recycling ending in waste disposal. The recycling is the highest-ranking waste treatment form as it ensures better exploitation of resources in waste (European Commission1997).Although the waste hierar-chy is a sound principle regarding the handling of some waste streams,waste hierarchy as a principle should be validated by using life-cycle assessment(LCA)and cost–benefit or cost-effectiveness methods(Schmidt et al.2007).

The benefit of using LCA in analysing waste management systems is the provision of a comprehensive view of the processes and impacts involved.Environmental issues and opportunities can be addressed from a systems or holistic perspective.However,it is also clear that the studies will always be open for criticism as they are simplifications of the reality.Moreover,in order to adopt LCA in waste manage-ment,there are methodological choices required and a number of aspects that still need to be worked out(Finnveden et al. 2003).Issues such as upstream and downstream system boundaries,open-loop recycling allocation,multi-input allo-cation and time-frame should be considered when LCAs are applied to solid waste management systems(Clift et al. 2000;Finnveden1999).Therefore,in order to be able to add up LCA-based information and to compare different waste strategies,common and harmonised calculation rules have to be used to ensure that similar procedures are used for data collection and handling(Finnveden2000).An example of waste-specific LCA rules can be found in the Type III Environmental Declaration context(Del Borghi et al.2007). It is therefore important to define guidelines,indicators and data easily accessible in waste policy decision-making,with an agreed approach and methodology based on life-cycle thinking and to test them in case-specific pilot studies covering the most representative polluting waste scenarios and treatment options.

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As a large part of municipal solid waste(MSW)is biodegradable,considerable attention should be paid to specific guidelines and tools developed for biodegradable municipal waste(BMW).For the management of biode-gradable waste that is diverted from landfills,there is no single environmentally best option.The environmental balance of the various options available for the manage-ment of BMW depends on a number of local factors,inter alia collection systems,waste composition and quality, climatic conditions,the potential of use of various waste derived products such as electricity,heat,methane-rich gas or compost.Therefore,strategies for BMW management should be determined with a life-cycle approach.The European Commission committed to produce guidelines on applying life-cycle thinking for the management of biodegradable waste.These guidelines will be communi-cated to EU Member States in order to revisit their own national strategies.These guidelines will also assist local and regional authorities that are generally responsible for drawing up plans for management of municipal waste (European Commission2005a).

The following survey gathers and describes the existing guidelines and methodologies based on life-cycle approaches applicable in the waste policy decision-making.

2Main features

This survey is focused on three main issues:

–Definition and categorisation of waste streams and technologies

–Review and interpretation of existing waste-specific guidelines and tools

–Identification of specific key environmental perfor-mance indicators(KEPIs)

An analysis and interpretation of waste differentiation criteria and hierarchy,of existing waste-specific guidelines and tools and of existing environmental performance indicators and optimisation models is performed in the following paragraphs.

As concerns waste differentiation criteria,waste can be categorised in many different ways:one way is to divide waste streams according to the sector generating it.Waste can also be divided into types or fractions.The different waste types are characterised by specific substance features or qualities which favour separate treatment because of economic,resource and environmental aspects(Danish Environmental Protection Agency1999).For this differen-tiation,it is important to consider end-of-life characteristics such as recyclability.For example,in thermosetting resins, many hazardous volatile chemical compounds are used and may complicate the recycling process.Thermoplastic elastomers are not vulcanised,and thus,they can be easily recycled(IEC2007).The survey analyses the common approaches for the definition and the categorisation of waste streams and technologies.In particular,the different waste management and treatment options are analysed basing on the definition of a waste hierarchy developed from a life-cycle point of view that leads to the identification of the following five main categories:recovery/recycle,biological treatment,thermal treatment,disposal in landfill and custom treatment(European Commission DG JRC2008).

After a review of existing waste-specific guidelines and tools,environmental performance indicators for the waste sector,such as key environmental performance indicators, are identified.KEPIs can help to cut costs and the time required for studies by90%or more,compared to the initial full studies,while achieving the same reliability(Pennington et al.2007).KEPIs are a small number of product environmental performance indicators validated as repre-sentative of the most important environmental impacts of a life cycle.They provide a good and simple assessment tool for use in the waste sector.A full LCA study can be conducted after regular periods,and the KEPIs can be revised on the basis of the results obtained.KEPIs could possibly be used for simple assessment in the defining phase of waste strategies but may be more usefully applied in waste treatment technology decision-making.KEPIs are influenced by the decisions that are taken in the planning of the waste management system.Some KEPIs can be objectives for a decision maker(for example,minimisation of costs)or constraints to be respected(for example,the limits on low heating value).Moreover,they can be in contrast:achieving one target may mean to lose another objective.Thus,it is important to find a trade-off between the objectives and to calculate how much the KEPIs influence the decision alternatives(i.e.,location and size of treatment facilities,recycling sizing,technology kind, logistics of collection,etc.)to be taken.

3Results

3.1Waste categorisation and waste hierarchy

In the European Union,the modern environmental protec-tion policies and related legislation focus on preventing negative impacts on the environment that are the result of activities conducted by people.These nevertheless strive to do this also by banning the use of harmful substances, activities and procedures,the effects of which can cause permanent damage to the environment.The fundamental principle of environmental protection is thus prevention. For enforcing this principle,basic information must be provided on the basis of which certain measures can be

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adopted.Data on the amount of waste generated and waste management are also very important for proper policy-making.For the data to be relevant and correct,it is,of course,necessary to implement accurate data collection, processing and analysis,which are provided by statistical surveys in these fields.However,these surveys need to be harmonised with the legislation governing the field of waste in individual countries as well as in the European Union.

Some authors have attempted to show individual waste streams,statistical collection of these data,their processing and requirements(Zitnik2005).The European Union Waste Statistics Regulations(European Commission2002) requires all Member States to provide data to the European Commission every2years on the generation and treatment of waste and on the number and capacities of waste management facilities.The aim of the regulations is to establish a European-wide database on waste generation and treatment so that,for example,waste policies and legislation can be better monitored and evaluated.Eurostat, the Statistical Office of the European Communities, compiles the data to provide statistics at European level. Therefore,available data concerning waste generation (quality and quantity)and management(recovery/recycle; treatment;disposal)could be taken from statistical collec-tion data(i.e.Eurostat2000,2008;den Boer et al.2007).In particular,the last Eurostat publication based on the data collection via the joint Organisation for Economic Cooper-ation and Development(OECD)/Eurostat questionnaire, replaced in2006by reporting under the Waste Statistics Regulation,provides important baseline data for the implementation of National and European policies on waste management(European Commission2005b).

The European Commission has defined several specific waste streams for priority attention,with the aim of reducing their overall environmental impact.This includes packaging waste,end-of-life vehicles,batteries and electri-cal and electronic waste.EU directives now require Member States to introduce legislation on waste collection, reuse,recycling and disposal of these waste streams.A large discrepancy among EU countries and regions in the implementation of waste policy could be observed.For instance,in the northern EU countries,on average20%of waste was collected separately,while in the southern only 5%.Some EU members(e.g.Germany)achieved higher recovery and recycling rates for packaging wastes than target values,while other countries,such as Portugal, Greece,France and Spain,appeared not to be making as much progress(den Boer et al.2007).Therefore,for a correct waste categorisation,the identification of European representative areas/clusters of waste distribution,produc-tion and management and the identification of the main sectors generating wastes seem to be necessary.In order to define a specific set of rules for the application of life-cycle tools(such as LCA and Design for Environment)to waste management,waste could be further differentiated at least in the following types or fractions:BMW,greenwaste, wood,textiles,glass,paper and cardboard,plastics(ther-moplastic,thermosetting polymers),metals,batteries and waste electrical and electronic equipment.

Once wastes have been categorised,a waste hierarchy could be developed in order to describe,in a life-cycle point of view,a preferential order of different options to deal with solid waste:waste prevention,material recycling,energy recovery and final disposal.However,this hierarchy can be seen as a helpful and valuable general guidance rather than a concrete tool to identify the best waste management option.

Since1994,the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)has worked to apply life-cycle concepts and tools to the analysis of MSW management systems in the USA (Thorneloe et al.2007).Over the last few decades,the waste hierarchy has been the guiding principle also in the European waste management policy.Since its launch,the goal has been to reduce the total quantities of waste and to save energy and resources.In particular,the Danish environmental authorities have followed a strategy very similar to the one used in the European Union(Schmidt et al.2007),considering the waste hierarchy as a guiding principle which can clearly be seen in the goals formulated in official policies.In the Danish waste-strategy‘Waste21’action plan(Milj?-og Energiministeriet1999),objectives for increased recycling of paper,organic waste from households and a priority for using the Danish system of reusing bottles have been set.In the newly launched action plan“Waste Strategy2005–2008”(Milj?ministeriet2003), there is more emphasis on the use of waste indicators and cost–benefit analysis.

The German Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Manage-ment Act from1994(Ministry for the Environment,Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety1994)provides several examples on how the environmental objectives can be described whilst maintaining flexibility in how to best achieve them:this ensures that the environmentally prefer-able waste management solution can be followed.

The Waste Strategy for England2007highlights that “Recent studies have confirmed that the waste hierarchy remains a good general guide to the relative environmental benefits of different waste management options,but that there will be exceptions to this for particular materials and in particular circumstances.The use of the waste hierarchy should be informed by life-cycle thinking and the broader SCP agenda”(UK DEFRA2007).

3.2Life-cycle assessment models for waste management During the early1990s,scientists began developing general models to conduct life-cycle assessments for waste man-

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agement systems.A selection of six different models developed in Europe and America by research organisa-tions,industry associations and governmental institutions and their comparison have been performed by Winkler and Bilitewski(2007).Instead of starting from scratch for each case study,the models provide the most important waste management and treatment technologies,such as:

–Recovery/recycle technologies of the considered waste streams

–Biological treatment:composting,anaerobic digestion (differentiation will be done by technologies:aerobic, anaerobic,open/close,static/dynamic,aerated/not aerated) and biofuels synthesis.

–Thermal treatment:incineration/co-combustion,gasi-fication/pyrolysis.Current facilities and directive com-pliant plant with energy recovery will be differentiated (no differentiation will be done by air treatment technologies).

–Disposal in landfill:directive compliant,methane capture.Different-treatment technologies and leachate treatment methods could be included.

–Custom treatment defined by the users:combination of the default treatments

A description of the existing models(guidelines and tools)developed for above-mentioned technologies and for Waste Collection and Mechanical Biological Pre-Treatment, that could be part of each of them,is provided in Table1.

The purpose of developing these models was not only to speed up the analysis but to promote life-cycle approaches in waste management.The models enabled decision makers and waste managers to conduct life-cycle assessments for their specific waste management system without in-depth knowledge of the methodology and allowed them to learn how changes in the system affect the environmental impacts through scenario analysis.

Concerning waste-related guidelines,the PCR2008:02‘Solid Waste Disposal’(PCR2008:22008;Del Borghi et al.2007)could be a useful support for methodological choices(functional unit,system boundaries,data quality, impact categories)performing LCA studies in waste sector. In fact,Product-Specific Requirements(PCRs)are common and harmonised calculation rules established in the frame-work of The International EPD?System,an application of ISO14025:2006,to ensure that similar procedures are used when creating an Environmental Product Declaration.

As concerns specific guidelines and tools developed for biodegradable waste,the DG JRC performed several studies on the organic fraction of municipal solid waste. The JRC's invited expert meeting on life-cycle assessment of treatment options of biodegradable waste(Koneczny et al.2007)includes a review of the commonalities and differences of LCA studies in the context of policies and strategies at national or sub-national levels with the aim of providing potential recommendations to further develop commonly agreed European policies.Moreover,the DG JRC published the life-cycle guidelines for the management of the organic fraction of municipal waste(European Commission DG JRC2008).The connected excel tool is a decision model consisting of three levels of decision making: the proposed methodology can be a valid approach,while the treatment methods could be expanded to take into account additional methods.Life cycle inventory(LCI)data derive from reference technologies for the most common biode-gradable waste products,treatments and collection methods, taken from the Dutch Waste Management Plan2002-2012 (AOO2002).

The European communication SEC(2005)1681(European Commission2005c)outlines the strategic approach on the prevention and recycling of waste and indicates how to proceed with its implementation.The proposal for revision of the Waste Framework Directive and other pieces of legislation proposed together with the communication are the first measures implementing the strategy.It includes interesting consideration on environmental and economic impacts of options for recycling and recovering waste and a simplified model for the evaluation of current and potential climate change impact of waste policy.The study launched by the European Commission DG-ENV and carried out by COWI A/S(2004)aims to assess the main social,economic and environmental implications of a selected set of policy for better and/or increased biological treatment of biode-gradable waste.It includes an assessment of three EU representative countries(Portugal,Ireland and Sweden)and an extensive literature review as well as targeted collection of data and information.

The Nordic Council of Ministers developed a computer-based decision tool for Nordic municipalities with a wish to evaluate environmental consequences of systems for collec-tion and treatment of the organic fraction of MSW.The proposed methodology can be a valid approach,while data should be updated from a local perspective(Nordic con-ditions)to a European level(Nordic Council of Ministers 2007).Moreover,the NORDTEST published a report (Bjarnadóttir et al.2002)containing LCI data and guidelines to the application of life-cycle assessment in the waste management sector.Focus is put on the most common municipal waste management scenarios in the Nordic countries,and the guidelines are supported with case studies in the appendices.It could be a useful support for methodological choices and LCI data sources.

3.3Waste data quality

As described,waste treatment is a complex chain of processes,and the structure of the chain depends on the

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T a b l e 1M o d e l s f o r w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t a n d t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s

T e c h n o l o g i e s

D e s c r i p t i o n S o u r c e s

W a s t e c o l l e c t i o n S o u r c e -s e p a r a t e d c o l l e c t i o n N o t s o u r c e -s e p a r a t e d (m i x e d u r b a n w a s t e )c o l l e c t i o n

W a s t e c o l l e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s o n e o f t h e m o s t p o l l u t i n g p h a s e o f t h e l i f e c y c l e o f w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t .S p e c i f i c d a t a s h o u l d b e u s e d f o r a m o u n t s o f i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s i n f o l l o w i n g a c t i v i t i e s :(a )w a s t e t r a n s p o r t (f u e l u s e a n d e m i s s i o n s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t r a n s p o r t a t i o n );(b )d i s t a n c e s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a n d t o t h e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t a n d t y p e o f v e h i c l e s .T y p i c a l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n s f o r w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n (t r a d i t i o n a l a n d s e p a r a t e d )i n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s a r e r e p o r t e d i n t h e N o r d i c C o u n c i l 's s t u d y .T h e s e p a r a t e w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e i n E u r o p e a n c i t i e s w a s a n a l y s e d i n t h e F P 5R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t L C A -I W M

N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s (2007)L C A -I W M (2005)M e c h a n i c a l b i o l o g i c a l p r e -t r e a t m e n t P r e -T r e a t m e n t o f r e s t w a s t e a f t e r s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n (o r m i x e d u r b a n w a s t e )M e c h a n i c a l b i o l o g i c a l p r e -t r e a t m e n t (M B P )r e p r e s e n t s a k e y p h a s e o f r e s i d u a l /m i x e d w a s t e t r e a t m e n t .T h e M B P c o n s i s t s o f m e c h a n i c a l p r e -t r e a t m e n t w i t h s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e h i g h c a l o r i c l i g h t f r a c t i o n a n d b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g w a s t e p r i o r t o l a n d f i l l i n g (t h e s o -c a l l e d ‘s p l i t t i n g ’a p p r o a c h ).T h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s i n t h e a e r o b i c M B P i s c o n d u c t e d i n a n a e r a t e d w i n d r o w w i t h a w e e k l y t u r n i n g o f t h e m a t e r i a l .I n t h e a n a e r o b i c M B P ,t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s c o n s i s t s o f a f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e p r o d u c i n g b i o g a s .B o t h N o r d i c C o u n c i l 's t o o l a n d t h e L C A -I W M t o o l i n c l u d e s L C I d a t a o n M B P N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s (2007)

P r e -t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s :d e f a u l t /d i s c s c r e e n /h y d r a u l i c s c r e w p r e s s f o r d r y -w e t s e p a r a t i o n L C A -I W M (2005)

A e r o b i c /a n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e w e t f r a c t i o n o f w a s t e R e c o v e r y /r e c y c l e t e c h n o l o g i e s M a t e r i a l r e c o v e r y M a t e r i a l r e c o v e r y c o n s i s t s o f w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n ,t h e m a t e r i a l r e c o v e r y p l a n t ,t r a n s p o r t o f t h e r e c y c l i n g m a t e r i a l s t o t h e r e m a n u f a c t u r e s a n d t h e f i n a l d i s p o s a l f o r t h e n o n -r e c y c l a b l e r e s i d u a l w a s t e .R e c o v e r e d m a t e r i a l s f r o m w a s t e s t h a t a r e r e p r o c e s s e d c a n b e u s e d t o r e p l a c e v i r g i n m a t e r i a l s ,a n d t h i s m a y r e s u l t i n o v e r a l l s a v i n g s i n r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n a n d e m i s s i o n s t o a i r ,w a t e r a n d s o i l .T h e m o d e l s d e s c r i b e d b y W i n k l e r a l l o c a t e t h e s a v i n g s f r o m t h e r e m a n u f a c t u r e o f r e c y c l e d m a t e r i a l s t o t h e w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m .T h e L C A -I W M t o o l i n c l u d e s L C I d a t a o n t h e m a i n a n d m o s t c o m m o n m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d r e c y c l i n g p r o c e s s e s f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t w a s t e s t r e a m s :p a p e r a n d c a r d b o a r d ,g l a s s ,m e t a l s (f e r r o u s a n d n o n -f e r r o u s ),p l a s t i c s a n d c o m p o s i t e s a n d W a s t e E l e c t r i c a l a n d E l e c t r o n i c E q u i p m e n t .F o r a l l t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d w a s t e s t r e a m s ,“e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r e d i t i n g m o d u l e s ”a r e d e f i n e d t o a l l o w b a l a n c i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f m a t e r i a l s r e c y c l i n g p r o c e s s e s a g a i n s t v i r g i n m a t e r i a l s p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s W i n k l e r a n d

B i l i t e w s k i (2007)W a s t e c o l l e c t i o n R e c o v e r y /r e c y c l i n g p l a n t L

C A -I W M (2005)

F i n a l d i s p o s a l B i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t C o m p o s t i n g C o m p o s t i n g r e p r e s e n t s ,t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n ,o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r b i o d e g r a d a b l e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t .I t i s t h e p r e f e r a b l e t r e a t m e n t o f m a t e r i a l o f g o o d s t r u c t u r e (w o o d -l i k e ,c e l l u l o s e s ).I t c o u l d b e u s e d f o r :s t a b i l i s a t i o n o f t h e w e t f r a c t i o n o f w a s t e b e f o r e l a n d f i l l i n g (s e e a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e w e t f r a c t i o n o f w a s t e );t r e a t m e n t o f s o u r c e s e p a r a t e d w a s t e f r o m h o u s e h o l d s ,g a r d e n s a n d i n d u s t r y ;g r e e n w a s t e c o m p o s t i n g .T h e L C A -I W M t o o l d e s c r i b e s t h e c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s i n a t w o -s t e p t e c h n o l o g y :(1)i n t e n s i v e c o m p o s t i n g i n c o m p o s t i n g b o x e s a n d (2)m a t u r i n g p r o c e s s i n w i n d r o w s i n a c o m p o s t i n g h a l l .T h e N o r d i c C o u n c i l 's t o o l i n c l u d e s :w i n d r o w ,c l o s e d r e a c t o r ,h o m e c o m p o s t i n g .D i f f e r e n t c o m p o s t i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d p h a s e s c o u l d b e a n a l y s e d .P r o c e s s a i r c a n b e t r e a t e d i n a b i o f i l t e r .T h e p r o d u c e d c o m p o s t c a n b e a p p l i e d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l s o i l ,t h u s s u b s t i t u t i n g a r t i f i c i a l f e r t i l i s e r s a n d p e a t N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f

M i n i s t e r s (2007)D e f a u l t c o m p o s t i n g p l a n t O p e n /c l o s e d r e a c t o r L C A -I W M (2005)

A e r a t e d /n o t a e r a t e d S t a t i c /d y n a m i c M a t u r i n g p r o c e s s i n w i n d r o w H o m e c o m p o s t i n g

A n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n D e f a u l t b i o g a s p l a n t (m e s o p h i l i c /t h e r m o p h i l i c c o n d i t i o n s )

B T A ?(B i o t e c h n i s c h e A b f a l l v e r w e r t u n g )W a s t e P u l p e r (m e c h a n i c a l p r e -t r e a t m e n t a n d b i o l o g i c a l c o n v e r s i o n )

A n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n r e p r e s e n t s ,t o g e t h e r w i t h c o m p o s t i n g ,o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r b i o d e g r a d a b l e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t .T h i s t r e a t m e n t c a u s e s t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r a n d t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e w a s t e i n g a s a n d i n d i f f e r e n t r e s i d u a l f r a c t i o n s .I n t h e d i g e s t i o n p l a n t ,b o t h

B M W a n d g a r d e n w a s t e a r e a l l o w e d w a s t e i n p u t s .B o t h t r a d i t i o n a l a n d i n n o v a t i v e t e c h n o l o g i e s c a n b e i n c l u d e d .A n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n l e a d s t o m e t h a n e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t c a n b e u t i l i s e d f o r e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n .B o t h N o r d i c

C o u n c i l 's t o o l a n d t h e L C A -I W M t o o l i n c l u d e L C I d a t a o n s p e c i f i c t e c h n o l o g i e s o f a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n

N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s (2007)

L C A -I W M (2005)

602

Int J Life Cycle Assess (2009)14:597–610

C o m b i n e d t r e a t m e n t w i t h m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r i n a W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t (W W T P )B i o f u e l s s y n t h e s i s N e w m e t h o d s o f o r g a n i c w a s t e s t r e a t m e n t t h a t a l l o w a m o r e c o m p l e t e a n d e f f i c i e n t c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e w a s t e s a r e n e e d e d .O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d t h a t p r o d u c e a h i g h e r v a l u e p r o d u c t t h a n c u r r e n t m e t h o d s i s t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a l c o h o l ,a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r e t h a n o l ,f r o m b i o d e g r a d a b l e w a s t e .I n t h i s m e t h o d ,o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l i s f i r s t f e r m e n t e d b y a n a e r o b i c m i c r o o r g a n i s m s t o a b i o g a s c o n s i s t i n g p r i m a r i l y o f m e t h a n e a n d c a r b o n d i o x i d e .T h e b i o g a s i s t h e n c o n v e r t e d t o s y n t h e s i s g a s c o n s i s t i n g p r i m a r i l y o f C O a n d H 2.T h e s y n g a s i s t h e n c o n t a c t e d w i t h a c a t a l y s t t h a t c a t a l y s e s t h e c o n d e n s a t i o n o f C O a n d H 2t o f o r m a l c o h o l -t y p i c a l l y m i x e d a l c o h o l s c o n s i s t i n g p r i m a r i l y o f e t h a n o l .M o r e o v e r a l c o h o l c o u l d b e p r o d u c e d d i r e c t l y b y f e r m e n t a t i o n o f b i o l o g i c a l r e s i d u e s t h r o u g h b i o t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s U S P a t e n t A l c o h o l p r o d u c t i o n f r o m t h e o r g a n i c f r a c t i o n o f w a s t e P e r e g o e t a l .(2000)

T h e r m a l t r e a t m e n t

I n c i n e r a t i o n /c o -c o m b u s t i o n o f r e s i d u a l f r a c t i o n o f w a s t e B o t h p r i m a r y (c o l l e c t e d r e s i d u a l /m i x e d h o u s e h o l d w a s t e )a n d s e c o n d a r y (o u t p u t f r o m M B P a n d r e s i d u a l s f r o m r e c y c l i n g a n d t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s )w a s t e s t r e a m s c a n b e d i r e c t e d t o t h e i n c i n e r a t o r o r t o t h e f i n a l d i s p o s a l o p t i o n :t h e l a n d f i l l .M o r e o v e r r e s i d u a l w a s t e c a n b e c o -c o m b u s t e d e .g .i n c e m e n t p l a n t s .B o t h N o r d i c C o u n c i l a n d L C A -I W M t o o l s i n c l u d e L C I d a t a o n I n c i n e r a t i o n .T h e N o r d i c C o u n c i l 's t o o l i n c l u d e s :C H P ,h e a t p l a n t ,d e f a u l t i n c i n e r a t i o n .T h e L C A -I W M t o o l i n c l u d e s o n l y t h e C H P p l a n t .T h e i n c i n e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y s h o u l d b e c h o s e n a m o n g t h e B e s t A v a i l a b l e T e c h n o l o g i e s (B A T ).N o d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i l l b e d o n e b y a i r t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s

N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s (2007)

C u r r e n t f a c i l i t i e s

D i r e c t i v e c o m p l i a n t i n c i n e r a t i o n w i t h e n e r g y r e c o v e r y ,c o m b i n e d h e a t a n d p o w e r (C H P )L C A -I W M (2005)

C o -c o m b u s t i o n i n c e m e n t p l a n t s G a s i f i c a t i o n /p y r o l y s i s o f r e s i d u a l f r a c t i o n o f w a s t e

T h e s e a d v a n c e d t h e r m a l t r e a t m e n t a r e n o t a s w i d e l y a p p l i e d t o w a s t e t r e a t m e n t .I n t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s ,o x y g e n (a i r )i s e i t h e r n o t s u p p l i e d (p y r o l y s i s ),o r i s r e s t r i c t e d b e l o w t h e q u a n t i t y r e q u i r e d f o r f u l l o x i d a t i o n o f t h e w a s t e (g a s i f i c a t i o n ).B o t h s y s t e m s g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a g a s ,w h i c h m a y b e u s e d a s a f u e l o r a c h e m i c a l p r o d u c t .I n g e n e r a l t h e y a r e c o u p l e d w i t h a s u b s e q u e n t c o m b u s t i o n s t a g e f r o m w h i c h t h e t h e r m a l a n d /o r e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y m a y b e r e c o v e r e d .T h e s e t r e a t m e n t s m a y w e l l b e m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r t r e a t i n g t h e R e f u s e D e r i v e d F u e l p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d b y m e c h a n i c a l b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s r a t h e r t h a n p r o c e s s i n g r e s i d u a l h o u s e h o l d w a s t e .B A T d a t a c o u l d b e u s e d

E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n I P P C (2006)

D i s p o s a l i n l a n d f i l l L a n d f i l l D i r e c t i v e c o m p l i a n t M e t h a n e c a p t u r e :c o m b u s t i o n i n a f l a r e /e n g i n e T h e l a n d f i l l ,a s t h e f i n a l d i s p o s a l o p t i o n ,s h o u l d b e a m o d e r n p l a n t a t w h i c h w a s t e i s d i s p o s e d o f .I n p u t w a s t e i n c l u d e s M S W ,M B P w a s t e a n d r e s i d u e s f r o m w a s t e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s .A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e l e v a n t P C R 2008:02,b i o g a s a n d l e a c h a t e p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d b e m o d e l l e d f o r 30y e a r s a f t e r l a n d f i l l c l o s u r e .D i f f e r e n t p r e -t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d l e a c h a t e t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s c o u l d b e i n c l u d e d .T h e c o l l e c t e d g a s c a n e i t h e r b e u t i l i s e d f o r e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y b e b u r n e d i n a f l a r e .B o t h N o r d i c C o u n c i l a n d L C A -I W M t o o l s i n c l u d e s L C I d a t a o n l a n d f i l l P C R 2008:02(2008)N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s (2007)D i f f e r e n t p r e -t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s (o r g a n i c t r e a t m e n t ,b i o c e l l s )L C A -I W M (2005)D i f f e r e n t l e a c h a t e t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s (t o g e t h e r w i t h m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r ,c h e m i c a l -p h y s i c a l ,r e v e r s e o s m o s i s )C u s t o m T r e a t m e n t V a r i o u s t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e d e f a u l t t r e a t m e n t s c o u l d b e a n a l y s e d

Int J Life Cycle Assess (2009)14:597–610

603

T a b l e 2F o r e g r o u n d d a t a s o u r c e s

F o r e g r o u n d D a t a S o u r c e s

P u b l i s h e r /E d i t o r

T i m e E U T e c h .N o t e S o u r c e s

D G J R C “L i f e c y c l e g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e o r g a n i c f r a c t i o n o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e (b i o w a s t e )”e x c e l t o o l (2008)a n d e x p e r t s c o m m e n t s

J R C -I E S ,E U 2002X X I t i s a n e x c e l t o o l c o n s i s t i n g o f t h r e e l e v e l s o f d e c i s i o n m a k i n g :L e v e l I :A p p l y i n g g e n e r a l r u l e s ;L e v e l I I :A p p l y i n g t h e l i f e -c y c l e r e v e r s e d a p p r o a c h ;L e v e l I I I :P e r f o r m i n g a d e t a i l e d L C A s t u d y .T h e f o l l o w i n g w a s t e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n m o d e l l e d :g a s i f i c a t i o n ,d i g e s t i o n ,c o m p o s t i n g ,i n c i n e r a t i o n ,l a n d f i l l .L C I d a t a d e r i v e s f r o m r e f e r e n c e t e c h n o l o g i e s ,t a k e n f r o m t h e D u t c h W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t P l a n 2002–2012f o r t h e m o s t c o m m o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e w a s t e p r o d u c t s ,t r e a t m e n t s a n d c o l l e c t i o n m e t h o d s .A O O (2002)E L C D d a t a b a s e “E u r o p e a n R e f e r e n c e L i f e C y c l e D a t a S y s t e m ”

J R C -I E S ,E U 2007X X

I t i s a h i g h q u a l i t y L C I c o r e d a t a s e t s o f t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n 's "E u r o p e a n R e f e r e n c e L i f e C y c l e D a t a S y s t e m "(E L C D ),v 1.0.1.T h e d a t a b a s e c o m p r i s e s —n e x t t o o t h e r s o u r c e s —L C I d a t a s e t s o f e n d -o f -l i f e t r e a t m e n t (e n e r g y r e c y c l i n g ,d i s p o s a l )a n d t r a n s p o r t s e r v i c e s .A l l t h e s e d a t a s e t s a r e o f f i c i a l l y p r o v i d e d a n d a p p r o v e d b y t h e n a m e d a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n t h e C o m m i s s i o n 's E L C D c o r e d a t a b a s e .E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n D G J R C (2007)

L C A -I W M A s s e s s m e n t T o o l F P 5R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t “T h e U s e o f L i f e -C y c l e A s s e s s m e n t T o o l f o r t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f I n t e g r a t e d W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t S t r a t e g i e s f o r C i t i e s a n d R e g i o n s w i t h R a p i d G r o w i n g E c o n o m i e s ”R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t ,E U 2002–2005X X

T h e L C A -I W M A s s e s s m e n t T o o l (I n t e g r a t e d W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t )i s a n e x c e l i n t e r f a c e p r o g r a m m e d w i t h V i s u a l B a s i c f o r A p p l i c a t i o n s (V B A ).I t a l l o w s m o d e l l i n g o f w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t s c e n a r i o s a t a m u n i c i p a l i t y l e v e l .T h e f o l l o w i n g w a s t e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n m o d e l l e d :c o m p o s t i n g o f s e p a r a t e l y c o l l e c t e d o r g a n i c w a s t e ;d i g e s t i o n o f s e p a r a t e l y c o l l e c t e d o r g a n i c w a s t e ;a e r o b i c /a n a e r o b i c m e c h a n i c a l -b i o l o g i c a l p r e -t r e a t m e n t o f m i x e d /r e s i d u a l w a s t e ;i n c i n e r a t i o n w i t h e n e r g y r e c o v e r y o f m i x e d /r e s i d u a l w a s t e ;r e c y c l i n g o f s e p a r a t e l y c o l l e c t e d m a t e r i a l s ;l a n d f i l l i n g o f m i x e d /r e s i d u a l w a s t e .T h e L C A -I W M W a s t e P r o g n o s t i c T o o l i s a n e s t i m a t i o n t o o l f o r t h e f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n o f m u n i c i p a l s o l i d w a s t e i n E u r o p e a n c i t i e s .L C A -I W M (2005)

N o r d i c C o u n c i l 's t o o l

N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s

2007–X

I t i s a n e x c e l d e c i s i o n t o o l f o r N o r d i c m u n i c i p a l i t i e s .T h e f o l l o w i n g w a s t e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n m o d e l l e d :w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n ;p r e -t r e a t m e n t ;c o m p o s t i n g ;a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n ;c o m b i n e d d i g e s t i o n a n d c o m p o s t i n g ;u s e o n l a n d ;i n c i n e r a t i o n .D a t a a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e N o r d i c c o n d i t i o n s .N o r d i c C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s (2007)

W R A T E (W a s t e a n d R e s o u r c e s A s s e s s m e n t T o o l f o r t h e E n v i r o n m e n t )

E n v .A g e n c y o f W a l e s ,U K

2002–2009–X

T h e t o o l c o n t a i n s a f o r e g r o u n d d a t a b a s e o f 140w a s t e p r o c e s s e s c o v e r i n g :h o m e c o m p o s t i n g ,w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n (c o n t a i n e r s ,s a c k s a n d v e h i c l e s )a n d t r a n s p o r t (w a s t e v e h i c l e s a n d p r i v a t e v e h i c l e s ),w a s t e t r a n s f e r ,p r e -t r e a t m e n t a n d s o r t i n g (c i v i c a m e n i t i e s ,m a t e r i a l r e c y c l i n g f a c i l i t i e s (M R F s ),m e c h a n i c a l b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t ,w a s t e t r e a t m e n t a n d r e c o v e r y (c o m p o s t i n g ,i n c i n e r a t i o n w i t h e n e r g y r e c o v e r y ,a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n /b i o e t h a n o l ,a d v a n c e d t h e r m a l t r e a t m e n t s ),m a t e r i a l s r e c y c l i n g a n d d i s p o s a l (i n c i n e r a t i o n w i t h o u t e n e r g y r e c o v e r y a n d l a n d f i l l ).W R A T E

w w w .w r a t e -L C A .c o .u k

604

Int J Life Cycle Assess (2009)14:597–610

s u p e r s e d e s t h e p r e v i o u s l i f e -c y c l e t o o l W I S A R D a s i t i n c o r p o r a t e s a g r e a t e r r a n g e o f w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s .‘F o r e g r o u n d ’w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e s s d a t a i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f c u r r e n t a n d f u t u r e U K w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m s .T h e d a t a i s s o u r c e d f r o m t h e U K o p e r a t i n g a n d p i l o t p l a n t s o r f r o m E u r o p e a n o r o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l p l a n t s w h e r e U K d a t a i s n o t a v a i l a b l e .O R W A R E (O R g a n i c W A s t e R E s e a r c h ,S w e d e n )(S L U ,I V L ,J T I ,K T H )

R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e s S E

1993–2002–X

I t i s a M a t l a b /S i m u l i n k s u b s t a n c e -f l o w s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l .T h e r e a r e 9s u b m o d e l s :i n c i n e r a t i o n ;w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t ;a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n ;c o m p o s t i n g ;l a n d f i l l ;w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n ;t r u c k t r a n s p o r t ;w a s t e w a t e r t r a n s p o r t i n s e w e r s ;s p r e a d i n g o f w a s t e p r o d u c t s o n a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d .D a t a a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e S w e d i s h c o n d i t i o n s .w w w .i m a .k t h .s e /i m /o r w a r e /

E A S E W A S T E (E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s s e s s m e n t o f S o l i d W a s t e S y s t e m s a n d T e c h n o l o g i e s ,D e n m a r k )

U n i v e r s i t y ,D K 2006–X

I t i s a m o d e l f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l a s s e s s m e n t o f w a s t e s y s t e m s d e v e l o p e d b y t h e T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y o f D e n m a r k .T h e m o d e l c o n s i d e r s e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s f r o m w a s t e g e n e r a t i o n ,c o l l e c t i o n ,t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l ,i n c l u d i n g a s u b m o d e l f o r a s s e s s m e n t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s f r o m l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t r e a t e d o r g a n i c w a s t e .T h e s u b -m o d e l b u i l d s l a r g e l y o n s p e c i f i c e m i s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s d e r i v e d f r o m f i e l d e x p e r i m e n t s a n d s i m u l a t i o n s .T h e i n h e r e n t d e f a u l t d a t a a r e b a s e d o n ‘t y p i c a l D a n i s h s c e n a r i o s ’,b u t d a t a f o r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e e n t e r e d .w w w .e a s e w a s t e .d k

W I S A R D (W a s t e -I n t e g r a t e d S y s t e m s A s s e s s m e n t f o r R e c o v e r y a n d D i s p o s a l )

E n v .A g e n c y ,U K 1999–X

T h e t o o l i n c l u d e s t h e d a t a o n w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t o p e r a t i o n s a n d p r o c e s s e s c o m p i l e d u n d e r t h e A g e n c y s p r o g r a m m e ,a s w e l l a s b a c k g r o u n d d a t a o n r a w m a t e r i a l s ,e n e r g y a n d o t h e r p r o c e s s e s i n l i f e c y c l e f r o m E c o b a l a n c e U K s (T h e E c o b i l a n G r o u p )p r o p r i e t a r y l i f e -c y c l e d a t a b a s e w w w .e c o b a l a n c e .c o m /u k _w i s a r d .p h p

I W M 2—I n t e g r a t e d W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t 2—P r o c t e r &G a m b l e (U K )

I n d u s t r y ,U K 1999–X

I t i s a L C I m o d e l (S Q L ,S t r u c t u r e d Q u e r y L a n g u a g e ,D a t a b a s e )t h a t a l l o w s t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l e n v i r o n m e n t a l b u r d e n s a n d e c o n o m i c c o s t s o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t .I t i s d e s i g n e d t o b e a n “e n t r y l e v e l ”L C I m o d e l f o r s o l i d w a s t e a n d a p p r o p r i a t e t o u s e r s s t a r t i n g t o a p p l y l i f e c y c l e t h i n k i n g t o w a s t e s y s t e m s .A m o n g s e c t i o n s o f w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t t h a t a r e t r e a t e d i n t h e m o d e l t h e r e a r e w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n ,s o r t i n g ,b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t ,t h e r m a l t r e a t m e n t ,l a n d f i l l i n g a n d m a t e r i a l s r e c y c l i n g .M c D o u g a l l (2001)

D e c i s i o n S u p p o r t T o o l (D S T )

E n v .A g e n c y (U S E P A )2000–X

I t i s a L C I e x c e l /C P L E X t o o l t o e v a l u a t e i n t e g r a t e d m u n i c i p a l s o l i d w a s t e s t r a t e g i e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d e c o n o m i c i m p a c t s .T h e t o o l i n c l u d e s w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n ,t r a n s f e r s t a t i o n s ,r e c o v e r y ,c o m p o s t ,i n c i n e r a t i o n a n d l a n d f i l l a s w e l l a s s e v e r a l a d d i t i o n a l e x t e r n a l u n i t p r o c e s s e s (e .g .d a t a f r o m e l e c t r i c i t y p r o d u c t i o n ).T h r o u g h a n o p t i m i s a t i o n m o d u l e t h e u s e r c a n i d e n t i f y o b j e c t i v e s a s m i n i m i s i n g t o t a l c o s t o r l i f e -c y c l e p a r a m e t e r s s u c h a s e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n a n d g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s .D a t a a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a c o n d i t i o n s .h t t p s ://w e b d s t m s w .r t i .o r g T h o r n e l o e e t a l .(2007)

I -L C A V e r s i o n 2(2000)E n v .A g e n c y ,I T 2000–X

I t i s a L C I t o o l c o n t a i n i n g a f o r e g r o u n d d a t a b a s e o f 173w a s t e p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d i n g w a s t e c o l l e c t i o n ,s e l e c t i o n ,b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t ,i n c i n e r a t i o n ,l a n d f i l l f o r 22m u n i c i p a l w a s t e g r o u p s .L C I d a t a h a v e n o t b e e n u p d a t e d .I t i n c l u d e s t h e m e t h o d o l o g y ‘S M A R M o d e l ’,a n e x c e l b a s e d s u p p o r t t o o l f o r i n t e g r a t e d w a s t e m o d e l l i n g .

B a l d o a n d P r e t a t o (2001)

Int J Life Cycle Assess (2009)14:597–610

605

waste source,country,waste treatment,transportation,etc.Providing a simple guideline regarding the data availability and quality for the waste sector is difficult.There are a variety of good publications and case studies from different countries available on the web pages of EPA,Energy Regulators Regional Association and EU.Also,a lot of good information can be found in the proceedings of the international workshop organised on LCA and treatment of solid waste (AFR-report 981998)and in the SETAC-Europe LCA Working Group Data Availability and Data Quality (Braam et al.2001).The DG JRC has produced the ELCD database (European Commission DG JRC 2007)that comprises LCI data from front-running EU-level business associations and other sources for key materials,energy carriers,transport,and waste management.The respective data sets are officially provided and approved by the named industry associations.

Concerning data quality,some authors (Weidema and Wesnaes 1996)suggest to derive a generic list of criteria for a data quality assessment from recently published articles:

–Statistical representativeness of data –Age of data

–Data collection method

–Quantitative analysis of flows

–Processes that are taken into account –Aggregation level for flows –Mass balance

–Geographical representativeness –Temporal representativeness –Technological representativeness –Functional unit definition –Allocation rules

–Uncertainty intervals specified

Generic/default values for waste-related key parameters,when sufficient information/data are not available,are presented in Table 2.The foreground and background data sources that satisfy data-specific quality constraints are shown in Tables 3and 4:temporal representativeness (Time),geographical representativeness —European (EU)or International (Int.)and technological representativeness (Tech.)are assessed for the considered data sources.

3.4KEPIs in the waste sector

KEPIs are product environmental performance indicators.

They are representative of the most important environmen-tal impacts of a life cycle and could be considered a simple approach for conducting environmental assessments.KEPIs do not always replace detailed studies,in particular,if detail assessments are required for new technology or new process,and a peer review body and agreed timescale for periodic re-validation of KEPIs is required.However,these indicators

T a b l e 3B a c k g r o u n d d a t a s o u r c e s

M a t e r i a l

B a c k g r o u n d D a t a S o u r c e s

O r i g i n T i m e

E U I n t .T e c h .N o t e

A l u m i n i u m

E A A (E u r o p e a n A l u m i n i u m A s s o c i a t i o n )

I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n 2008(b a s e d o n s t u d y o f 2005)X –

X

S u g g e s t e d b y P C R 2008:02

B u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o d u c t s B E E S (B u i l d i n g f o r E n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d E c o n o m i c S u s t a i n a b i l i t y )I n d u s t r y 2007–

X

X

S u g g e s t e d b y P C R 2008:02

A T H E N A ?I m p a c t E s t i m a t o r f o r b u i l d i n g s E l e c t r i c i t y D a t a c o m b i n e d w i t h I E A (I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n e r g y A g e n c y )s t a t i s t i c s o n e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t i o n m i x e s f o r n a t i o n s ,r e g i o n s e t c .I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n 2008

X –

X S u g g e s t e d b y P C R 2008:02

F u e l s E L C D d a t a b a s e I n d u s t r y 2002–2003

X X X E u r o p e a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s P l a s t i c s ,C h e m i c a l s P E P l a s t i c s E u r o p e (f o r m e r A P M E A s s o c i a t i o n o f P l a s t i c s M a n u f a c t u r e r s i n E u r o p e )I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n 2004

X –

X

S u g g e s t e d b y P C R 2008:02

P r i m a r y c o p p e r I C A (I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o p p e r A s s o c i a t i o n )I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n 2004X X X

S u g g e s t e d b y P C R 2008:02C o p p e r p r o d u c t s E C I (E u r o p e a n C o p p e r I n s t i t u t e –L i f e C y c l e C e n t e r )2005S t e e l I I S I (I n t e r n a t i o n a l I r o n a n d S t e e l I n s t i t u t e )I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n 2000,2008–X X S u g g e s t e d b y P C R 2008:02T r a n s p o r t s E L C D D a t a b a s e I n d u s t r y 2007

X –X

E u r o p e a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s N T M (N e t w o r k f o r T r a n s p o r t a n d E n v i r o n m e n t )o r r e g i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s

S u g g e s t e d b y P C R 2008:02606

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are easy to communicate internally and externally and easy to use and understandable to a non-technical reader and could be used to compare different waste management strategies in a preliminary decision making phase.

In the waste sector,specific indicators,such as efficiency of dry–wet waste separation,organic waste stabilisation efficiency,energy recovery,production of by-products, could be use to characterise any possible new waste treatment technologies.A preliminary KEPIs list should take into consideration at least the following indicators: economic costs,unrecycled waste,sanitary landfill disposal and environmental impact(emissions to air,water and land).Concerning local and waste-related factors,the following indicators could be used:local legislation, existing management infrastructure,collection systems availability,waste composition and quality,climatic and geographic conditions,population density and population behaviour,the potential of use of electricity and/or heat and/or biogas or other by-products and the potential of compost to contribute to local soil improvement.A list of indicators that could be applied in the waste sector is presented in Table5.

The necessity of using a multi-objective framework to consider the MSW management problems arises from the difficulty of finding simple trade-offs between economic and environmental objectives.A realistic model of the decision process has to take into account the interactive features that generally characterise the process.This interaction takes place whenever the decision makers have to evaluate a certain solution and then express their preference trade-offs.The difficulty lies in correctly involving the decision makers(not necessarily a technician) and possibly iteratively interacting with them.To find a balance between the objectives and to calculate how much the KEPIs influence the decision alternatives to be taken,an approach based on optimisation has been proposed by several authors(Minciardi et al.2008).Tsiliyannis(1999) discusses the major environmental problems related to MSW management,in particular those concerning pollutant release.Solano et al.(2002)describe a linear optimisation

Table4Generic/default values for waste-related parameters

Parameter Generic/Default Values Sources

Waste composition Annex V of‘Municipal waste management and greenhouse

gases’ETC/RWM working paper.Data acquired from the NIR

(National Inventory Report)and CRF(Common Reporting Format)

reports to UNFCCC and corrected using OECD(2001)data.

(http://waste.eionet.europa.eu/publications/wp2008_1/wp/wp1_2008)

ETC/RWM2008/1

Logistic Average distances of transportation within the municipalities(30km)

and from the transfer station to the waste treatment plant(50km);

type of vehicles(truck20t).For biodegradable waste the stop and

go route is estimated at5km on average.The distance from the

collection area to the transfer station is estimated on average10km.

Average distances have been calculated for the Dutch situation.It is

therefore advised to use actual distances if available.These data strongly

depend on the availability of the treatment facilities

AOO2002

Biogas production200m3from1t of municipal solid waste(for30years)PCR2008:02 Biogas composition50%CH4;50%CO2(v/v)PCR2008:02 Biogas collection60%biogas collected,40%biogas lost PCR2008:02 Energy Feedstock10MJ for1kg of municipal solid waste PCR2008:02

Leachate production(for a Mediterranean Climatic Zone)150l from1t of municipal solid waste(for30years)PCR2008:02 This common value has to be used with particular care as leachate production

is very variable and depends on different parameters

Quantity of dry matter(DM)for biodegradable waste As default:kitchen and soft garden waste40%DM(Dry Matter)content,

hard garden waste59%DM content

AOO2002

Electricity from Syngas(CO,

from gasification)

912.5kWh el.per ton DM AOO2002 Biogas(CH4,from anaerobic digestion)531.5kWh per ton DM(revised version of the dataset used in AOO2002)AOO2002 Compost or digestate not meeting national

standards(heavy metals)for landfill

Average is0.88ton compost per ton DM AOO2002 Electricity from waste incinerator444.25kWh el.per ton DM at a20%energy efficiency AOO2002

Heat(when avoiding heat production)666.25kWh th per ton DM at a30%energy efficiency AOO2002

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model for integrated solid waste management intended to help in identifying alternative strategies that meet cost,energy and environmental emission objectives.Costi et al.(2004)propose a decision-making strategy that takes into account the environmental impact of MSW by introducing suitable constraints into the decision model.Solid waste management is obviously a complex problem involving several components,among which social components and community participation are key factors in decision making (Srivastava et al.2005;Joos et al.1999;Hung et al.2007).Among the best suitable methodologies to deal with multi-objective problems within the management of environmen-tal systems is the so-called reference point method (Wierzbicki et al.2000),as it consists of decision processes where decision makers are progressively asked to express their preferences.In these models,relations between KEPIs and alternatives (decision variables)are mathematically formalised and represent objective functions and/or con-straints of the optimisation problem.Standard optimisation tools are used to find the optimal values of the objective functions,the decision variables and other performance indexes of interest.Then,a sensitivity analysis can be performed on the optimisation problem:relaxing or restricting the importance of a specific performance indicator,it is possible to verify how the optimal solution and the performance indicators vary.In this way,it is also possible to identify KEPIs that are most important and KEPIs that do not influence the decision alternatives.

4Discussion

The survey points out the need of strategic guidance documents for policy makers with quantitative examples to define the waste hierarchy.As one specific waste treatment is often not sufficient,the examples to be used should include also the interpretation of the different treatment process to be considered,depending on the different local situations.A strategic guidance to be used in the waste sector should be integrated with quantitative considerations related to safety,cost and social dimension,as complementary information to the environmental aspects of sustainability in waste management.Depending on the characteristics of the specific cluster or area,such as climate,population density,etc …strategic guidance docu-ments should address the preferable options to be consid-ered in order to define a local waste hierarchy.

For this purpose,a valid support could be represented by the recent definition of the PCR 2008:02‘Solid Waste Disposal ’(PCR 2008:22008)that include specific require-ments for all the possible treatments applicable to solid waste,including several end-of-life scenario for waste generated itself,in order to make more easily comparable the results of different LCA studies on waste management than in the past.Referring to this PCR,several comparative LCA studies could be performed for each specific category and/or for a specific type of treatment,in order to define what type of process has the lowest impact and the best

Table 5Examples of KEPIs in the waste sector KEPIs

Description

Waste composition (organic matter —total organic carbon (TOC),dissolved organic carbon (DOC),hazardous content).Dry matter (DM)for biodegradable waste Compliance with Landfill Council Decision 2003/33/E (European Commission 2003b )that includes very strict limits as regards organic matter and hazardous content

Calorific value

Compliance with Directive 1999/31/EC and with national acknowledgments including limits as regards Low Heating Value (LHV)

Time horizon for plant management It influences treatment costs (https://www.sodocs.net/doc/a04458801.html,ndfill)

Energy recovery

It highlights the recovered material/energy and the type of avoided products

Material recovery and recycling Emissions to air,water and land It is an indication of the negative impacts of the waste management system

Total costs

It states if the waste management is economically sustainable

through an economic balance and an analysis of market opportunities Waste to landfill (or saturation time for landfill)It is an indication of how much is not recovered by waste and its environmental impact

Feasibility/Availability of treatment facilities Transports (due to more complex collection scheme,longer distance to specialised treatment plants,economic reasons)reduce the ecological benefit of recycling:the break-even-point should be identified for each waste stream

Transport requirements/costs Type of collection method

Mode of transportation (e.g.type and/or size)Frequency of waste fractions collection Distance to waste transfer station

608

Int J Life Cycle Assess (2009)14:597–610

environmental performance.At the same time,considering the application of recovery/recycle technologies,specific conditions should be defined to determine if and when recovery/recycle is preferable to a conventional disposal,in terms of environmental global impacts.

5Conclusions

In this paper,a survey of life-cycle approaches in waste management is presented together with the results of a critical analysis of the following issues:definition and categorisation of waste streams and technologies;review and interpretation of existing waste-specific guidelines and tools;identification of specific key environmental perfor-mance indicators for the waste sector.

The definition and categorisation of waste streams and technologies represent the first step in the development of a waste hierarchy,used for the prioritisation of waste manage-ment options at European and international level.Data concerning waste distribution,generation(quality and quantity) and management(recovery/recycle;treatment;disposal)and the identification of the main sectors generating wastes could be taken from statistical collection data,such as the last Eurostat publications.Although the waste hierarchy is a sound principle regarding the handling of some waste streams,waste hierarchy as a principle should be validated by introducing life-cycle approaches in waste management.

For this purpose,a considerable number of decision models and methodologies have been developed for several waste streams and waste management and treatment technologies.These models enable decision makers and waste managers to use life-cycle assessments for their specific waste management system without in-depth knowl-edge of the methodology.In the paper,an analysis of specific guidelines and tools differentiated for the most important waste management and treatment technologies is presented.The analysis shows that most of the existing guidelines and tools have been developed by North European countries through EU-funded projects.As data availability and quality represent a crucial issue for a proper use of these models,a list of generic/default values for waste-related key parameters and of foreground and background environmental data sources is provided.

In the paper,the use of product environmental perfor-mance indicators such as KEPIs in the waste sector is assessed.The survey shows that KEPIs and optimisation models are easy to use and understandable to a non-technical reader and could be used to compare different waste management strategies in a preliminary decision-making phase;nevertheless,they cannot replace detailed LCA studies.A list and a description of indicators that can be used in the waste sector is presented.6Perspectives

The survey presented in this paper has been focused on life-cycle approaches in waste management described through an analysis of the existing guidelines and methodologies based on life-cycle thinking and applicable in waste policy decision-making.

The main outcomes of this survey show that there is a strong need of a single reference document,easy understand-able to a non-technical reader,to be used as a guideline in the waste sector.Therefore,a subsequent step of research could be focused on the analysis of specific waste streams management and treatment technologies and on the integration of different environmental tools supporting the choice between different waste treatment options.For example,widely applicable instrument assisting in the decision making process(planning, decision making and post-decision making surveillance),such as the Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA)and the Strategic Environmental Assessment could be profitably integrated with life-cycle approaches in order to take into account all relevant effects,which may be crucial for a proper comparison of alternatives.Particularly in strategic and project EIAs,environmental comparisons of process and abatement alternatives may be relevant.Although these alternatives may lead to different emissions and effects at the location of the process itself(which is usually the focus in project EIAs),they can also influence the demand for activities upstream and downstream in the production chain, highlighting the necessity of considering all life-cycle phases. References

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（一）文学常识 一、古希腊罗马 1．（1）宙斯(罗马神话称为朱庇特)，希腊神话中最高的天神，掌管雷电云雨，是人和神的主宰。 （2）阿波罗，希腊神话中宙斯的儿子，主管光明、青春、音乐、诗歌等，常以手持弓箭的少年形象出现。 （3）雅典那，希腊神话中的智慧女神，雅典城邦的保护神。 （4）潘多拉，希腊神话中的第一个女人，貌美性诈。私自打开了宙斯送她的一只盒子，里面装的疾病、疯狂、罪恶、嫉妒等祸患，一齐飞出，只有希望留在盒底，人间因此充满灾难。“潘多拉的盒子”成为“祸灾的来源”的同义语。 （5）普罗米修斯，希腊神话中造福人间的神。盗取天火带到人间，并传授给人类多种手艺，触怒宙斯，被锁在高加索山崖，受神鹰啄食，是一个反抗强暴、不惜为人类牺牲一切的英雄。 （6）斯芬克司，希腊神话中的狮身女怪。常叫过路行人猜谜，猜不出即将行人杀害；后因谜底被俄底浦斯道破，即自杀。后常喻“谜”一样的人物。与埃及狮身人面像同名。 2．荷马，古希腊盲诗人。主要作品有《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，被称为荷马史诗。《伊利亚特》叙述十年特洛伊战争。《奥德赛》写特洛伊战争结束后，希腊英雄奥德赛历险回乡的故事。马克思称赞它“显示出永久的魅力”。 3．埃斯库罗斯，古希腊悲剧之父，代表作《被缚的普罗米修斯》。6．阿里斯托芬，古希腊“喜剧之父”代表作《阿卡奈人》。 4．索福克勒斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《俄狄浦斯王》。5．欧里庇得斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《美狄亚》。 二、中世纪文学 但丁，意大利人，伟大诗人，文艺复兴的先驱。恩格斯称他是“中世纪的最后一位诗人，同时又是新时代的最初一位诗人”。主要作品有叙事长诗《神曲》，由地狱、炼狱、天堂三部分组成。《神曲》以幻想形式，写但丁迷路，被人导引神游三界。在地狱中见到贪官污吏等受着惩罚，在净界中见到贪色贪财等较轻罪人，在天堂里见到殉道者等高贵的灵魂。 三、文艺复兴时期 1．薄迦丘意大利人短篇小说家，著有《十日谈》拉伯雷，法国人，著《巨人传》塞万提斯，西班牙人,著《堂?吉诃德》。 2．莎士比亚，16-17世纪文艺复兴时期英国伟大的剧作家和诗人，主要作品有四大悲剧——《哈姆雷特》、《奥赛罗》《麦克白》、《李尔王》，另有悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》等，喜剧有《威尼斯商人》《第十二夜》《皆大欢喜》等，历史剧有《理查二世》、《亨利四世》等。马克思称之为“人类最伟大的戏剧天才”。 四、17世纪古典主义 9．笛福，17-18世纪英国著名小说家，被誉为“英国和欧洲小说之父”，主要作品《鲁滨逊漂流记》，是英国第一部现实主义长篇小说。10．弥尔顿，17世纪英国诗人，代表作：长诗《失乐园》，《失乐园》，表现了资产阶级清教徒的革命理想和英雄气概。 25．拉伯雷，16世纪法国作家，代表作：长篇小说《巨人传》。 26．莫里哀，法国17世纪古典主义文学最重要的作家，法国古典主义喜剧的创建者，主要作品为《伪君子》《悭吝人》（主人公叫阿巴公）等喜剧。 五、18世纪启蒙运动 1）歌德，德国文学最高成就的代表者。主要作品有书信体小说《少年维特之烦恼》，诗剧《浮士德》。 11．斯威夫特，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《格列佛游记》，以荒诞的情节讽刺了英国现实。 12．亨利·菲尔丁，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《汤姆·琼斯》。 六、19世纪浪漫主义 （1拜伦， 19世纪初期英国伟大的浪漫主义诗人，代表作为诗体小说《唐璜》通过青年贵族唐璜的种种经历，抨击欧洲反动的封建势力。《恰尔德。哈洛尔游记》 （2雨果，伟大作家，欧洲19世纪浪漫主义文学最卓越的代表。主要作品有长篇小说《巴黎圣母院》、《悲惨世界》、《笑面人》、《九三年》等。《悲惨世界》写的是失业短工冉阿让因偷吃一片面包被抓进监狱，后改名换姓，当上企业主和市长，但终不能摆脱迫害的故事。《巴黎圣母院》 弃儿伽西莫多，在一个偶然的场合被副主教克洛德.孚罗洛收养为义子，长大后有让他当上了巴黎圣母院的敲钟人。他虽然十分丑陋而且有多种残疾，心灵却异常高尚纯洁。 长年流浪街头的波希米亚姑娘拉.爱斯梅拉达，能歌善舞，天真貌美而心地淳厚。青年贫诗人尔比埃尔.甘果瓦偶然同她相遇，并在一个更偶然的场合成了她名义上的丈夫。很有名望的副教主本来一向专心于"圣职"，忽然有一天欣赏到波希米亚姑娘的歌舞，忧千方百计要把她据为己有，对她进行了种种威胁甚至陷害，同时还为此不惜玩弄卑鄙手段，去欺骗利用他的义子伽西莫多和学生甘果瓦。眼看无论如何也实现不了占有爱斯梅拉达的罪恶企图，最后竟亲手把那可爱的少女送上了绞刑架。 另一方面，伽西莫多私下也爱慕着波希米亚姑娘。她遭到陷害，被伽西莫多巧计救出，在圣母院一间密室里避难，敲钟人用十分纯朴和真诚的感情去安慰她，保护她。当她再次处于危急中时，敲钟人为了援助她，表现出非凡的英勇和机智。而当他无意中发现自己的"义父"和"恩人"远望着高挂在绞刑架上的波希米亚姑娘而发出恶魔般的狞笑时，伽西莫多立即对那个伪善者下了最后的判决，亲手把克洛德.孚罗洛从高耸入云的钟塔上推下，使他摔的粉身碎骨。 （3司汤达，批判现实主义作家。代表作《红与黑》，写的是不满封建制度的平民青年于连，千方百计向上爬，最终被送上断头台的故事。“红”是将军服色，指“入军界”的道路；“黑”是主教服色，指当神父、主教的道路。 14．雪莱，19世纪积极浪漫主义诗人，欧洲文学史上最早歌颂空想社会主义的诗人之一，主要作品为诗剧《解放了的普罗米修斯》，抒情诗《西风颂》等。 15．托马斯·哈代，19世纪英国作家，代表作：长篇小说《德伯家的苔丝》。 16．萨克雷，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《名利场》 17．盖斯凯尔夫人，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《玛丽·巴顿》。 18．夏洛蒂?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，代表作：长篇小说《简?爱》19艾米丽?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，夏洛蒂?勃朗特之妹，代表作：长篇小说《呼啸山庄》。 20．狄更斯，19世纪英国批判现实主义文学的重要代表，主要作品为长篇小说《大卫?科波菲尔》、《艰难时世》《双城记》《雾都孤儿》。21．柯南道尔，19世纪英国著名侦探小说家，代表作品侦探小说集《福尔摩斯探案》是世界上最著名的侦探小说。 七、19世纪现实主义 1、巴尔扎克，19世纪上半叶法国和欧洲批判现实主义文学的杰出代表。主要作品有《人间喜剧》，包括《高老头》、《欧也妮·葛朗台》、《贝姨》、《邦斯舅舅》等。《人间喜剧》是世界文学中规模最宏伟的创作之一，也是人类思维劳动最辉煌的成果之一。马克思称其“提供了一部法国社会特别是巴黎上流社会的卓越的现实主义历史”。

_嘉莉妹妹_中自然主义赏析

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