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土木工程施工组织设计中英文对照外文翻译文献

土木工程施工组织设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
土木工程施工组织设计中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文资料对照外文翻译

施工进度计划中施工段排序优化的概念分析及施工组织

设计的改进

摘要:施工组织设计作为指导施工全过程各项活动的技术经济的纲领性文件,是施工技术与施工项目管理有机结合的产物,它是工程开工后施工活动能有序、高效、科学合理地进行的保证。随着我国经济的快速发展及市场经济的逐步完善,建筑施工企业普遍面临者市场广阔、利润率低、技术难度加大的现状。因此,如何科学地进行施工组织、降低工程施工成本,成为施工企业应着重考虑的问题之一。

本文作者在查阅了大量资料的基础上,首先对施工进度计划的原理、任务和作用,流水施工原理、组织方法,网络计划技术及其优化进行了系统的归纳和阐述,然后主要对施工段排序优化进行了深入研究,根据作者多年的工程管理实践,从基本概念入手,提出了利用概念分析法进行施工段排序优化的新方法,列出了优化步骤,并且利用VC语言编制了程序来实现施工段排序优化。最后结合两个工程实例,从工程实践角度,证实了该方法的正确性及有效性。并着重指出,该方法不仅可以缩短工期,同时也可以降低施工成本,而且比较适合广大施工企业工程管理人员的实际水平。

关键词:施工进度计划;流水施工;概念分析法;网络计划技术。

随着社会经济的发展和建筑技术的进步,现代建筑施工过程已成为一项十分复杂的生产活动。一个大型建设项目的建筑施工安装工作,不但包括组织成千上万的各种专业建筑工人和数量众多的各类建筑机设备有条不紊地投入工程施工中,而且还包括组织种类繁多的,数以几十甚至几百万吨计的建筑材料、制品和构配件的生产、运输、贮存和供应工作,组织施工机具的供应、维修和保养工作,组织施工现场临时供水、供电、供热以及安排施工现场的生产和生活所需要的各种临时建筑物等工作。这些工作的组织与协调,对于多快好省地进行工程建设具有十分重要的意义。

建筑施工组织的任务就是针对工程施工的复杂性,来研究工程建设的统筹安排与系统管理的客观规律,研究如何组织计划一项拟建工程的全部施工,寻求最合理的组织方法,实现工程建设计划和设计的要求,提供各阶段的施工准备工作内容,对人力、资金、材料、机械和施工方法等进行科学合理的安排,协调施工中各施工单位、各工种之间、资源与时间之间、各项资源之间的合理关系。在整个施工过程中,按照客观的技术经济规律,做出科学合理的安排,以使工程施工取得相对最优的效果。

但是,从施工组织设计编制的特点看:施工组织设计是以单个工程为对象进行编制的,有很强的技术性和综合性,需要编制人员有足够的建筑工程理论基础和一定的实践经验。施工组织设计的内容必须适应工程项目和业主、设计、监理的特殊要求,同时也必须符合国家有关法律、法规、标准及地方规范的要求。施工组织设计编制必须满足最终的一个基本要求即对施工过程起到指导和控制作用,在一定的资源条件下实现工程项目的技术经济效益,达到施工效益与经济效益双赢的目的。

施工组织设计编制目前所存在的缺陷:

1.目前所累积的施工技术资源得不到有效、充分的应用,特别是其中

的智力资源,这一方面是编制人员自身素质和经验不足造成的;另一方面是传播渠道不足不畅通所致。对早已有的成功经验没有进行借鉴,所编制的内容缺乏新技术、新工艺,没有起到提高劳动效率、降低资源消耗的作用。

2.有的施工组织设计编制人员缺乏技术理论基础和具体施工经验,编制中只是对技术规范照搬照抄,而未对具体工程的特点进行有针对性的规划和设计,没有起到指导施工作用。

3.施工组织设计必须对每个工程逐个进行编制,以适应不同工程的特点,但不同编制人员对于同类型的施工工艺在进行编制工作的同时,作了大量不必要的重复劳动,降低了工作效率。

4.现在编制的施工组织设计只作为技术管理制度的一项工作,它主要追求施工效益而很少考虑经济效益,存在只注重组织技术措施,而没注重经济管理的内容,以至在实施过程中不讲成本,没有实现经济效益的目标。

5.目前施工组织设计的编制经常是设计与实施分离,以至造成施工组织设计只是个形式而已,不能真正起到指导施工的作用。

组织管理者必须充分认识施工过程的特点,对所有环节要做到精心组织、严格管理、全面协调好施工中的各种关系。对于特殊复杂的施工过程,要进行科学的分析,弄清主次矛盾,找出关键线路,有的放矢措施,合理组织各种资源的投入顺序、数量、比例,进行科学的工程排队,组织平行交叉流水作业,提高对时间、空间的利用,这样才能取得全面的经济效益和社会效益。

因此,随着科学技术的发展和建筑水平的不断提高,管理体制的进一步完善,原有的传统施工组织设计编制方法已不能适应现在的要求。目前我国已加入了WTO,为了适应日益激烈的市场竞争形势,适应建筑市场和新型施工管理体制的需要,要具备建造现代化建筑物的技术力量和手段,就必须对现在的施工组织设计的编制方法进行改进。实施办法如下:

1.运用系统的观念和方法,建立施工组织设计编制工作的标准。工程管理部门对建筑工程的大中型项目施工组织设计进行收集,经过分析和归纳,整理并发布,则能使先进的施工组织设计更能发挥效益,减少编制人员重复劳动,而且能推广先进经验。

2.施工组织设计的内容就是根据不同工程的特点和要求,根据现有的和可能创造的施工条件,从事实出发,决定各种生产要素的结合方式。选择合理的施工方案是施工组织设计的核心,应根据多年积累的施工技术资源,同时借鉴国内外先进施工技术,运用现代科学管理方法并结合工程项目的特殊性,从技术及经济上互相比较,从中选出最合理的方案来编制施工组织设计,使技术上的可行性同经济上的合理性统一起来。

3.施工组织设计内容应简明扼要,突出目标,结合实际、满足招标文件的需要,要具有竞争性,能体现企业的实力和信誉。

4.实行施工组织设计的模块化编制,更多的运用现代化信息技术,以便进行积累、分组、交流及重复应用,通过各个技术模块的优化组合,减少无效劳动。

5.努力贯彻国家质量管理体系标准,走质量效益型发展道路,建立并完善科学的、规范的质量管理体系。逐项地编制质量保证计划,与施工组织设计工作同时进行,并努力使二者有机结合起来。

6.施工组织设计应扩大深度和范围,对设计图纸的合理性和经济性做出评估,实现设计和施工技术的一体化,扩大技术积累,加快技术转化,使新的技术成果在施工组织设计中得到应用。

在知识经济时代,信息技术在工程项目中已起到越来越大的作用,应大力发展和运用信息技术,重视高新技术的移植和利用,拓宽智力资源的传播渠道,全面改进传统的编制方法,使信息在生产力诸要素中起到核心的作用,逐步实现施工信息自动化、施工作业机器化、施工技术模块化和系统化,以产生更大的经济效益,增强竞争力,在日益激烈的竞争中获得

更好的生存环境。

而现阶段建筑施工组织研究发展的特点是广泛应用数学方法,网络技术和计算技术等定量性方法,应用现代化的计算手段—电子计算机,采用各种有效手段,对整个工程的施工进行工期、成本、质量的控制,达到工期短、质量好和成本低的目的。

施工进度计划利用网络图的方式表达后,可以通过数学推导形成算法或逻辑过程,并利用数值计算迭代,即可直接求得最优方案。施工网络优化不仅能大大节省工作时间,增进决策的科学性,而且能产生巨大的经济效益。

但是,由于施工进度计划的编制过程中将施工对象划分成若干个施工段,则施工队进入不同施工段的顺序不同,施工计划的工期也不同。要在资源固定,保证施工工艺顺序不变的前提下,合理安排施工进度计划的工程排序,缩短工期,则需对不同施工段的施工顺序做出多方案的组合,从中得出最优施工顺序的方案。

In the construction progress plan executes the concept analytic method and the construction organization plan, which the construction section arrangement optimizes

Abstract

The construction organization plan constructs the entire process each activity technical economy Platform as the instruction, is constructs technical and the construction project management organic synthesis product, after it is the project begins to construct the activity to be able to have the foreword, to be highly effective the guarantee which, the science reasonably carries on.。As the development of our country's economy and the consummating of

market-economy system gradually. Many construction corporations are facing the much opportunity, but at the same time, they are facing much difficulty, such as profit-ratio dropping, higher technique. So ,it becomes

more important to construct more reasonably to subdue the cost.

After looking up much material, the author of the article has done much work, such as generalizing the system of net-plan, the effect and principle of low-construction and illuminating the means of making the construction-plan more preferential. The author also has done much work in researching the superiority way of construction-sequence deeply, based on years' experience in construction management ,he start with fundamental concepts and raise the concept analysis way superiority means to line up the steps and achieve it on computer in C .Finally he adduces two project examples to verify it and explain its effect. They manifest that the means dose not only shorten the period, but

also decrease the cost of construction. I argue that the superiority-means about construction practically accommodate the most of construction enterprise.

Keyword:Construction process plan; Concept analy sisway

Construction unit superiority ; Net plan technique

Along with the social economy development and the construction technology progress, the modern architecture construction process has become an extremely complex production activity. A large-scale items of basic construction work, not only includes organizes thousands of each kinds of specialized construction worker and the quantity multitudinous, and each kind of building machine equipment methodically invests in the project construction, moreover also includes the organization type so many to several dozens even several million tons of building materials, products, constructs and their production, transportation, storing and supply work, also the organization construction machines and tools supply, the service and the maintenance, work and so on , each kind of temporary building which the organization job location temporary water supply, the power supply, heating as well as the arrangement job location production and the life needs. These work organizations and the coordination regard economically carrying on the engineering construction having extremely vital significance.

The construction organization's duty is againsting the project construction's complexity, studying the engineering construction the overall plan arrangement and the system administration objective law, to plan how studies organizes construct the project completely, and seek the most reasonable organization method, and the realization engineering construction plans the request which and designs, provides various stages the construction preparatory

work content, to the manpower, the fund, the material, the machinery and the job practice and so on carries on the science reasonable arrangement, in the coordinated construction between each construction, various kinds of work in a factory, the resources and the time, each item of resources reasonable relations. In the entire construction process, according to the objective technology economic law, makes the science reasonable arrangement, by causes the project construction to obtain the relative most superior effect.

Looked from the construction organization plan establishment characteristic that, The construction organization plan is carries on the establishment take the single project as the object, has the very strong technical nature and the comprehensive nature, needs the establishment of strength to have the enough architectural engineering rationale and the certain experience. The construction organization plan content must adapt the engineering project and the owner, the design, the overseeing special request, at the same time also must conform to the national relevant law, the laws and regulations, the standard and the place standard request. The construction organization plan establishment must satisfy a final basic request namely to get up to the construction process to the instruction and the control action, realizes the engineering project technology economic efficiency under the certain resources condition, achieved the construction benefit and the economic efficiency double win goal.

The construction organization plan establishment exists at present flaw:

1. at present accumulates the construction technological resource cannot obtain, the full application effectively, especially intelligence resources, this on the one hand is establishment of strength own quality and is insufficiently experienced creates; On the other hand is disseminates the channel insufficiency not to be the result of. To the success experience that already has not carried on the model, establishes the content lacks the new technology, the new craft, to the enhancement labor efficiency, reduces the resources

consumption the function.

2.Some construction organization plan establishments of strength lack of the technology rationale and the concrete construction experience, in the establishment only are imitate to the technology standard copy verbatim, but has not carried on to the concrete project characteristic has the pointed plan and the design, does not have to the instruction construction function.

3.The construction organization plan must carry on the establishment to each project one by one, by adapts the different project characteristic, but the different establishment of strength while carries on the establishment work regarding the similar construction craft, has made the massive nonessential repetitions work, reduced the working efficiency.

4. Now establishes the construction organization plan only took the technical management system a work, it mainly pursues the construction benefit but very little to consider the economic efficiency, the existence only pays great attention to the organization technology measure, but has not paid great attention to the economical management the content, down to does not speak the cost in the implementation process, has not achieved the economic efficiency goal.

5. At present the construction organization plan establishment is frequently the design and the implementation separates, down to create the construction organization plan only is a form, cannot be true to the instruction construction function.

Organizes the superintendent to have fully to know the construction process the characteristic, must achieve the careful organization, the strict management to all links, and comprehensively coordinates in the good construction each kind of relations. Regarding the special complex construction process, must carry on the science the analysis, clarifies the primary and secondary contradiction, discovers the essential line, the measure, reasonably organizes each kind of resources with a clear goal the investment order, the

quantity, the proportion, carries on the science the project to line up, the organization parallel overlapping streamlined production, enhances to the time, the spatial use, like this can obtain the comprehensive economic efficiency and the social efficiency.

Along with the science and technology development and the construction level unceasing enhancement, manages the system the further consummation, the original tradition construction organization plan establishment method has not been able to adept the present request. At present our country has joined WTO, in order to adapt day by day the intense market competition situation, the adaption construction market and the new construct control system need, must have the construction modernization building technical force and the method, must make the improvement to the present construction organization plan establishment method. Implementation means as follows:

1. using the system idea and the method, establish the construction organization plan establishment works the standard. The project management department carries on the collection to the architectural engineering large and middle scale projects construction organization plan, the process analysis and the induction, the reorganization and the issue, then can enable the advanced construction organization plan to display the benefit, reduces the establishment of strength to duplicate works, moreover can promote the advanced experience.

2. The construction organization plan content is according to the different project characteristic and the request, according to construction condition which existing and possibly creates, embarks from the fact, decides each kind of element of production the union way. Chooses the reasonable construction plan is the construction organization plan core, should act according to many years accumulation the construction technological resource, at the same time profits from the domestic and foreign advanced constructions technology, the utilization modern scientific management method and the union engineering project particularity, from technology and economy mutual comparison, selects

the most reasonable plan to establish the construction organization plan, causes in technical in the feasible same economy rationality to unify.

3. The construction organization plan content should be brief and to the point, the prominent goal, the union is actual, satisfies the tender document the need, must have competitiveness, can manifest the enterprise the strength and the prestige.

4.Implementation construction organization plan modular establishment, more utilization modernization information technology, in order to carries on the accumulation, the grouping, the exchange and the repetition application, through each technical module optimum composition, reduces the invalid work.

5. Implements the country quality control system standard diligently, walks the quality efficiency development path, the establishment and the consummation science, the standard quality control system. Establishes the quality guarantee plan item by item, carries on with the construction organization plan work also, and causes the two organic syntheses diligently.

6. The construction organization plan should expand the depth and the scope, makes the appraisal to the design paper rationality and the efficiency, the realization designs and constructs the technical integration, the expanded technology accumulates, speeds up the technology to transform, enable the new technical achievement to obtain the application in the construction organization plan.

In the knowledge economy time, the information technology in the engineering project to the more and more major function, should develop and the utilization information technology vigorously, takes the high technology and new technology the transplant and the use, opens up the intelligence resources the dissemination channel, comprehensively improves traditional the establishment method, causes the information in the productive forces various essential factors to the core function, realizes the construction information automation, construction work , the construction technology modulation and the

土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译

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外文文献: Designing Against Fire Of Buliding John Lynch ABSTRACT: This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electrical systems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are considered in the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed. 1 INTRODUCTION Other papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the

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不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反,有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了,然而,如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导,那么,得以发展的就只能是好的结构,并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何,要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计,两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论,但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低,中高度的建筑中常用的体系,它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系,或者和其他体系结合起来使用,以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑,可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系,这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS,STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地,由于柱梁节点固有柔性,并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点,所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然,在设计的后期阶段,实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强,在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色,它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑,并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。

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( 二 〇 一 二 年 六 月 外文文献及翻译 题 目: About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名: 学 院:土木工程学院 系 别:建筑工程系 专 业:土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班 级:土木08-4班 指导教师:

英文原文: Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing Abstract The crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing Foreword Concrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the

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7 Rigid-Frame Structures A rigid-frame high-rise structure typically comprises parallel or orthogonally arranged bents consisting of columns and girders with moment resistant joints. Resistance to horizontal loading is provided by the bending resistance of the columns, girders, and joints. The continuity of the frame also contributes to resisting gravity loading, by reducing the moments in the girders. The advantages of a rigid frame are the simplicity and convenience of its rectangular form.Its unobstructed arrangement, clear of bracing members and structural walls, allows freedom internally for the layout and externally for the fenestration. Rig id frames are considered economical for buildings of up to' about 25 stories, above which their drift resistance is costly to control. If, however, a rigid frame is combined with shear walls or cores, the resulting structure is very much stiffer so that its height potential may extend up to 50 stories or more. A flat plate structure is very similar to a rigid frame, but with slabs replacing the girders As with a rigid frame, horizontal and vertical loadings are resisted in a flat plate structure by the flexural continuity between the vertical and horizontal components. As highly redundant structures, rigid frames are designed initially on the basis of approximate analyses, after which more rigorous analyses and checks can be made. The procedure may typically inc lude the following stages: 1. Estimation of gravity load forces in girders and columns by approximate method. 2. Preliminary estimate of member sizes based on gravity load forces with arbitrary increase in sizes to allow for horizontal loading. 3. Approximate allocation of horizontal loading to bents and preliminary analysis of member forces in bents. 4. Check on drift and adjustment of member sizes if necessary. 5. Check on strength of members for worst combination of gravity and horizontal loading, and adjustment of member sizes if necessary. 6. Computer analysis of total structure for more accurate check on member strengths and drift, with further adjustment of sizes where required. This stage may include the second-order P-Delta effects of gravity loading on the member forces and drift.. 7. Detailed design of members and connections.

土木工程外文翻译参考3篇

学校 毕业设计(论文)附件 外文文献翻译 学号: xxxxx 姓名: xxx 所在系别: xxxxx 专业班级: xxx 指导教师: xxxx 原文标题: Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing 2012年月日 .

建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理1 摘要 混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题,本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析,并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。 关键词:混凝土裂缝预防处理 前言 混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题,硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝,正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝,对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后,微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通,最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝,也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。 混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的,由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀,降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力,影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命,严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明,在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的,在一定的范围内也是可以接受的,只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定:有些结构在所处的不同条件下,允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生,使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度,尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现,从而确保工程质量。 混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多,有变形引起的裂缝:如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝;有外载作用引起的裂缝;有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。在实际工程中要区别对待,根据实际情况解决问题。 混凝土工程中常见裂缝及预防: 1.干缩裂缝及预防 干缩裂缝多出现在混凝土养护结束后的一段时间或是混凝土浇筑完毕后的一周左右。水泥浆中水分的蒸发会产生干缩,且这种收缩是不可逆的。干缩裂缝的产生主要是由于混凝土内外水分蒸发程度不同而导致变形不同的结果:混凝土受外部条件的影响,表面水分损失过快,变形较大,内部湿度变化较小变形较小,较大的表面干缩变形受到混凝土内部约束,产生较大拉应力而产生裂缝。相对湿度越低,水泥浆体干缩越大,干缩裂缝越易产 1原文出处及作者:《加拿大土木工程学报》

土木工程毕业设计中英文翻译

附录:中英文翻译 英文部分: LOADS Loads that act on structures are usually classified as dead loads or live loads are fixed in location and constant in magnitude throughout the life of the the self-weight of a structure is the most important part of the structure and the unit weight of the density varies from about 90 to 120 pcf (14 to 19 KN/m)for lightweight concrete,and is about 145 pcf (23 KN/m)for normal calculating the dead load of structural concrete,usually a 5 pcf (1 KN/m)increment is included with the weight of the concrete to account for the presence of the reinforcement. Live loads are loads such as occupancy,snow,wind,or traffic loads,or seismic may be either fully or partially in place,or not present at may also change in location. Althought it is the responsibility of the engineer to calculate dead loads,live loads are usually specified by local,regional,or national codes and sources are the publications of the American National Standards Institute,the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and,for wind loads,the recommendations of the ASCE Task Committee on Wind Forces. Specified live the loads usually include some allowance for overload,and may include measures such as posting of maximum loads will not be is oftern important to distinguish between the

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