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农学类专业英语电子版

农学类专业英语电子版
农学类专业英语电子版

UNIT1

FUNDAMENTAL METHODS IN LIFE SCIENCE

How is it that scientists probe so skillfully into the monument of life and discover so much about its foundations?What is it about their manner of thinking that yields such precise results?The scientific method is a formalized way of answering questions about causation in the natural world.In principle, the scientific method has three main steps(although in practice scientists work in many different ways).The first step is to collect observations,phenomena which can be detected by the senses(vision,hearing,smell,taste,and touch). Observations can be also made indirectly,through use of special equipment (such as a microscope)that extended the range of perception.With practice, we can become skilled at making systematic observations.This means focusing one or more senses on a particular object or event in the environment, and screening out the“background noise”of information that probably has no bearing on our focus.Second,the scientist thinks of hypothesis,ideas about the cause of what has been observed.The third step is experimentation, performing tests designed to show that one or more of the hypothesis is more or less likely to be incorrect.

Hypothesizing means putting together a tentative explanation to account for an observation.No scientist can put forward an idea and demand that it be believed as true,no questions asked.In science,there are no absolute truths. There are only high probabilities that an idea is correct in the context of observations and tests made so far.Instead of absolutes,there is suspended judgment.This means a hypothesis is tentatively said to be valid if it is consistent with observations at hand.You won’t(or shouldn’t)hear a scientist say,“there is no other explanation!”More likely you will hear,“Based on present knowledge,this explanation is our best judgment at the moment.”

Often the weight of evidence is so convincing that the hypothesis becomes accepted as a theory:a coherent set of ideas that form a general frame of reference for further studies.In science,the word“theory”is not used lightly.It is bestowed only on hypothesis that can be relied upon with a very high degree of confidence.

Testing the hypothesis through experiments is at the heart of scientific inquiry.Experiments must be designed so that their results are as unambiguous as human ingenuity can make them.For this reason, experiments have to include control treatments as well as experimental treatments.The two differ only by the factors(s)in which you are interested.

Collecting and organizing test results is a necessary process in biological experiments.Data tables or graphs are used to organize and display information for analysis.Graphs are especially useful in illustrating trends of patterns.Data analysis is less mechanical and more conceptual than collecting and organizing the information.Often,statistical tests are used to determine if differences between experimental data and control data are significant or are likely due only to chance.If it can be argued that the differences are due to chance only,then it can also be argued that the independent variable had no effect.

Generalizing from test results requires careful and objective analysis of the data https://www.sodocs.net/doc/a815504739.html,ually,the hypothesis under test is accepted or rejected on the basis of conclusions drawn.A statement is written about what new insights(if any)have been gained into the original problem.Apparent trends are noted when the same data appear in test results gathered over a period of time.Often,further questions and hypothesis are posed in an attempt to guide additional studies of the problem.

New words and expressions

probe v.探索convincing a.令人信服的

monument n.殿堂,纪念馆coherent a.相干的,连贯的

formalize v.使……成为正式的bestow(on)v.赠与,授予

causation n.起因,原因at the heart of在……核心

observation n.观察(结果inquiry n.探索,探究,询问

microscope n.显微镜unambiguous a.清楚的,明确的perception n.感知能力,感觉ingenuity n.智慧,机灵

systematic a.系统的illustrate v.说明

screen out排除mechanical a.无思想的,呆板的

have no bearing on与……无关conceptual a.概念的,观念的experimentation n.实验,试验independent variable自变量,处理因子more or less差不多,大致insight(into)n.领悟,深刻的了解hypothesize v.提出假说pose v.提出(问题),引起

put together组织suspend v.使悬而未决

tentative a.暂时的,试探性的judgment n.判断,评价

UNIT2

ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN PLANT BREEDING

Plant breeders have devoted considerable attention to breeding for yield. These programs usually have emphasized selection for higher yields based on yield testing results.It is also true,however,that plant breeders have for decades sought to improve yield by manipulating what are often termed physiological components of yield.In this section we give two examples of improvements in crop plants resulting from selection of desirable plant types. These examples deserve special attention because they involve wheat and rice,which rank first and second in the world in providing food for the human population.In these crops,breeders have selected new gene combinations and new plant types that are highly productive under a wide range of growing conditions,especially when fertility is high.

Rice Breeding

The development of short-stature rice varieties at the International Rice Research Institute(IRRI)in the Philippines began in the1960s following observations that short-strawed varieties yielded more than the taller,leafier indica varieties when given nitrogen fertilizer.A number of characters were associated with generally higher yields and the nitrogen response.The responsive selections were short and had many tillers and good resistance to lodging.Their leaves were short,thick,relatively narrow,erect,dark green,and remained functional until shortly before harvest.Subsequent genetic studies revealed that a single gene controlled many of the leaf characters as well as height and tillering.Two additional characters,early maturity and high floret fertility,though not controlled by the above mentioned gene,were incorporated into the genetic package that contributed to high yield under nitrogen fertilization.

In breeding for new plant types at IRRI,a well-adapted tropical indica varieties were crossed with introduced varieties of either japonica or indica types,which served as sources of the desirable new traits.Observation of populations resulting from these crosses indicated that the desirable,short, less leafy plants were not competitive and hence were being eliminated from the breeding populations.The short,less leafy plants compete very poorly in the mixture with tall plants,but in pure stands the short plants yield more than the tall.Consequently,a mass selection procedure is used to increase the proportion of desirable short plants in the breeding populations.The

populations are planted sparsely so that the tall,leafy plants can be eliminated from the population.Seed harvested from the remaining plants is used for the next generation.

Selection against the tall leafy plants is continued for several generations until all the remaining plants are short.Then the seed from individual plants is increased and conventional yield testing is initiated.Many of the short plants with the combination of useful characteristics described above have been highly productive.One plant,IR-8,gained worldwide recognition because of its very high yields,especially in response to nitrogen fertilization.

Semidwarf Wheat

In1935a wheat selection of hybrid origin,‘Norin10’,was released for use in Japan.Norin10was1/2to2/3as tall as common wheat varieties and had more heads.In the USA,Norin10was not useful as a variety,but as a parent in crosses it provided genes that started a revolution in wheat breeding.One breeder,O.A.Vogel,a USDA plant breeder at Pullman,Washington,crosses Norin10with ordinary wheats such as‘Brevor’,From these crosses came the first highly productive semidwarf wheats in the USA.The first new semidwarf,‘Gaines’,and a closely related semidwarf,‘Nugaines’,soon achieved great popularity,and other wheat breeders began to concentrate on semidwarf wheat.N.E.Borlaug,winner of a Nobel Peace Prize in part for his research on wheat,made extensive use of the Washington wheats and the Norin10genes. By1986semidwarf wheats were being grown successfully in the USA and in more than20foreign countries.

As many as a dozen characters potentially contribute directly to high yield in short-stature rice.However,less is known about the physiological basis for high productivity in the semidwarf wheats.Semidwarf wheats are more resistant to lodging than their taller counterparts,but lodging resistance is not the entire reason for the yield difference because semidwarf varieties are often superior to tall varieties when lodging does not occur.Many of the semidwarf wheats have more heads per unit area than taller wheats and a higher ratio of grain to straw(higher economic to biological yield).The leaves of many productive semidwarf wheats are generally similar to the droopy,wide,and long leaves of taller wheats.Consequently,the productive semidwarf wheats and short-stature rices differ greatly in leaf characteristics.Whatever the basis for the higher yields in the new rice and wheat varieties their superiority suggests that crops can be made more productive by modifying their general form.

New words and expressions

accomplishment n.成就,成绩tropical a.热带的devote…to贡献,奉献cross v.,n.杂交

decade n.十年introduce v.引进manipulate v.调节,操纵japonica n.粳physiological a.生理(学)的trait n.(相对)性状component n.构成因子compete v.竞争desirable a.有利的,理想的mixture n.混合(物)plant type株型pure stand单一群体population n.人口,群体mass selection混合选择fertility n.肥力,育性sparsely adv.稀

short-stature矮秆generation n.世代

straw n.麦秆,稻草semidwarf a.半矮秆的indica n.籼hybrid n.杂种

nitrogen n.氮heads n.穗

character n.性状variety n.品种

be associated with与…联系起来parent n.亲本

response n.响应,反应breeder n.育种家responsive a.有响应的ordinary a.普通的,一般的selection n.选系concentrate集中(精力)于tiller n.,v.分蘖droopy a.披(弯曲或下垂)floret n.小花modify v.修改,改良incorporate v.掺合form n.形态

well-adapted a.适应性好的

UNIT3

CROP PRODUCTION

Production of food is a problem of major concern in the world today.The world’s food supply,grossly inadequate in many countries today,will need to be increased greatly in the years ahead if the basic nutritional requirements of an explosive world population are to be satisfied.Otherwise,the specter of hunger,malnutrition,and famine,already a reality with two-thirds of the world’s people,will continue to spread and grow,and the nutritional gap between the developed and the underdeveloped countries will continue to widen.

Field crops provide the principal source of the world’s food supply.Over 50%of the human food consumed comes directly from seven cereal grains; over40%comes from rice and wheat.Other foods of vegetable origin include the root crops,oilseeds,vegetables,fruits,and nuts.Forage and grain crops utilized as livestock feed may be consumed indirectly as meat,milk,or eggs.

Field crops,in addition to their production for human food and livestock feed,are utilized for fiber,fuel,plastics,stimulants,and many other commercial uses.For these purposes we grow crops like cotton,jute,fiber flax, tobacco,soybeans,linseed flax,and corn.The potential for utilizing plants as sources of energy has been little exploited.When this happens the production of food may be placed further in jeopardy.

To increase crop production,four important inputs need major attention: water,fertilizer,pest control,and crop variety.The first three-water,fertilizer, and pest control-relate to cultural practices that provide a more desirable environment in which to grow the crop.The fourth-the crop variety-relates to the inherent ability of the plant to produce within the environment provided.In other words,more productive plants and greater food production may result both by improving the environment for crop growth and by improving the heredity of the crop.Improving the heredity of a crop,stated most simply,is accomplished by breeding better varieties.

Hereditary improvements in crop varieties are made in various ways.The improved variety may be more vigorous in its growth,thus producing a higher yield through the more efficient use of the sunlight,carbon dioxide,water,and plant nutrients available to it.Its structure may be altered so that it will stand until harvest with less loss from lodging or shattering.Plants may be selected with more tolerance to stress,so that a satisfactory yield will be harvested when environmental conditions over which the grower has no control are unfavorable.To accomplish this objective the breeder strives for early maturity,

increased winter hardiness,or resistance to heat,drought,disease,and insect damage.Cultural practices to increase yield-fertilization,irrigation,application of chemicals for pest control-must be repeated with each new cropping season. Hereditary improvements are more or less permanent;by planting improved varieties,the benefits may be reaped over and over.

Maximum crop production cannot be achieved either by use of superior cultural practices or by planting improved varieties alone.Without good production practices the high yield potential of a superior variety would by largely wasted.Neither will maximum benefits be realized from good production practices unless a potentially high yielding variety is grown.

New words and expressions

inadequate a.不足的vigorous a.茂盛的

explosive a.爆炸性的carbon dioxide二氧化碳specter n.幽灵,妖怪,缭绕心头的恐惧(或忧虑等)lodging n.倒伏

malnutrition n.营养不良shattering n.裂荚(果)famine n.饥荒stress n.胁迫

consume v.消耗,消费satisfactory a.令人满意的stimulant n.兴奋剂unfavorable a.不利的

nut n.坚果strive for为实现…而努力

jute n.黄麻maturity n.熟期,熟性

flax n.亚麻winter hardiness越冬性

linseed n.亚麻籽resistance n.抗性

in jeopardy处于受损失的危险境地cultural practice栽培措施inherent a.内在的,遗传的permanent a.永久的productive a.高产的reap v.获得

heredity n.遗传maximum a.最大的

hereditary a.遗传的superior a.优越的

UNIT4

WHAT SHOULD A MODERN PLANT BREEDER LEARN?

Botany.Plant breeders should be accomplished botanists in order to understand the taxonomy,anatomy,morphology,and reproduction of the plants with which they work..

Genetics and Cytogenetics.The plant breeder needs a thorough understanding of the mechanism of heredity in plants since modern plant breeding methods are based on a knowledge of genetic principles and chromosome behavior.This knowledge is being extended to the molecular level with advances in biochemical genetics.

Plant Physiology.Variety adaptation is determined by the response of plants to their environment,which includes the effects of heat,cold,drought, and soil nutrient response.The plant breeder strives to make inherent modifications of physiological processes that will enable the plant to function more efficiently.

Plant Pathology.Plant disease reduces crop yields.Host resistance is an important means of combating many plant diseases.Evaluation of the response of the plant genotype to infection by the pathogen is an essential part of breeding for host plant resistance.

Entomology.Biological control of insect populations by breeding for insect resistance is an important way of reducing insect damage in crop plants.

Plant Biochemistry.Inherent improvements in the nutritive value of a crop variety are given attention by the plant breeder.Suitability for industrial utilization often determines the market demand for a particular variety of a crop. This includes such characteristics as the milling and baking qualities of a wheat variety,the cooking and eating qualities of a rice variety,the fiber qualities of a cotton variety.Biochemical genetics is contributing toward a better understanding of the structure and function of the gene.

Statistics.The plant breeder compares the performance of many genetically different strains.Sound field plot techniques and suitable methods for statistical analyses of data are necessary to obtain reliable results and to interpret the results correctly.The application of statistical procedures has provided for a better understanding of the inheritance of quantitative characteristics and for predicting the possible genetic advance that may be obtained with particular systems of mating.

Agronomy.In addition to all of these,the breeder of field crops should be a sound agronomist.Plant breeders should know crops and their production.

They should understand what the farmer wants and needs in the way of new varieties.Only then will they be able to evaluate critically the breeding materials available to them,plan an efficient breeding program,and direct their breeding efforts toward the agronomically important objectives.

These sciences are the tools with which the plant breeder works.The plant germplasms available to the breeder are the raw materials.The breeder uses knowledge of these sciences to fashion from the raw materials new and improved varieties of crop plants,just as an engineer uses knowledge of mathematics,physics,and chemistry in the construction of a new bridge,or a modern skyscraper.

It is apparent that plant breeders cannot be specialists in all of these fields of plant science.In the practice of plant breeding they are not working exclusively in any of them.The work of plant breeders is to apply the whole of their knowledge of these sciences and their experience toward the development of superior varieties.If they should need additional information about the inheritance of a plant character with which they are working,or about a technique for measuring the resistance of plants to some environmental condition,they may conduct experiments to study those specific problems. Such specialized research is an adjunct to their plant breeding activities and the information gained may help them in the guidance and direction of their breeding research.Oftentimes a breeder may combine theoretical experimentation in one or more of these fields with breeding studies.This broadens understanding of these areas of knowledge and their relation to the breeder’s particular breeding problems and is a desirable activity to carry out in conjunction with a breeding program.Since the improvement of an important field crop like corn,wheat,cotton usually involves work in several of these fields of plant science,the most rapid advance is made when a team of specialists in genetics,plant physiology,plant pathology,entomology,and biochemistry work cooperatively with the plant breeder.The spectacular accomplishments in plant breeding are usually the result of such teamwork. Special knowledge and expertise may then be coordinated and directed toward the development of superior agronomic varieties.

New words and expressions

accomplished a.熟练的mill v.研磨

botanist n.植物学家bake v.烘烤

reproduction n.繁殖quality n.品质

thorough a.彻底的,全面的performance n.表现

genetic a.遗传的strain n.品系

chromosome n.染色体sound a.正确的,合理的,有能力的,可靠的molecular a.分子的field plot田间试验

biochemical a.生物化学的statistical a.统计的

adaptation n.适应性,适应inheritance n.遗传

host n.寄主quantitative a.数量的

combat v.对抗,对付genetic advance遗传进展

evaluation n.评价,鉴定mate v.交配

genotype n.基因型system of mating繁殖系统

pathogen n.病原agronomist n.农艺学家

control n.防治agronomical a.农艺的

suitability n.适合(性)adjunct(to)n.附属品,附加物

germplasm n.种质in conjunction with与…一道

fashion v.做成,制造cooperative a.协作的,合作的

skyscraper n.摩天大楼spectacular a.出色的,辉煌的,精彩的specialist n.专家exclusive a.排他的

UNIT5

SELECTION AND BREEDING METHODS

When initiating a breeding program for a physiological trait,the objective is to combine the physiological trait with other desired traits that have accumulated in elite selections or commercial varieties.Consequently,the breeder commonly makes controlled crosses involving two or more parental varieties.Three selection methods commonly used to manipulate plant populations in breeding programs are reviewed briefly in the following sections.

Mass selection

Mass selection refers to a procedure in which individual plants are selected in heterogeneous populations.The original populations may be obtained through artificial hybridization involving two or more parental varieties. Alternatively,they may be obtained by mixing seed of different sources and allowing interplant pollination to occur naturally.Seed from selected plants in each generation or cycle of selection is composited to form a new heterogeneous population and is used to grow the next generation.Selection may be for easily observed characters,such as higher or leaf angle,or for characters that require harvest and seed analysis,such as protein or oil content.The population is expected to be improved with each generation of selection.The improved population may be utilized directly as a new variety,or plants possessing desired characteristics may be selected and their seed increased to become a new variety.A third alternative is to utilize the improved population as a source of inbred lines in a hybrid breeding program.

The likelihood of success using mass selection depends on many factors, including whether the crop is cross-or self-fertilized.In self-fertilized crops, little intercrossing occurs to the plants become homozygous at a rapid rate and new gene combinations are unlikely after a few generations.In contrast, crossing naturally occurs between plants of cross-fertilized crops;thus heterozygosity is maintained,and new gene combinations are formed each generation.However,effectiveness of selection is reduced by one-half in cross-fertilized as compared to self-fertilized species because seeds borne on cross-fertilized plants and used to advance to the next generation receive one-half of their genetic complement from a random(unselected)male parent.

Another very important factor in determining the success of mass selection is the heritability of the character under selection.Traits such as yield

have low heritability and are not well suited to mass selection of individual plants.However,mass selection can be effective for highly heritable traits.For example,it should be possible to effectively change leaf area,leaf angle,or shape and size of inflorescence by mass selection.

Pedigree Selection

In pedigree selection both families and plants within families are evaluated. Seed for the next generation comes from individual plants,and individual plant progenies are kept separate throughout the several generations of selection. The name pedigree is applied since it is usually possible to trace the lineage of a plant or line in an advanced generation back to the F2or F1plant from which it was derived.Pedigree selection is used extensively in breeding self-fertilizing crops and in developing inbred lines for use as parents of hybrid varieties.

Plant material(populations)for pedigree selection often is obtained by crossing parental varieties that possess between them the traits and genes desired in a new variety.When each parent is homozygous,the F1progeny plants are genetically similar,and selection is not effective in this F1generation. In the F2generation each plant is genetically different,and desirable plants are selected.Effectiveness of selection in the F2generation depends on many factors,including the amount of genetic variation for the character being selected and the influence of environment on the character.As a general rule selection in the F2generation is not done for traits of low heritability or for traits whose measurement is time-consuming or expensive.

The pattern of selection followed is similar in the F3,F4and F5generations. In these generations,the best families are chosen first,and then individual plants within the elite families are selected.Seed from the selected plants is used to grow the families of the next generation.Selection on the family basis, which is frequently very effective,is an important advantage of pedigree selection compared to some other selection methods.Each generation affords a repeated opportunity for family selection.Pedigree selection is more expensive than mass selection but the gain from selection may more than offset the increased costs.Also,plant breeders have found ways to mechanize planting and harvesting so that costs can be kept low.

Following the F5generation,it is customary to begin replicated testing for yield and other lowly heritable traits such as milling and baking quality in wheat. Yield evaluation normally requires3to4years beginning with preliminary trails at one or two locations.

Backcross Method

The backcross method of breeding differs in objective and procedure from the mass and pedigree selection methods.The objective in most backcross programs is to improve an existing variety or inbred line by adding a desirable character not possessed by the variety.The procedure entails transferring the useful character from a donor line to the desirable variety or inbred line.The transfer is accomplished by making a cross between the desirable variety, called the recurrent parent,and the donor line.Repeated crosses (backcrosses)to the recurrent parent are made with progeny selected for the desired character from the donor.The proportion of the genes coming from the donor variety is reduced by one-half with each backcross to the recurrent parent;after n crosses and backcrosses the proportion is(1/2)n.Thus,with six backcrosses after the original cross,the proportion of germplasm from the donor parent theoretically is(1/2)7=1/128.Except for the gene transferred, donor genes are rapidly replaced by genes of the recurrent parent.

The most extensive use of backcrossing has been to transfer single genes for disease resistance into standard varieties.These programs have shown that it is generally possible to transfer a character from one line to another when one gene controls the character being transferred.Backcrossing is less suitable for characters controlled by more than one or two genes.Another important consideration in backcross breeding is the extent to which all of the genes from the recurrent parent are recovered after repeated backcrosses. Failure to recover all of the genes of the recurrent parent is serious when undesirable genes are closely linked to the donor gene.The formula given above does not apply for genes linked to the gene being transferred.

Backcrossing may be of special interest in breeding for physiological traits controlled by one or two genes found in otherwise inferior genetic backgrounds. When this is the case,the backcrossing procedure would be helpful in incorporating the desired trait into a good genetic background.

New words and expressions

initiate v.启动complement n.需要的数额

program n.程序,计划genetic complement遗传组成(分)accumulate v.积累male parent父本

elite n.精英,顶尖individual a.,n.个体(的)

commercial a.商业的,商用的heritable a.可遗传的

select v.选择inflorescence n.花序heterogeneous a.异质的,不同源的pedigree n.系谱,家谱hybridization n.杂交family n.家(系),科

interplant a.植物间的progeny n.后代

pollination n.授粉separate a.隔离的,分开的

cycle n.轮,周期,循环trace back追溯

composite v.混合,合成lineage n.血统,世系

protein n.蛋白质line n.系,家系

content n.含量derive(from)v.衍生,产生increase v.增加,繁殖hybrid variety n.杂种品种

hybrid breeding杂种选育pattern n.模式,方式

fertilize v.受精,施肥offset v.补偿,抵消

cross-fertilized自由授粉mechanize v.使…机械化

self-fertilized自花授粉customary a.习惯上的,依照惯例的intercross v.互交replicate v.重复,复制homozygous a.纯合的preliminary a.初步的combination n.组合trial n.试验

heterozygosity n.杂合(性)location n.地点,位置

bear v.结(实)backcross n.,v.回交

advance v.提升,进步original a.最早的,原始的

entail v.涉及theoretically ad.理论上

transfer v.转移standard variety标准品种

donor n.供体,提供者recover v.回复,恢复

recurrent a.周期性的,经常发生的link v.连接,结合

recurrent parent轮回亲本closely linked紧密连锁

proportion n.比例,部分genetic background遗传背景

UNIT6

MAN AS AN EXPLOITER OF NATURE

For perhaps3,000,000years or more,man lived in reasonable balance with the organisms about him.Parasites,disease,and the difficult search for food kept man’s numbers low and he was on equal footing with other animals within the natural system.Although he utilized the plants and animals that surrounded him,the extent of his depredations was limited and reversible since his numbers were few.More than10,000years ago however,man learned to select and cultivate plants,a progressive step that helped free him from the labor of bare subsistence and allowed him to engage in creative endeavors and to congregate in ever larger groups for mutual benefits.His heightened capacity for reasoning,his memory,and his ingenuity led him to improve still further his well-being.It was then that the consequences of man’s activities began to extend beyond the borders of his limited fields and towns. He may have extinguished such Pleistocene animals as the woolly mammoth. His use of fire on the prairies appears to have maintained grasslands where otherwise trees might have grown.The smoke from these fires and from extensive slash-and-burn agriculture filled the skies with haze long before photochemical smog ever stung his eyes.By his ingenuity and inventiveness he learned to release energy by burning coal and oil,to manufacture machines that would greatly amplify the labors of his hands,to work metals and to forge new alloys,while at the same time selecting,and cultivating better crops and improving his domesticated stock of animals.These various skills and practices eventually encouraged the world-wide proliferation of man.

Man discovered the benefits of mining the great ore deposits,pumping the reservoirs of oil,digging the rich coal beds from carboniferous strata,plowing and planting the prairies,cutting the forests,and generally helping himself to the abundant and apparently limitless resources of the world.In the process he became sedentary rather than nomadic,he improved his health,extended his life span,reduced his working time,added leisure hours,lived more comfortably,increased the abundance of his food supply,and increased in numbers exponentially(10to100to1,000).He could hunt,fish,harvest,and exploit without concern for the consequences to the environment.Then suddenly,very suddenly,within the most recent decades of man’s time on Earth,he began to realize that resources were limited and hastily instigated some attempts to conserve the environment.Still,his behaviour generally belied any conviction that he should live in a prudent society.Man’s population

still doubles in number every35years;his demand for domestic products doubles every14years,and his consumption of energy doubles,in the United States,every8.5years and worldwide at a slower,yet rapidly increasing,rate. Man manufactures exotic products that are generally nondegradable(i.e.,they do not decay)but are carried by the sedimentation cycle to accumulate in the bottoms of lakes,rivers,and oceans or are piled in refuse heaps or are strewn about the landscape.Considering that these products consume resources that are nonrenewable,man’s failure to recycle these materials may be seen as an act of irresponsibility toward the needs of future generations.The careless and greedy consumption of resources by any group of people cannot be justified in the context of the ultimate well-being of mankind.

When the first men landed on the Moon in July1969and reported during the voyage their views of the planet Earth,seen as a lonely,isolated,utterly self-dependent satellite of the Sun suspended in space,the ordinary citizen began to realize how limited and finite his space and resources really were. The biosphere was seen indeed as a very thin shell,protected from Sum and space by a veil of air and supported by a fragile and disturbed rocky crust. Coupled with this new appreciation was the realization that the world’s population was expanding at an alarming arte,a rate that,if continued for another century,almost certainly would mean mass starvation,pandemic outbreaks of disease,and general degradation of society.It no longer was self-evident that man could manage such a complex society,keep it in good health,and maintain a high standard of living indefinitely.

New words and expressions

exploit v.开发,利用photochemical a.光化学的

prasite n.寄生虫smog n.烟雾

footing n.地位,基础,平衡sting v.刺伤,冒犯

depredation n.(由攻击等造成的)破坏amplify v.放大,增强

cultivate v.栽培work v.定形,打造

progressive a.前进的,进步的forge v.锻造

bare a.基本的,仅够的alloy n.合金

subsistence n.生计,生存domesticate v.驯化、驯养

endeavor n.尽力,努力stock n.原种,家畜,砧木

congregate v.聚集proliferation n.(迅速的)繁殖

mutual a.相互的ore deposit矿藏

heighten v.加强,提高reservoir n.水库

well-being n.(健康、幸福等的)状况carboniferous a.产煤的,石炭纪的borer n.钻孔器strata(pl.)n.层

extinguish v.使…不复存在carboniferous strata石炭纪Pleistocene a.更新世的sedentary a.久坐的

woolly a.毛的nomadic a.游牧的,流浪的mammoth n.猛犸exponential a.指数的

woolly mammoth毛象exponentially ad.

slash-and-burn刀耕火种hasty a.过于匆忙的,急急忙忙的haze n.薄雾instigate v.使…开始,怂恿

exotic a.吸引人的,漂亮的,引进的domestic a.家务的,家用的,国产的degradable a.可降解的utter a.完全的,绝对的nondegradable a.不可降解的utterly ad.

sedimentation n.沉积,沉淀suspend v.悬浮

pile v.堆积finite a.有限的

refuse n.废物,垃圾biosphere n.生物圈

heap n.堆veil n.遮掩,罩

strew v.撒crust n.硬的表面

renewable a.可再生的appreciation n.评价,欣赏nonrenewable a.不可再生的pandemic a.(全国或全世界)流行的recycle v.再生outbreak n.爆发,突然发生careless a.粗心的self-evident a.不言而喻的,明显的justify v.证明是,正当的,有理的indefinite a.无限期的

UNIT7

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Since there is a large number of filed crop plants,a logical order in arranging various species is essential.While general plant morphology is necessary to describe a species,the reproductive structures(flowers)give a more valid and much more constant reflection of the broad relationships among plants.Since the basic flower structure of a plant species is relatively constant and much less subject to environmental variation,it forms the basis for the general classification of flowering plants,which include our field crop plants.While taxonomists,paleobotanists,and geneticists continue to interact to produce a more precise classification,you should recognize that the Linnaeus concept of classifying plants has remained relatively intact since the 18th century.It is safe to predict that the Swedish physician,Carl von Linne (1708-1778),better known as Linnaeus,will continue to be credited for a workable system of plant classification based on structural differences and similarities in the morphology of reproductive parts,the organs least likely to be changed by environment.

Linnaeus and his associates are also credited with the development of the binomial system of nomentclature,which designates various organisms by genus and species.In systematic taxonomy,closely allied species are placed together in a taxonomic unit called the genus.For example,the genus name for all wheats,whether hard red winter,soft red winter,durum,hard red spring or white,is Triticum.However,the species names aestivum and turgidum distinguish between species of the genus Triticum.The species is a unit comprised of similar organisms capable of reproducing themselves.Three of four characteristics are usually the minimum number acceptable for distinguishing a species.Such distinctions may be behavioral,morphological, physiological,or ecological.Durum wheats,which differ in chromosome number from the common(aestivum)wheats,are used for manufacture of macroni and https://www.sodocs.net/doc/a815504739.html,mon wheats are used for cereal,bread,and pastry.

As early as the Middle Ages scientists recognized that an international, universal,scholarly language was needed so that they could speak of various organisms in the same manner and still be sure that they were talking about the same being.During this era the most important treatises were written in Latin.Today,Latin remains as the accepted language for the scientific naming of plants and animals.It is a dead language,and therefore unchanging,which

makes it suitable for international use in the scientific nomenclature of plants. Though seemingly abstract to the new student of taxonomy,scientific names have meaning.For example,Trifolium pratense L.refers to red clover,and the word Trifolium means“three leaflets”while the term pratense means“of meadows”.The letter“L.”cites the author,Linnaeus,who named red clover, Trifolium pratense.

Several taxa besides the genus and species are quite necessary in pigeon-holing various plants.When studying the following table(omitted),note the major taxa(kingdom,division,class,order,family)and minor taxa(genus, species,and sometimes subspecies,race,and subrace)of three common crop plants,namely,corn,soybean,and cotton.

The major taxa from kingdom through class are the same for all crop plants.However,beginning with the subclass,major changes occur as we classify various crop plants.For example,corn belongs to the Monocotyledonae while both soybean and cotton belong to the Dicotyledonae. For the crop scientist,it is relatively easy to remember the classification taxa of field crops since most of these plants are grasses and legumes.If you know the taxa for these two families,other members of these families obviously fall into the same classification scheme at least up to the plant family level.

New words and expressions

botanical a.植物学的distinction n.区分,差别,标志classification n.分类behavioral a.行为的

field crop大田作物ecological a.生态学的

logical a.合逻辑的durum wheat硬粒小麦

order n.序列,顺序,(分类学上的)目common wheat普通小麦

species n.种macroni n.马可尼(空心面)reproductive a.繁殖的,生殖的spaghetti n.细条实心面

flowering plant显花植物cereal n.麦片,谷物,谷类植物taxonomist n.分类学家pastry n.糕点

paleobotanist n.古植物学家being n.存在,生物

geneticist n.遗传学家era n.时代

Linnaeus林奈(人名)Latin n.拉丁文

physician n.医生name v.命名

better known as dead a.失效的,不起作用的

credit v.归功于,相信clover n.三叶草

part n.零部件,器官,部分leaflet n.小叶

organ n.器官term n.术语,期(限)associate n.同事,伙伴meadows n.草地,牧场binomial n.二项式的taxa(pl)n.分类单位nomenclature n.命名法pigeon-hole v.分类,归档designate v.称呼,命名omit v.省略

organism n.生物kingdom n.界,王国

genus n.属division n.门,部分

ally v.与…联姻(结盟)class n.纲,班,类型

wheat n.麦类,小麦order n.目

minimum a.最小的family n.科

race n.宗,小种subspecies n.亚种

subrace n.亚小种Monocotyledonae n.单子叶植物soybean n.大豆Dicotyledonae n.双子叶植物cotton n.棉花grass n.禾本科(植物)subclass n.亚纲legume n.豆科(植物)

农学专业英语论文(张晓星)

姓名:张晓星 导师:陈翠霞 专业班级:2010级农学2班 学号:20102642 日期:2013年7月13日 我国水稻育种现状、展望与对策 摘要:作物的育种是密切关系到人们的生活的一门技术,我国50%以上的人口是以稻米为主食,可见,水稻育种的研究和管理就显得非常重要了,随着21世纪科技的进步和普及,对于水稻的育种目标也并不是简单的高产,更多的研究是解决水稻优质和适应性问题。种子不仅解决了人类所需求的食物问题,而且有力地推动了经济发展和科技进步。 关键词:水稻育种育种方法科学技术 引言: 在植物栽培出现之初人类简单的种植和采收活动中,就已寓有作物育种的萌芽。经过几千年的发展演变,世界各地育种技术不断实现突破。继20世纪80年代国际水稻研究所实施超级稻育种计划之后,中国在1996年也正式启动水稻超高产育种项目[1]。近几年我国水稻超高产育种取得重要进展,处于国际领先水平[2]。本论文简要介绍我国水稻育种现状、展望与对策。 1国外水稻研究现状 国际水稻研究所(IRRI)的水稻育种专家认为,当前水稻育种面临着两个方面的挑战:一是要培育出适于灌溉地区的高产稳产品种;二是要培育出适于不良环境的高产耐逆境品种[3]。 为了培育抗逆境的改良种质,以提高这些地区的水稻产量及其稳定性,

以满足 21世纪对水稻的需求,IRRI已作出了许多努力,并取得了以下进展:①勾画出了适于各种不良环境的理想高产株型;②对雨养环境已有进一步认识,并确定了适于选择和鉴定育种材料的代表地区;③在不同国家目标环境下评价育种材料的合作已经建立;④非生物胁迫的供体已经发现;⑤胁迫性状的遗传正在研究。 IRRI还与各水稻生产国建立合作关系,共同进行水稻育种研究。目前,正与中国在水稻功能基因组研究、分子育种以及杂交稻和水稻种质交换等领域进行合作,重点研究水稻耐盐基因转育和评价、抗稻瘿蚊基因克隆,以及在补充灌溉条件下高产早稻的节水管理。 2我国水稻育种现状 2.1我国水稻育种进程 (1)解放初期地方品种评选,普及高秆良品种,单产提高5%左右; (2)上世纪50年代末至60年代初矮秆化育种,单产提高30%,第一次飞跃; (3)上世纪70年代杂种优势利用,三系杂交水稻育种,单产提高15-20%,第二次飞跃; (4)上世纪末超级稻育种提出,水稻育种第三次突破。 2.2我国水稻育种技术进展 2.2.1三系法杂交水稻育种 1964年,袁隆平先生率先在我国开展水稻雌性不育研究,并提出通过选育雄性不育系、雄性不育保持系和雄性不育恢复系的三系法途径来利用水稻的杂种优势[4]。

专业英语期末试卷

ACCOUNTING ENGLISH Middle-of-term Test Papers PartⅠ.Translating the following terms 1、Notes to financial statements 2、Accounting elements 3、Variable costs 4、Economic entity 5、Depreciation expense 6、Deferred income taxes 7、Nominal accounts 8、ROA 9、LIFO 10、Work in process 11、现金收支 12、原材料 13、制造费用 14、相关性 15、持续经营 16、复式记账 17、优先股 18、预付费用 19、购货退回与折让 20、永续盘存制

PartⅡ.True or False 1、 The accounting process generates financial reports for both “internal ”and “external”users. 2、The balance sheet reflects the basic accounting equation and the means of financing the organization's assets. 3、The existence of Accounts Receivable on the Balance Sheet indicates that the company has one or more creditors. 4、Liabilities are classified and presented in increasing order of liquidity. 5、Working capital equals current assets less current liabilities. 6、Declaration of dividends reduces the retained earnings portion of the owners' equity of the corporation and creates a liabilities called Dividends Payable. 7、A chart of accounts is a listing of the titles of all accounts. 8、The cash basis of accounting often violates the matching rule. 9、Closing entries convert real and nominal accounts to zero balance. 10、The work sheet is published with the balance sheet and income statement, as a supplementary statement. 11、A company's sustainable growth rate is the highest growth rate in sales it can attain without issuing new stock. 12、Only rapidly growing firms have growth management problems.

农业专业英语词汇(一)

各种农作物翻译 cereals, grain 谷物coarse grain 谷粒 rye 黑麦 barley 大麦 oats 燕麦 millet 粟, 黍 sorghum 高粱 bran 麸; 糠 flour, meal 粗磨谷粉wheat 小麦 spring wheat 春小麦 maize 玉米 (美作:corn) maize cob 玉米棒子(美作:corn cob) rice 稻 buckwheat 荞麦 tea 茶 coffee 咖啡 cocoa 可可树 coca 古柯 tobacco 烟草 hop 蛇麻; 啤酒花 tuber crops 块茎作物sugar cane 甘蔗 sugar beet 糖用甜菜potato 马铃薯 sweet potato 甘薯vegetables 蔬菜 carrot 胡萝卜 cassava, manioc 木薯turnip 芜菁 yam 山药; 薯蓣 pulses, leguminous plants 豆类植物 bean 菜豆 pea 豌豆 chick-pea 鹰嘴豆 lentil 小扁豆 soya bean 大豆(美作:soybean) forage plants 饲料作物fodder grain 饲用谷物clover 三叶草 lucre, lucerne 苜蓿 (美作:alfalfa) textile plants 纤维植物cotton 棉; 草棉 flax 亚麻 hemp 大麻American agave 龙舌兰 sisal 剑麻; 西沙尔麻 kapok tree 木棉树 jute 黄麻 Manila hemp 马尼拉麻 raffia 酒椰 yucca 丝兰 oil plants 油料植物 sunflower 向日葵 groundnut, peanut 落花生 olive 油橄榄 olive tree 油橄榄树 sesame 芝麻 castor oil plant 蓖麻 rape seed 油菜籽 rubber tree 橡胶树 resin plant 树脂植物 mangrove 红树 fruits 水果 fruit tree 果树 grapevine 葡萄藤 grape 葡萄 农业专业词汇一 a horizon a 层 a humid acid a 型胡敏酸 a line 不育系 a priori 先天的 a priori probability 先验 概率 abandoned land 荒地 abattoir by product 屠宰 场副产物 abaxial 远轴的 abaxile 远轴的 abdomen 腹 abdominal 腹部的 abdominal aorta 腹织脉 abdominal apoplexy 腹率 中 abdominal appendage 腹肢 abdominal cavity 腹腔 abdominal fin 腹 abdominal foot 腹足 abdominal gland 腹腺 abdominal leg 腹足 abdominal reflex 腹壁反 射 abdominal respiration 腹 呼吸 abdominal segment 腹节 abdominal wall 腹壁 abducens nerve 外展神经 abducent nerve 外展神经 abduction 外展 abductor 展肌 abductor muscle 展肌 aberration 畸变 abies 冷杉属 abietic acid 松脂酸 abiogenesis 自然发生 abiosis 死亡 abiotic 非生物的 abiotic factor 非生物因 素 ablactation 断乳 ablation 切断术 ablepharia 无睑 ablepharon 无睑 ablephary 无睑 ablution 清洗 abnormal behaviour 变态 习性 abnormal climate 异常气 候 abnormal division 错分裂 abnormal egg 异常卵 abnormal estrus 异常发情 abnormal high temperature 异常高温 abnormal ovum 异常卵子 abnormal spermium 异常精 子 abnormal value 异常值 abomasitis 皱胃炎 abomasum 第四胃 aboral 反口的 aboral pole 反口极 abortin 龙毒素 abortion 龙 abortive 龙的 abortive grain 秕粒 abortive infection 顿挫 性感染 abortive pollen 败育花粉 abortive transduction 败 育转导 aboveground part 地上部 分 abscess 脓肿 abscisin 脱落素 abscission 切掉 abscission layer 离层 absinthe 亚洲蒿 absolute age 绝对年龄 absolute alcohol 绝对酒 精 absolute dried soil 绝对 干土 absolute error 绝对误差 absolute extreme 绝对极 值 absolute frequency 绝对 频率 absolute humidity 绝对湿 度 absolute lethal 绝对致死 absolute milk production 绝对产奶量 absolute period of livestock use 家畜绝对利 用年限 absolute quantity 绝对量 absolute temperature 绝 对温度 absolute value 绝对值 absorbability 吸收能力 absorbent 吸收剂;吸收的 absorbing capacity 吸收 能力 absorbing complex 吸附复 合体 absorbing function 吸收 机能 absorbing velocity of fertilizer 肥料吸收速度 absorption 吸收 absorption capacity 吸收 容量 absorption coefficient 吸收系数 absorption obstacle 吸收 障碍 absorption ratio 吸收率 absorptive 吸收的 absorptive amount 吸收量 absorptive cell 吸收细胞 absorptive hair 吸收毛 absorptive tissue 吸收组 织 absorptivity 吸收力

医学影像专业英语总结

Chest plain film/plain chest radiography 胸部平片Posteroanterior 后前位 Left-lateral 左侧位 Contour 轮廓 Symmetric 对称 Lung field 肺野 Lung marking 肺纹理 Lesion 病变 Lung hilar 肺门 Mediastinum 胸廓 Diaphragm 膈肌 Rib 肋骨 Round-shaped 类圆形的 Mass 团块 Post-basic segment 后基底段 Lobulated-edge 边缘分叶 Well-defined margin 边界清楚 ill-define margin 边缘不清vague margin Homogeneous attenuation 密度均匀 Thoracic vertebraes 胸椎 Obstructive atelectasis 阻塞性肺不张 Sign of “recersal S”反S征 Bilateral 双侧的 Cloud-shaped areas 大片密度增高区域 Piece-like high attunuation 片状高密度Pulmonary edema 肺水肿 Node 结节 Acute miliary tuberculosis 急性粟粒性肺结核Anteroposterior abdomen plain film 腹部平片Supine overhead projection 仰卧前后位投照Radiopaque foreign body 不透光异物 Stone 结石 Liver 肝gallbladder 胆kidney 肾 Bowel 肠 Distension 扩张 Free gas 游离气体 Vertebrate and pelvis bone 腰椎和骨盆 Plain film of pelvis 骨盆平片 Acetabulun 髋臼 Hip joint 髋关节 Bone destruction 骨质破坏 Femoral head 股骨头 The left hip joint space 左髋关节间隙Osteoporosis 骨质疏松

专业英语总结及论文

经济管理学院专业英语结课论文

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Chinese by Jerry Norman 龚群虎 Page number, Chinese, English 1 0 2 共时synchronic 3 历时diachronic 4 linguist 语言学家 5 汉语研究Chinese studies 6 调号tone mark 7 1-1 8 甲骨文oracle bone inscription/script 9 古汉语Classical Chinese 10 中古汉语Middle Chinese 11 早期白话Early Vernacular Chinese 12 上海方言Shanghai dialect 13 书面语言written language 14 口头语言spoken language 15 文化连续性cultural continuity 16 汉语方言Chinese dialects 17 北京话Peking dialect 18 广州话Cantonese 19 文言文Literary Chinese 20 方言学家dialectologist 21 金文bronze inscription/script 22 孔子Confucius 23 孟子Mencius 24 方言描写dialect description 25 高本汉(人名)Bernhard Karlgren 26 中古汉语(高本汉)Ancient Chinese 27 赵元任(人名)Yuen Ren Chao 28 吴语Wu dialects 29 方言调查dialect survey/fieldwork 30 共通语koine 31 现代汉语Modern Chinese 32 方言dialect 33 1-2 34 (汉语)周边语言neighboring languages 35 阿尔泰语系Altaic language family 36 突厥语言Turkic languages 37 蒙古语言Mongolian languages 38 通古斯语言Tungusic languages 39 日语Japanese

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