明王朝与边疆各民族的关系 English edited
40. 4 The Relationship between China and Outlying Ethnic Groups in the Ming Dynasty
China has long been a country of ethnic diversity. In the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC – 220 AD), Han people had contact with other ethnic groups such as the Xiongnu. In the Wei, Jin, and the Northern and Southern dynasties (220– 589 AD), the relationship between the Han people and the Xianbei, Di and Qiang peoples grew from being one of conflict to one of peaceful coexistence. In the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), Han culture was assimilated into that of neighbouring ethnic groups. In the Song Dynasty (960- 1279 AD), ethnic groups such as the Khitan and the Jurchen began to interact politically with the Han ruling power. In the Yuan Dynasty (1271- 1368 AD), reunification created more favourable conditions for ethnic harmony. In the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 AD), the Mongol ruling class fell from power and Han rule was restored. What was the relationship between China and ethnic groups in the Ming Dynasty?
The Mongol-governed Yuan Dynasty collapsed in 1368. Its last emperor, Yuanshun, fled to north China and was found dead two years later in Duolun, in present-day Inner Mongolia. However, the Mongols continued their rule in areas north of the Great Wall. After several generations, internal conflict had divided them into three tribes: the Tatar, the Oirat and the Wuliangha. The Tatars occupied the major part of the Mongolian territory and the area south of Lake Baikal in present-day Russia. The Oirat lived in the Junggar Basin and in the west of Mongolia. The Wuliangha settled in districts near the Laoha River and Liaohe River. There was frequent bloodshed between the three tribes, who, during the Ming Dynasty, made frequent raids on the Chinese border. The Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang consistently pursued a policy of good neighbourliness and defence. His son, Zhu Di the Yongle Emperor continued his father’s approach. On the one hand, he maintained good relationships with the Mongol nobility by making their tribal chief a king and offering gold, silver, silk, cloth and grain. On the other hand, if there was any attempt or act of invasion, he made sure they would be met with powerful and resilient counter-attack. Zhu Di also used the intra-tribal conflict between Mongol groups for leverage, so that no single tribe would be too strong or intimidating.
The Oirats were economically and politically strong early on in the Ming Dynasty and made many attacks on China. However, in the mid-Ming Dynasty, the Tatars grew from strength to strength, posing a major threat to northern China. Mongolians led a nomadic life and herded horses, sheep and camels. Daily necessities, such as silk, cloth, grain and iron pans were mainly supplied by China. Years of war forced China to ban mutual contact and trade. The Mongolians were unable to cook meat without iron cooking vessels so Mongolian horsemen rode south and looted them, which were then traded as rare and expensive articles. Chinese forces fought back by seizing horses and setting fire to forage grass. From the 1540s, Altan Khan made numerous requests to trade. Born in 1507, Altan Khan greatly admired Han civilization and brought in Han people who taught farming and house-building skills. He even made his sons and younger brothers learn the Chinese classics. Eager to restore trading links with China, he dispatched scores of special envoys, who were all killed and then, to force a change of attitude, he resorted to violence. In 1550, he led an attack on China, captured Tongzhou and came close to Beijing. After a spree of pillaging, he retreated. According to the traditional Chinese method of chronicling years using the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branched system, 1550 was known as the Gengxu Year (Geng is the seventh number of the Heavenly Stems and Xu is the eleventh number of the Earthly Branches), so the attack was known as the Gengxu Incident. The Gengxu Incident sent shockwaves through China and forced the Ming government to realize the urgency of enhancing its military presence on the borders. The Tatars and China then both expressed their wishes to be good neighbours. In 1571, Altan Khan was given the title King Shunyi (the King of Obedience and Loyalty) and China made the cities of Datong and Xuanfu (present-day Xuanhua in Hebei province) available for trade. Hohhot, built on the order of Altan Khan and his third wife, soon became the Mongol’s centre of trade with China. In the market of Xuanfu, one might see shops from Nanjing selling tussore silk, silk shops from Suzhou and Hangzhou, and cloth shops from Linqing in Shandong Province lining the two- kilometre-long road. Mongolians would trade horses, camels and fur for daily articles. Altan Khan and his well-dressed third wife would personally visit the market and, together with Chinese border guards, maintain good order. They dined, wined and had fun together like a big family. After Altan Khan died, his third wife took charge and for many decades maintained peace along the borders.
Tibet had been regarded as an administrative region of China since the Yuan Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty the region was known as ü-Tsang. Its ruling class included top lamas and tribal leaders. At the end of the Yuan Dynasty and beginning of the Ming Dynasty, political power was dispersed locally and clerical power was not centralized. After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, the Royal Preceptor Namgyel Pel Sangpo visited the royal court and was granted the title ‘Buddhist Preceptor of Prosperity’ by the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang. Officials included in a list proffered by him were also granted royal posts. The royal court set up the Administrative Institution for Military and Political Affairs in Tibet, where top monks and county officials became senior officials with official seals. In 1407, the Ming government ordered ethnic groups in Sichuan and Tibet to create courier routes from Ya’an i n Sichuan to ü-Tsang . Lined with courier stations, these routes greatly facilitated the interaction between Tibet and China. Early in the Ming Dynasty, lamas were divided into the Bai Sect (‘White Sect’), the Hua Sect (‘Flower Sect’) and the Hong Sect (‘Red Sect’). Later on, the Tibetan monk Tsong-kha-pa established the Gelugpa Sect in Tibet, whose members wore yellow hats Thus, the Gelugpa Sect was also called the ‘Yellow Sect’(or Huang Sect). Advocating self-discipline, eagerness to learn, act and detachment from mundane pursuit of power, the Yellow Sect gained great popularity and support amongst Tibetan aristocrats. In 1409, Tsong-kha-pa convened a religious assembly in Lhasa with
8.000 people attending. Zhu Di, the Yongle Emperor, sent royal envoys to invite
Tsong-kha-paand his disciple Shakya Yeshe to Beijing. The Yongle Emperor gave Shakya Yeshe the title the ‘Great Preceptor’. According to religious traditions, two disciples of Tsong-kha-pa would be reincarnated to carry on his legacy, the first Dalai Lama and the first Panchen Lama. In 1581, the third Dalai Lama submitted an official document to the royal grand secretary Zhang Juzheng, requesting recognition of his status in Tibet and the continuation of tribute offering. This was approved by the Ming government. The connection between Tibet and China grew stronger, with more lamas, merchants and officials in Tibet visiting Beijing. The Ming government even set up markets to trade Tibetan horses and Chinese tea, suitable for the needs of Tibetan people. Both Han Chinese and Tibetans benefited from this arrangement.
After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, Uighurs living north and south of the Tianshan
Mountains continued to lead the descendants of Chagatai. Chagatai Khan was the second son of Genghis Khan. Over time his descendants became dispersed over many areas, including Khotan, Beshbalik, Kumul and Turpan. At first, the people of Turpan was on good terms with China and paid tribute. However, after Kumul was annexed in 1472, Turpan began to invade China’s border and gradually gained control of the Hexi Corridor. Turpan’s power became even more intimidating when it colluded with northern ethnic groups such as the Oirat. The economic development of the Uighurs was uneven in the Ming Dynasty, while the people of Beshbalik led a nomadic life and lived where there was grass and water. Khotan, Kumul and Turpan featured agriculture and major crops included mulberry, flax, grain, grapes, muskmelons, walnuts, apricots and Chinese dates. These peoples had advanced handicrafts, such as jade and emerald crafts. The Uighurs were good at business and traded horses, camels, jade and hides for Chinese yarn, silk fabrics and chinaware. They were originally Buddhist, but converted to Islam late in the fifteenth century.
In the Ming Dynasty, smaller ethnic groups such as the Miao, Yao, Zhuang and Yi lived in Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Hunan and Hubei provinces. Economic development in these areas was uneven and there were great social differences. In 1382, the Hongwu Emperor established the Yunnan Administrative Organization (equivalent to a present-day province) In 1413, the Yongle Emperor established the Guizhou Administrative Organization. Different approaches were adopted to deal with economic imbalances. In economically more advanced regions or provinces, a policy was adopted called gaituguiliu (‘the bureaucratization of native officers’) whereby the Ming government would assign a non-native official (liuguan) to be magistrate of a city, county or village. This position was not hereditary. In less developed regions or provinces, the hereditary system for assigning posts remained and local people were chosen. A hereditary government was composed of a Military Department, Tribute and Amnesty Department, Hereditary City Magistrate, Hereditary County Magistrate and others. All the positions were hereditary. For other regions, hereditary and non-hereditary approaches were combined. These measures meant tougher administration of ethnic minorities by the Ming government. There were armed uprisings by some leaders of ethnic group, but these won them few favours and ended in failure.
The Jurchen had lived in northeast China for a long time. Before the Qin dynasty, they
were called Sushen and in the Sui and Tang dynasties they were called Mohe. It was in the Liao Dynasty, that they started to be called the Jurchen. In the Yongle era, the Ming government ruled the Jurchen by dividing then into the Haixi Jurchen, the Jianzhou Jurchen and the Yeren Jurchen,. There was no mutual governance or exercise of power, but the Ming government offered differentiated notification for the three subgroups. Early in 1411, the Yongle Emperor established a Jurchen military division to be in charge of the Jianzhou Jurchens. The government also set up markets at Kaiyuan and Fushun and other border areas, where Jurchens could trade ginseng, mink fur, animals or medicinal herbs in return for Chinese salt, farm tools, iron pans, cloth and silk. Iron farm tools were of the utmost importance for the Jurchen. They were necessary for agricultural production and were a major factor in their economic development. Nurhaci, the outstanding leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens, started with a rough patch of land where he collected pine nuts and ginseng which he sold at these markets. The experience he gained enriched his life and ultimately paved the way for his unification of the three Jurchen groups and his rule over them.
2055 words (original text)