self-identity
人生心理成长的八个阶段(转) Eight stages of Psychological Development - 埃里克森(Erik H Erikson)
2011-04-24 15:37:19
【1】婴儿期（从出生到一岁半）：主要任务是建立信任
这一阶段的婴儿是用口部来接触社会的。此外还通过双眼、触觉去接受外界的刺激。如果母亲对婴儿给予爱抚和有规律的照顾，婴儿将产生信任感；反之，如果母亲的爱抚和照料有缺陷、反复无常，婴儿就会产生不信任感。
埃里克森说，如果婴儿发展的信任感居多，就达到了他的第一项社会成就。这是他不会因母亲离开而焦虑和哭闹，因为婴儿内心已发展出即使母亲离开了视线，如果自己需要母亲，她自会到场。这种恒定的、连续的、一致的体验使婴儿有了自我统一性（或自我统合ego identity）的最初感觉。
在这一阶段，婴儿产生信任感也产生不信任感，如果信任感比率居多时，就成功地解决了发展危机。埃里克森认为，一定比率的不信任感有利于人的健康发展，但是信任感应当超过不信任感。这一原则也适用于其他发展阶段。成功地解决了发展危机，人格中便形成了希望的品质。这种儿童敢于冒险、不怕挫折和失败。而如果不成功地解决发展危机，则在人格中形成恐惧的特质。
【2】幼儿期（一岁半至三岁左右）：主要任务是自主独立
这一时期的儿童反复用?我‘、?我的‘和?不‘等词来表示自己的自主性。但父母则不允许自己的孩子为所欲为，而要按照社会的要求来训练他们，控制他们的行为。埃里克森把这一阶段的危机说为自主性对羞怯和疑虑的冲突。自主性意味着一个人能按着自己的意愿行事的能力(virtue of will)。羞怯和疑虑则来自社会的期盼和压力。如果父母训练过严和不公正的提罚就会使儿童产生羞怯和疑虑。如果自主性对羞怯和疑虑的危机得到成功地解决，在儿童的人格中就形成意志品质。相反，则在人格中形成自我怀疑(self-doubt)。
【3】儿童期（三岁到六岁）：主动性vs. 愧疚（喜欢探索、好奇心强、富创造力、外性游戏）
这一阶段的儿童表现出制订计划，订立目标，并积极保持以达到目标。他们对性别有特别的好奇心和求知欲。本阶段的发展危机为主动性对罪疚感（自动自发对退缩愧疚）。如果父母鼓励儿童的主动性和想象力，他们便会获得创新精神。如果父母嘲笑或挖苦儿童的创造性和想象力，儿童会丧失自信心。当他们回想起自己被父母讥笑的行为时，就容易产生罪疚感，因而只能过着别人为其安排好的狭隘的生活圈子中。
如果在这一阶段中，儿童发展了较多的主动性或进取精神，就会在人格中形成目的的品质(virtue of purpose)；反之，则在人格中形成无价值感(unworthiness)。
【4】学龄期（六岁至十二岁）：勤奋vs. 自卑
在本阶段，儿童转向学习各种必要的谋生技能和使自己成为社会生产者所具备的专业技能。在这一阶段儿童从所要学的课程中，产生了一种勤奋感，这种感情将使儿童满怀信心地在社会中寻找自己的工作。如果儿童不能发展出勤奋感，就可能产生自卑感。勤奋感占优势的儿童，其人格中就形成了能力的品质(virtue of competence)；相反，则在人格中形成无能感(incompetency)。
埃里克森认为，好的老师在这一阶段对儿童的影响很大。他说：?不止一次，我观察到在那些独具天赋和富有灵感的人们生活中，大多是教师燃起了一个未被发现的天才的内心火焰。‘
【5】青年期（12-18）：自我认同vs. 角色混乱
青春期的主要任务是建立一种新的自我同一性。什么是自我同一性？他有不同的解说，例如：?一种熟悉自身的感觉‘；?一种知道自己将会怎样生活的感觉‘；?在说明被预期的事物时出现的一种内在的自信‘。自我同一性这个词含义非常广泛，包括社会与个人的统合、个人的主体方面与客体方面的统合、自己的历史任务的认识与个人愿望的统合，等等。
虽然，同一性的形成是个终生过程，但这个问题在青春期出现了危机。其原因是：1）各种本能冲动的高涨助长了青年同一性危机。青年人突然觉得仿佛他们的那些冲动已受自己意志的约束，不再为所欲为了。2）青春期身体的急剧变化导致了青少年急切地要认识自己。也许正是这个缘故，这一时期的青少年总是花很多时间对镜左顾右盼，或者耗费不少时间整理自己的仪容。3）承担社会义务压力的青年急切地想了解自己在他人心目中的印象，是否符合他人的心意，并为自己在社会中占有什么地位而苦恼。
如果青年在这一阶段不能建立自我同一性，就会产生角色混淆和消极的同一性。角色混淆(role confusion) 是以不能选择生活角色为特征的，或者只是口头上承担一定的角色，但很快有改变角色。消极的同一性（反向认同）(negative identity) 就是获得为一定的社会文化所不予认可的、令人厌恶的角色。青年往往痛苦地感到他们没有能力持久地承担义务。他们感到要做出的决断来得太多太快。为了避免同一性的提前完结，避免过早接纳四分五裂的社会角色，他们有时就进入了一个心理社会的合法延缓期(psychosocial moratorium)。例如，有些青年人，在做出最后决断之前，暂时离开大学去旅行，或者去经历各种不同的工作。这是青年寻求某种同一性的时期。
随着自我同一性的形成，青年就具备了忠诚的品质(virtue of fidelity)。忠诚就是：?尽管价值体系有着不可避免的矛盾，仍能效忠发自内心誓言的能力。‘如果不能成功地解决本阶段的发展危机，就会在青年人格中留下不确定感(uncertainty)。
【6】成年早期（18-24）：亲密vs. 孤独（男性的最高期。男性主要是寻找性器官的快乐，女性主要是寻找感觉、被接纳。）
艾里克森认为，只有建立起良好同一性的青年才能担当起成年早期的人物——与异性伴侣的亲密关系。只有当一个人确保自己的同一性时，才能在与别人的真正共享中忘却自己。例如，一个青年人只关注自己的男子气概，就不能成为一个最好的情人。他会过分注意自己，不能毫无牵挂地无私而温柔地对待异性伴侣，因而难以与异性情侣达到真正的感情共鸣。他所体验到的是孤独。本阶段的发展危机是亲密对孤独(intimacy vs. isolation)。
为了有益于个人和社会，埃里克森认为应当发展下列的亲密关系：1）感情共鸣的情欲高潮；2）一个值得爱的伴侣；3）异性；4）能够并乐意与他分享相互的信任；5）能够并乐意与他严格遵守：a. 工作周期，b. 生殖周期，c. 娱乐周期；6）还应使后代在所有发展阶段安全满意地发展。在埃里克森看来，真正的亲密感是两个人都愿意共享和互相调节他们生活中的一切重要方面。
如果一个人在此阶段形成的友爱亲密胜过孤僻疏离，那么他就形成爱的品质(virtue of love)。艾里克森把爱定义为：?永远抑制内在分裂机能的互相献身。‘如果不能成功地解决本阶段的发展危机就会导致青年乱婚(promiscuity)。
【7】成年后期（25-65）：繁殖（爱、关怀）vs. 停滞（颓废）
这一阶段的男女成人已建立了家庭，他们的兴趣开始扩展到下一代，生儿育女，关怀下一代的健康发展。他们进入到繁殖对停滞（或精力充沛对颓废迟滞）(generativity vs. stagnation) 的阶段。所谓?繁殖‘具有广泛的意义，不仅指对下一代的照料，而且指通过工作创造事物和思想。
有繁殖感的人是以?停滞和人际贫乏‘为特征的。如果一个人的繁殖感高于停滞感，那么在其人格中就形成关心的品质(virtue of care)。具有这一品质的人，能自觉自愿地关心他人的疾苦和需要，能给他人以温暖和爱。反之，则形成自私的品质(selfishness)。
【8】老年期（65岁至死亡）：自我整合（完美感、成就感）vs. 沮丧、失望
通常把老年看成是身心衰老时期。他们丧失了体力和健康，失去了工作，减少了收入，随着时间的流逝，还丧失了配偶、亲戚和朋友。艾里克森意识到老年人必须作出身体和社会的适应，但他侧重于内心的斗争——即保住潜能，用以维系生存甚至智慧的斗争。他把这种斗争称之为自我整合对失望（integrity vs. despair）。
艾里克森认为，前面七个阶段都能够顺利度过的人，是有幸福生活和有所贡献的人，他们有完美感和充实感，而不怕死亡。这种人在这一段回首往事时，自我是统合的，怀着充实的感情准备告别人间。而回首以往的失败人生者则体验到失望感。由于他们生活中的某一或某些主要目标尚未达到，因而不愿匆匆离开人间，没有面向死亡的准备。
在埃里克森看来，人生八个阶段以循环的方式联系在一起。在第八个阶段中，老年人对死亡的态度会直接影响下一代婴儿期的信任感。如果一个人的自我统合胜过了失望，他就有了智慧的品质(virtue of wisdom)。所谓智慧也就是?以超脱的态度对待生活和死亡‘。反之，则导致无意义感(meaninglessness)和失望(despair)。
艾里克森的生命循环把个体心理发展分为八个阶段。而发展危机是他划分每个阶段的特征性标准。他认为，这八个阶段的顺序是由遗传决定的，每一阶段能否顺利度过是由社会环境决定的。社会配合本能发展的情况，对不同年龄阶段提出不同的发展要求，也表现为“危机”的形式。所以他的理论被称为“心理社会发展阶段理论”。
阶段 1: 年龄0～1岁，发展危机：信赖－不信赖；品质：希望。阶段2：年龄1～3岁，发展危机：自律－羞愧；品质：自我控制。
阶段3：年龄4～5岁，发展危机：创新－罪恶；品质：生活目的。
阶段4：年龄6～11岁，发展危机：勤奋－自卑；品质：能力。阶段5：年龄12～20岁，发展危机：自我同一性－角色混乱品质：忠诚。阶段6：年龄20～24岁，发展危机：亲密－孤独；品质：爱。
阶段7：年龄25～65岁，发展危机：抚育后代－自我关注；品质：关心他人。
阶段8：年龄65～死亡，发展危机：自我整合－失望；品质：智慧。
【1】Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, Birth to 1 year)Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead
learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place.
【2】Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 4 years)Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Main Question: "Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?"
Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore their world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety. At this age, children develop their first interests. For example, a child that enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Children that enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy- a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
【3】Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years)Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt Main Question: "Am I good or am I bad?"
Virtue: Purpose
Related Elements in Society: ideal prototypes/roles
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the sake of being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results.
The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2004), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits. Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors
are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. **
Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and can start new things. With this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people's plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative- independence in planning and undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires[1]
【4】Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 13 years)Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority
Main Question: "How can I be good?"
Virtue: Competence
Related Elements in Society: division of labour
The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play[disambiguation needed]. The fundamentals of technology are developed. To lose the hope of such "industrious" association may pull the child back to the more isolated, less conscious familial rivalry of the oedipal time.
"Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals." They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right." They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen and Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by being disobedient, using back talk and being rebellious.
Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities for children to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things- drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities.
At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed to discover own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self esteem, and lethargy. They may become "couch potatoes" if they are not allowed to develop interests.
【5】Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 14 to 24 years)Psychosocial Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Main Question: "Who am I and where am I going?"
Ego quality: Fidelity
Related Elements in Society: ideology
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In later stages of Adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity.
As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion- mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society- and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.
Erikson is credited with coining the term "Identity Crisis"[2] Each stage that came before and that follows has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because "Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not met by these."[3] This turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between
'the person one has come to be' and 'the person society expects one to become'. This emerging sense of self will be established by 'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads:
What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. Youth is a time of radical change—the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life.[4]
Adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world."[5] This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of 'identity confusion', but society normally makes allowances for youth to "find themselves," and this state is called 'the moratorium':
The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions—and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychological moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore—what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who he or she is.[6]
As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one has been raised, one‘s personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Oftentimes, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and oftentimes parents want to have a decisive say in that role. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing him or her to ?foreclose‘ on exper imentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspect ives of ―What have I got?‖ and ―What am I going to do with it?‖ he or she has established their identity:[2]
Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems.[7]
Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age." In the biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively:
Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed f or adulthood‘s tasks in our technological world. So… we do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties.[8]
【6】Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 25 to 40 years)Main Question: "Am I loved and wanted?" or "Shall I share my life with someone or live alone?"
Virtue: Love
Related Elements in Society: patterns of cooperation (often marriage)
Main article: Young adult (psychology)
The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the ages of 30. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, and it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain, and to some of us, rejection is painful; our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations" (1950).[9][10]
Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships – perhaps because of their own needs – a sense of isolation may result.
[edit] Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 45 to 65 years)Psychosocial Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Main Question: "Will I produce something of real value?"
Virtue: Care
Related Elements in Society: parenting, educating, or other productive social involvement Generativity is the concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. Simply having or wanting children does not in and of itself achieve generativity.
During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity- a sense of productivity and accomplishment- results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation- a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.
【7】Central tasks of Middle AdulthoodExpress love through more than sexual contacts. Maintain healthy life patterns...
Develop a sense of unity with mate.
Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults.
Relinquish central role in lives of grown children.
Accept children's mates and friends.
Create a comfortable home.
Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
Reverse roles with aging parents.
Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
Use leisure time creatively.
Love for mothers
[edit] Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Seniors, 65 years onwards)Psychosocial Crisis: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Main Question: "Have I lived a full life?"
Virtue: Wisdom
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals.
【8】Development of Freudian theoryErikson was a student of Sigmund Freud, whose psychoanalytic theory contributed to the basic outline of the eight stages, at least those concerned with childhood. Namely, the first through fourth of Erikson's life stages correspond to Freud's oral, anal, phallic, and latency phases, respectively. Also, the fifth stage of adolescence is said to parallel the genital stage in psychoanalytic theory:
Although the first three phases are linked to those of the Freudian theory, it can be seen that they are conceived along very different lines. The emphasis is not so much on sexual modes and their consequences as on the ego qualities which emerge from each stages. There is an attempt also to link the sequence of individual development to the broader context of society.[11]
Erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout life, one that did not stop at adolescence. He also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of one generation was the beginning of the next. Seen in its social context, the life stages were linear for an individual but circular for societal development:[12]
In Freud's view, development is largely complete by adolescence. In contrast, one of Freud's students, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) believed that development continues throughout life. Erikson took the foundation laid by Freud and extended it through adulthood and into late life.[13]
[edit] Value of the theoryOne value of this theory is that it illuminated why individuals who had been thwarted in the healthy resolution of early phases (such as in learning healthy levels of trust and autonomy in toddlerhood) had such difficulty with the crises that came in adulthood. More importantly, it did so in a way that provided answers for practical application. It raised new potential for therapists and their patients to identify key issues and skills that required
addressing. But at the same time, it yielded a guide or yardstick that could be used to assess teaching and child rearing practices in terms of their ability to nurture and facilitate healthy emotional and cognitive development.
"Every adult, whether he is a follower or a leader, a member of a mass or of an elite, was once a child. He was once small. A sense of smallness forms a substratum in his mind, ineradicably. His triumphs will be measured against this smallness, his defeats will substantiate it. The questions as to who is bigger and who can do or not do this or that, and to whom—these questions fill the adult's inner life far beyond the necessities and the desirabilities which he understands and for which he plans." - Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994), U.S. psychoanalyst. Childhood and Society, ch. 11 (1950).