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Kinney 8e_SM Ch02

Kinney 8e_SM Ch02
Kinney 8e_SM Ch02

CHAPTER 2

COST TERMINOLOGY AND COST BEHAVIORS

QUESTIONS

1. The term cost is used to refer to so many different concepts that an adjective

must be attached to identify which particular type of cost is being discussed. For example, there are fixed costs, variable costs, period costs, product costs,

expired costs, and opportunity costs, to name just a few.

2. A cost object is anything for which management wants to collect or accumulate

costs. Before a cost can be specified as direct or indirect, the cost object must be identified. Since direct costs must be conveniently and economically traceable to the cost object, not knowing what the cost object in question is would make it

impossible to identify direct costs. For example, if multiple products are made in the same production area, the salary of the area’s manager would be direct to the production area but indirect to the different products. Indirect costs must be allocated in some rational and systematic manner to the cost object.

3. The assumed ran ge of activity that reflects the company’s normal operating

range is referred to as the relevant range. Outside the relevant range, costs may be curvilinear because of purchase discounts, improved worker skill and

productivity, worker crowding, loss in employee efficiency during overtime hours, etc. Although a curvilinear graph is more indicative of reality, it is not as easy to use in planning or controlling costs. Accordingly, accountants choose the range in which these fixed and variable costs are assumed to behave as they are

defined (linear) and, as such, represent an approximation of reality.

4. It is not necessary for a causal relationship to exist between the cost predictor

and the cost. All that is required is that there is a strong correlation between

movement in the predictor and the cost. Alternatively, a cost driver is an activity that actually causes costs to be incurred.

The distinction between cost drivers and predictors is important because it

relates to one of the objectives of managers: to control costs. By focusing cost control efforts on cost drivers, managers can exert control over costs. Exerting control over predictors that are not cost drivers will have no cost control effect. 5. A product cost is one that is associated with inventory. In a manufacturing

company, product costs would include direct materials, direct labor, and

overhead. In a merchandizing company, product costs are the costs of

purchasing inventory and the related freight-in costs. In a service company,

product costs are those costs that are incurred to generate the services provided such as supplies, service labor, and service-related overhead costs.

In all three types of organizations, a period cost is any cost that is not a product cost. These costs are non-inventoriable and are incurred in the non-factory or

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non-production areas of a manufacturing company or in the non-sales or non-

service areas, respectively, of a retailer or service company. In general, these

costs are incurred for selling and administrative activities. Many period costs are expensed when incurred, although some may be capitalized as prepaid

expenses or other nonfactory assets.

6. Conversion cost is the sum of direct labor and overhead. Conversion is the

process that converts raw materials and other inputs into salable products

(output).

7. Factory overhead has been growing most rapidly because of the costs of

technology. This cost category includes depreciation of factory and plant

equipment, machinery maintenance cost, repair cost, some training costs, utilities expense to operate the machinery, and many costs related to quality control.

8. The only difference between the two systems is in their treatment of overhead.

Under a normal cost system, a level of activity is chosen and the budgeted

amount of overhead is determined before a period begins. Overhead is then

applied to products as production occurs by using a predetermined overhead

application rate. Under an actual cost system, actual overhead is added to

production. Because actual overhead cannot be determined until the period

ends, the overhead allocation occurs and product cost can be determined only at period-end.

The major advantage of using a normal cost system is that it allows a product’s

cost to be determined (estimated) at the time of production. Another major

advantage is that a normal cost system provides a product cost that is stable

across fluctuating levels of production and sales.

9. The cost of goods manufactured (CGM) is the total production cost of the goods

that were completed and transferred to Finished Goods Inventory during the

period. This amount is similar to the cost of net purchases in the cost of goods

sold schedule for a retailer. Since CGM is used in computing cost of goods sold, it appears on the income statement.

Chapter 2 3

EXERCISES

10. a. Direct

b. Direct

c. Direct

d. Indirect

e. Direct

f. Direct

g. Indirect

h. Direct

i. Direct

11. Cost Object__________

Laptop Plant Touch pad and buttons Direct Direct

Glue Indirect Direct

Network connector Direct Direct

Battery Direct Direct

Paper towels used by line employees Indirect Direct

AC adapter Direct Direct

CD drive Direct Direct

Mother board Direct Direct

Screws Indirect Direct

Oil for production machinery Indirect Direct

12. Cost Object__________

Kennedy Tax Services Firm

a. Four hours of Perkins’s time Direct n/a Direct

b. Six hours of assistant’s time Direct Direct Direct

c. Three hours of Morris’s time n/a n/a Direct

d. Eight hours of CPE for Tompkin n/a Direct Direct

e. One hour at lunch n/a n/a n/a

f. Two hours of Perkins’s time Direct n/a Direct

g. One-half hour of Tompkin’s time Direct Direct Direct

h. Janitorial wages n/a n/a Direct

i. Seven hours of Tompkin’s time Direct Direct Direct

13. a. Cardboard, $0.40; cloth, $1; plastic, $0.50; depreciation, $0.60;

supervisors’ salaries, $1.60; and utilities, $0.30; total cost, $4.40.

b. Cardboard, variable; cloth, variable; plastic, variable; depreciation, fixed;

supervisors’ salaries, fixed; and utilities, mixed.

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c. If the company produces 10,000 caps this month, the total cost per unit will

increase. The variable costs (cardboard, cloth, plastic) will remain constant

per unit. The total cost for depreciation and supervisors’ salaries will remain

fixed, and, thus, will result in a higher cost per unit. The utility cost will go

down in total but, because it is mixed, it is impossible (without other

information) to estimate its total or per unit cost. Without knowing the cost

formula for utility costs, it is impossible to determine the total cost of making

10,000 caps.

14. a. & b. Per Unit Per Set

Cardboard boxes ($1,000 ÷ 2,000) $0.50 $ 0.50

Mallets ($12,000 ÷ 4,000) 3.00 6.00

Croquet balls ($9,000 ÷ 12,000) 0.75 4.50

Wire hoops ($3,600 ÷ 24,000) 0.15 1.80

Production worker wages ($8,400 ÷ 2,000) ? 4.20

Supervisor’s salary ($2,600 ÷ 2,000)? 1.30

Building and equipment rental ($2,800 ÷ 2,000) ? 1.40

Utilities ($1,300 ÷ 2,000) ? 0.65

Total $20.35

c. Estimated cost per set in March is

Cardboard boxes ($1,000 ÷ 2,000) $ 0.50

Mallets ($12,000 ÷ 4,000; $3 x 2) 6.00

Croquet balls ($9,000 ÷ 12,000; $0.75 x 6) 4.50

Wire hoops ($3,600 ÷ 24,000; $0.15 x 12) 1.80

Production worker wages ($8,400 ÷ 2,500) 3.36

Super visor’s salary ($2,600 ÷ 2,500) 1.04

Building and equipment rental ($2,800 ÷ 2,500) 1.12

Utilities ($1,400 ÷ 2,500) 0.56

Total $18.88

15. a. Total fixed cost $ 37,500

Total variable cost (15,000 tickets x $10) 150,000

Total cost $187,500

b. Total cost $187,500

Desired profit margin (15,000 tickets x $8) 120,000

Total sales price $307,500

Divided by assumed number of tickets sold ÷ 15,000

Selling price per ticket $ 20.50

Chapter 2 5

c. Total revenue (5,000 tickets x $20.50) $102,500

Total cost:

Fixed $ 37,500

Variable (5,000 x $10) 50,000 (87,500) Net profit $ 25,000

d. The assumption made was that 15,000 tickets would be sold. The fraternity

should have been informed that the fixed cost per ticket would vary,

depending on the number of tickets sold. By spreading the fixed cost over

fewer tickets, the fraternity would make less profit the fewer tickets that were

sold.

e. Total revenue (20,000 tickets x $20.50) $410,000

Total cost:

Fixed $ 37,500

Variable (20,000 x $10) 200,000 (237,500) Net profit $172,500

16. a. 1. 200 returns:

Total cost = $2,000 + ($9 x 200) = $3,800

Cost per unit = $3,800 ÷ 200 = $19.00

2. 500 returns:

Total cost = $2,000 + ($9 x 500) = $6,500

Cost per unit = $6,500 ÷ 500 = $13.00

3. 800 returns:

Total cost = $2,000 + ($9 x 800) = $9,200

Cost per unit = $9,200 ÷ 800 = $11.50

b. The fixed cost per unit varies inversely with activity. Therefore, as the activity

(tax returns prepared) increases, the fixed cost per unit decreases.

c. $15,000 ÷ 200 = $75; $75 + $19 = $94 fee to charge per return

$94 x 800 = $75,200 total fees; $75,200 – $9,200 = $66,000

17. a. 1. Number of clients contacted, number of new clients generated, number of

miles traveled (if driving), number of nights away from home.

2. Number of supplies requisitions, number of hours worked, number of

copies made

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3. Purchase price of computers and depreciation method chosen (number of

hours of computer usage, number of hours worked, expected years of

service)

4. Number of hours worked, number of times maintenance crew visits the

accounting firm, number of months in period (if maintenance is a strict

fixed cost per month)

b. The distinction between a cost predictor and a cost driver is whether the

activity measure actually causes the cost to be incurred. A cost predictor is

merely an activity that changes with changes in the cost. A cost driver

causes costs to be incurred. Of the costs addressed in part (a), cost drivers

that could also be cost predictors would be 1) number of miles traveled, 2)

number of times supplies are requisitioned, 3) number of hours worked, and 4)

number of times maintenance visited the accounting firm.

18. a. Number of patients processed

b. Number of patients scheduled

c. Number of surgeries scheduled

d. Number of surgeries scheduled

e. Number of tests ordered

f. Number of patients getting tests (if all tests are performed in same lab

at the same time) or Number of tests ordered (if patient has to be

moved to multiple labs or for multiple tests)

g. Number of lab tests administered

h. Number of patients moved

i. Number of surgeries performed

j. Number of surgeries performed

k. Number of medications administered

l. Number of patients moved

m. Number of patients discharged (it is possible that not all patients are discharged)

n. Number of insurance companies to be billed

19. a. V, PT (could be mixed)

b. V, PD

c. F, PD

d. V, PT

e. F, PT

f. V, PT (could be fixed if paper towel rolls are replaced at specific

intervals regardless of need)

g. F, PD (could be product if assistants are assigned to work on specific

projects)

h. V, PT (could be fixed)

i. V, PT

j. V, PT

Chapter 2 7 k. F, PT (would be fixed because it was charged for the truckload rather than for an individual piece of furniture; may be considered a period

cost and not attached to the individual pieces of furniture)

20.

a. F, OH

b. V, DM

c. V, DM

d. V, OH (assuming cost is insignificant)

e. V, DM

f. F, OH

g. V, DM

h. F, OH

i. F, OH j. V, DM k. V, DL l. V, DM m. V, DM n. V, DM

21. a. $600,000 - $60,000 = $540,000 depreciable cost

$540,000 ÷ 10 years = $54,000 depreciation per year

(480 ÷ 600) ($54,000) = $43,200 is expired cost (part of product OH)

b. Cost of goods sold $43,200

Finished goods inventory $10,800

22. a. One month of insurance ($18,600 ÷ 6) $ 3,100

Bonus to corporate president 10,000

Utility cost on headquarters ($20,000 x .40) 8,000

Total $21,100

b. Five months of insurance ($18,600 x 5/6) $15,500

Seminar fee 1,000

Total $16,500

c. Property taxes ($15,000 x 1/3) $ 5,000

Utility cost on factory ($20,000 x .60) 12,000

Total $17,000

d. Product costs are assigned to products made; thus, the costs cannot be

classified as expired or unexpired because it is not known whether the

associated products made during May were sold. If sold, the costs would be

expired; if unsold, the costs would be unexpired and be accumulated in the

Finished Goods account.

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23. a. Mfg.

b. Mfg., Mer., Ser.

c. Mfg., Mer., Ser.

d. Mer. (although manufacturers might refer to Finished Goods Inventory in this

manner)

e. Mfg., Mer., Ser.

f. Mf

g.

g. Ser.

h. Mfg., Mer.

i. Mfg., Ser.

24.

a. high

b. low

c. low

d. high

e. high

f. high

g. moderate

h. high

i. high

j. moderate or low

25. a. Rivets and aluminum = $12,510 + $1,683,000 = $1,695,510

The janitorial supplies and the sealant are indirect materials.

b. Aluminum cutters and welders = $56,160 + $156,000 = $212,160

The janitorial wages and factory supervisor salaries are indirect labor.

The salesperson s’ salaries are period costs.

26. a. Stainless steel, plastic, and wooden blocks =

$800,000 + $5,600 + $24,800 = $830,400

b. $500,000 (equipment operators)

c. $6,000 indirect material (oil and grease)

$354,000 indirect labor (mechanics and supervisors)

27. Direct material:

Mulch $ 320

Landscaping rock 1,580

Plants and pots 1,950 $3,850 Direct labor:

Trumble’s salary ($3,000 ÷ 20 = $150 per day;

$150 x 2 days to design) $ 300

Gardeners’ wages ($3,840 ÷ 20 = $192 pe r day;

$192 x 5 days to complete) 960 $1,260 Overhead:

Allocated depreciation ($200 ÷ 20 work days) $ 10

Construction permit 95

Allocated rent (150 ÷ 3,000 = 5%; $2,400 x .05 = $120;

$120 ÷ 30 = $4 per day x 2 days) 8*

Allocated utility bills ($1,800 x .05 = $90; $90 ÷ 30 =

$3 per day x 2 days) 6* $119

Chapter 2 9

*Note: The rent and utility bills were allocated only because of the designer’s use of space in the company offices. Given the immaterial amount of these

allocations, Carolyn Gardens may simply want to treat these costs as period

costs rather than attempting to trace them to individual jobs. Thus, an answer of $105 for overhead would also be reasonable.

28. a. 6,000 total hours – 5,000 regular hours = 1,000 overtime hours

b. Direct labor: 5,000 hours x $9 per hour = $45,000

Overhead: $54,000 - $45,000 = $9,000

c. Shift premiums:

Second shift: 10% x $9 = $0.90

Overtime premium: 75% x $9 = $6.75

Overhead costs:

Second shift premium: 2,500 hours x $0.90 = $2,250

Overtime premium: 1,000 hours x $6.75 = $6,750

29. a. 32,000 total hours – 27,000 regular hours = 5,000 overtime hours

b. Direct labor: 32,000 hours x $12 per hour = $384,000

Overhead: $435,600 - $384,000 = $51,600

c. Shift premiums:

Second shift: 8% x $12 = $0.96

Third shift: 12% x $12 = $1.44

Overtime premium: 50% x $12 = $6.00

Manufacturing overhead costs:

Second shift premium: 9,000 hours x $0.96 = $8,640

Third shift premium: 9,000 hours x $1.44 = $12,960

Overtime premium: 5,000 hours x $6.00 = $30,000

30. a. Property tax overhead cost for February = $48,000 ÷ 12 = $4,000

Property tax OH cost for remainder of 2010 = $44,000

Actual Feb. OH costs = $530,000 - $124,000 - $44,000 + $81,000 = $443,000

b. February OH cost per unit = $443,000 ÷ 50,000 = $8.86

Total product cost in February = $24.30 + $10.95 + $8.86 = $44.11

c. If actual costs are used, product costs will differ each perio

d. For example,

January utility cost per unit was ($124,000 ÷50,000) or $2.48 compared to

February’s cost per unit of ($81,000 ÷ 50,000) or $1.62. However, a normal

cost system uses a predetermined overhead rate that provides a smoothing

effect to overhead cost variations over an annual period.

Chapter 2 10

31.

Direct materials used $ 24,000

Direct labor 126,000 Overhead 42,000

Current manufacturing costs 192,000 Less: increase in Work in process inventory ( 23,000)

Cost of goods manufactured $169,000

Since work-in-process increased by $23,000, current manufacturing

costs must have been $23,000 more than cost of goods manufactured.

32. a. Beginning WIP Inventory $ 372,000

Raw material used $612,000

Direct labor 748,000

Manufacturing overhead 564,000 1,924,000

$2,296,000 Ending WIP Inventory (436,000)

Cost of goods manufactured $1,860,000

Note: The beginning and ending balances of Raw Material Inventory are not

used because no information is given on raw material purchases for the

month but the amount of RM used is specifically provided.

b. Beginning FG Inventory $ 224,000

Cost of goods manufactured 1,860,000

Cost of goods available for sale $2,084,000

Ending FG Inventory (196,000)

Cost of goods sold $1,888,000

Chapter 2 11 33. a. Irresistible Art

Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured

For the Month Ended July 31, 2010

Beginning WIP Inventory $ 146,400

Beginning RM Inventory $ 93,200

Raw material purchased 656,000

Raw material available $749,200

Ending RM Inventory (69,600)

Raw material used $679,600

Indirect material used (plugged) (175,600)

Direct material used (given) 504,000

Direct labor ($788,000 x 0.75) 591,000

Overhead:

Various (given) $600,000

Indirect material (from above) 175,600

Indirect labor ($788,000 x 0.25) 197,000 972,600

Total cost to account for $2,214,000

Ending WIP Inventory (120,000)

Cost of goods manufactured $2,094,000

b. Irresistible Art

Schedule of Cost of Goods Sold

For the Month Ended July 31, 2010

Beginning FG Inventory $ 72,000

Cost of goods manufactured 2,094,000

Goods available for sale $2,166,000

Ending FG Inventory (104,800)

Cost of goods sold $2,061,200

34. a. Targé Co.

Cost of Goods Sold Schedule

For the Month Ended March 31, 2010

Beginning FG Inventory (given)$ 125,000

Cost of goods manufactured 2,537,500

Cost of goods available for sale $2,662,500

Ending FG Inventory (given) (18,400)

Cost of goods sold (given)$2,644,100

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b. Targé Co.

Cost of Goods Manufactured Schedule

For the Month Ended March 31, 2010

Beginning WIP Inventory (given) $ 90,000

Direct material:

Beginning DM Inventory (given)$ 30,000

Direct material purchased 1,182,000

Direct material available $1,212,000

Ending DM Inventory (given) (42,000)

Direct material used 1,170,000

Direct labor 400,000

Overhead 900,000

Total cost to account for $2,560,000*

Ending WIP Inventory ($90,000 x .25) (22,500)

Cost of goods manufactured (from part a) $2,537,500 *Total cost to account for = Beg. WIP + DM used + DL + OH

$2,560,000 = $90,000 + $1,170,000 + DL + OH

DL + OH = $2,560,000 - $90,000 - $1,170,000

DL + OH = $1,300,000

OH = 225% of DL = 2.25 DL

DL + 2.25 DL = $1,300,000

3.25 DL = $1,300,000

DL = $400,000

OH = $400,000 x 2.25 = $900,000

c. Prime cost = DM + DL

= $1,170,000 + $400,000

= $1,570,000

d. Conversion cost = DL + OH

= $400,000 + $900,000

= $1,300,000

35. a. Work in Process Inventory 5,000

Supplies Inventory 5,000 To record supplies usage for audit engagements

Travel Expense 8,000

Cash 8,000 To record travel expenses for partner

Fixed Overhead Control 6,500

Accumulated Depreciation – laptops 6,500 To record laptop depreciation

Chapter 2 13 Depreciation Expense 52,500

Fixed Overhead Control 97,500

Accumulated Depreciation – building 150,000 To record depreciation on NYC building

Work in Process Inventory 200,000

Salaries Payable 200,000 To accrue partner salaries

Work in Process Inventory 257,900

Salaries Payable 257,900 To accrue audit salaries

Work in Process Inventory 19,400

Cash 19,400 To record audit-related travel costs

Insurance Expense 6,055

Fixed Overhead Control 11,245

Prepaid Insurance and Taxes 17,300 To record expiration of prepaid insurance and property taxes on

downtown building

Variable Overhead Control 3,400

Wages Payable 3,400 To accrue secretarial wages

Salaries Payable 457,900

Wages Payable 3,400

Cash 461,300 To pay accrued salaries and wages

b. Cost of Services Rendered:

Supplies used $ 5,000

Labor: Partner salaries $200,000

Audit salaries 257,900 457,900

Overhead: Laptop depreciation $ 6,500

Depreciation on building 97,500

Travel 19,400

Insurance and taxes 11,245

Indirect labor 3,400 138,045

Total cost of services rendered $600,945

Chapter 2 14

36. Direct labor ($16,200 + $6,280) $22,480

Overhead:

Supplies ($4,800 - $2,200) $2,600

Utilities ($2,700 x 0.90) 2,430

Office salaries ($1,900 x 0.20) 380

Depreciation 3,700

Building rental ($3,100 x 0.80) 2,480 11,590

Cost of services rendered $34,070

Chapter 2 15

PROBLEMS

37. Type of

Cost Variable Fixed Direct Indirect Period Product

Paint X X X

Spirits X X X

Brushes X X X

Overalls X X X

Ad X X

Assistant X X X

Oper. Costs*X X X

Map X X X

Tolls X X X

Phone X X

*Some variable costs would be direct if miles to and from particular jobs are

recorded.

38. a. At 80,000 boxes per month:

Material and labor costs ($79,000 ÷ 500) $ 158.00

Overhead ($408,000 ÷ 80,000) 5.10

Total cost per box $163.10

b. At 120,000 boxes per month:

Material and labor costs ($79,000 ÷ 500) $ 158.00

Overhead ($408,000 ÷ 120,000) 3.40

Total cost per box $161.40

c. Material and labor (excluding labor design) $ 118.00

Overhead 3.40

Total $ 121.40

Cost at 80,000 boxes $163.10

Cost at 120,000 boxes (excluding labor design) (121.40)

Maximum labor design costs $ 41.70

d. At 80,000 boxes:

Sales ($195 x 80,000 boxes) $15,600,000

Cost of sales ($163.10 x 80,000 boxes) (13,048,000)

Gross margin $2,552,000

Desired gross margin $2,552,000

Cost of sales ($161.40 x 120,000 boxes) 19,368,000

Sales needed $21,920,000

$21,920,000 ÷ 120,000 boxes = $182.67 sales price per box

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16

e. No, the variable costs per box are constant and the fixed costs remain the

same in total at any level of production.

39. a. At 150,000 meals per month:

Material and labor costs ($9,320 ÷ 2,000) $ 4.66

Overhead ($1,200,000 ÷ 150,000) 8.00

Total cost per meal $12.66

b. At 300,000 meals per month:

Material and labor costs ($9,320 ÷ 2,000) $ 4.66

Overhead ($1,200,000 ÷ 300,000) 4.00

Total cost per meal $8.66

c. Material and labor (excluding meat)($5,720 ÷2,000) $ 2.86

Overhead at 300,000 meals 4.00

Total cost without meat $ 6.86

Cost at 150,000 meals $12.66

Cost at 300,000 meals (excluding meat) (6.86)

Maximum meat cost per meal $ 5.80

Current meat cost ($3,600 ÷ 2,000) (1.80)

Potential increase in meat cost $ 4.00

d. $21.92 ÷ 2 = $10.96 maximum cost per meal

Maximum meal cost $10.96

Current costs for material and labor (4.66)

Cost per unit for overhead $ 6.30

Overhead ÷ Cost per unit = Total meals

$1,200,000 ÷ $6.30 = 190,476 or 192,000 if meals must be produced in

2,000 unit batches

e. The firm would be less profitable if the manager decided to produce

192,000 dinners, but could only sell the same 150,000 the company is

currently selling. The manager might accept retaining the business to

boost h is reputation as a ―deal-maker‖ so as to obtain another position

before the financial results were reported.

Current profitability:

Sales (150,000 x $25.32) $3,798,000

Variable cost of meals (150,000 x $4.66) (699,000)

Fixed overhead (1,200,000)

Profitability $1,899,000

Increase production but cannot increase sales:

Chapter 2 17 Sales (150,000 x $21.92) $3,288,000

Variable cost of meals (192,000 x $4.66) (894,720)

Fixed overhead (1,200,000)

Profitability $1,193,280

40. a. printing invitations: step fixed

preparing the theater: step fixed

postage: variable

building stage sets: fixed

printing programs: fixed

security: fixed

script: fixed

b. Members attending = 300 x .60 = 180 members

Attendance estimate = 180 + [(90 x 1) + (90 x 2)] = 450 people

Fixed and step fixed costs = $360 + $900 + $1,800 + $350 + {3 x [$110 + (5 x $30)]} + $2,000 = $6,190

Variable cost = $0.60 x 450 = $270

Total cost = $6,190 + $270 = $6,460

c. $6,460 ÷ 450 = $14.36 (rounded)

d. Member attendance = 300 x .90 = 270

Attendance estimate = 270 + (270 x 2) = 810 people

Fixed and step fixed costs = $450 + $1,200 + $1,800 + $350 + {3 x [$110 + (5 x $30)]} + $2,000 = $6,580

Variable cost = $0.60 x 810 = $486

Total cost = $6,580 + $486 = $7,066

Cost per person = $7,066 ÷ 810 = $8,72 (rounded)

The reduction in per-person cost is caused by the fact that, even though

some of the step fixed costs increase, the total fixed costs are spread over

more attendees.

41. 1. C

2. H

3. D

4. L

5. E

6. G

7. A

8. F

9. J

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18

42. a. Determining the cost of a product merely involves tracing direct costs to

production and finding some systematic method of allocating indirect

production costs to products. Controlling these costs involves completely

different issues. Control of production costs requires a focus on both the

product costs and the related cost drivers. Such costs can only be controlled

by controlling the activity levels of the main production cost drivers.

b. The advancement of technology does make costs more difficult to control. As

technology has become more pervasive in manufacturing, the indirect

manufacturing costs have grown relative to production volume. Hence,

controlling production volume has little to do with the control of more and

more production costs. Further, with the growth in the indirect costs (such as

automated technology depreciation), it is more difficult to trace production

costs to specific products. This difficulty adds to the complexity of cost control

because the relationship between production volume and specific products

and their product costs is less obvious.

c. Production volume is no longer as significant a cost driver as it was two

decades ago. The growth in both fixed costs and indirect costs suggest that

production volume cannot be used as an effective control for a substantial set

of production-related costs. However, production volume may still be a valid

predictor because it may be reasonably well correlated with the actual cost

drivers of these indirect costs and it is still the most significant cost driver for

direct production costs.

43. a. To remain competitive in the global marketplace, businesses must control

costs. Provision of health care is creating a crisis for American businesses. In

many cases, health care costs are twice as high for U.S. industries as for their

foreign competitors. There is nothing unethical about businesses being

concerned about these costs and seeking ways to control them. However,

before cutting coverage, businesses have an ethical obligation to identify

alternatives. For example, emerging alternatives include managed health care,

sharing insurance premiums with employees, and forming alliances with other

businesses to directly contract for health care services. Businesses should be

careful to gather employee input on solutions before making any decisions

that will adversely affect health care coverage.

b. There are no correct or incorrect answers to this question. It is expected that

each student will have a relatively unique ranking of the alternatives. This

subpart is intended to demonstrate to the students how difficult it is to cut

health care insurance coverage because each worker has different needs and

different priorities.

c. By bringing some health care services in-house, a firm can replace a portion

of the variable costs (per employee) with fixed costs. A company may be able

to achieve similar benefits by directly contracting with health care service

providers on a (partly) fixed fee basis. Likewise, companies can implement

Chapter 2 19 health awareness campaigns and provide fitness facilities that will generate

long-term health benefits and lower health care costs. Such approaches will

result in an increase in fixed costs and lower variable costs.

44.

. a. 1. Work in Process Inventory 800,000

Raw Material Inventory 800,000 To issue direct material to production

2. Work in Process Inventory 720,000

Cash (40,000 x $18) 720,000 To pay direct labor payroll

3. Manufacturing Overhead Control 232,500

Wages Payable (15,500 x $15) 232,500 To accrue indirect labor costs

4. Manufacturing Overhead Control 102,100

Accumulated Depreciation 102,100 To depreciate factory assets

5. Manufacturing Overhead Control 32,800

Salaries Payable 32,800 To accrue supervisors’ salaries

6. Manufacturing Overhead Control 25,400

Supplies Inventory 25,400 To issue indirect material to production

Finished Goods Inventory 1,749,300

Work in Process Inventory 1,749,300 To transfer completed work to FG

b. Beginning balance of WIP $ 18,900

Direct material 800,000

Direct labor 720,000

Manufacturing overhead for January (plug) 270,000

Cost to account for $1,808,900

Goods completed (1,749,300)

Ending balance of WIP $ 59,600

45. a. Direct labor is labor that can be specifically identified with, or physically traced

to, a cost object or finished product in an economically feasible manner (such

as machine operator labor in a production environment). Indirect labor is all

factory labor that is not classified as direct labor.

Chapter 2

20

b. Certain nonproductive time may be a normal and unavoidable part of total

labor time. In such cases, a pro rata share of nonproductive time should be

classified as direct labor time. In many cases, nonproductive time is classified

as indirect labor because it cannot be specifically identified with a cost object.

For example, the amount of downtime usually cannot be specifically identified

with a specific cause or particular cost object; it may result from a parts

shortage or a broken machine. When there is a shortage of work and

employees would therefore be idle, this time can be used for training.

c. Direct labor: The items classified as direct labor can usually be specifically

identified with a quantity of labor. Furthermore, other direct costs, such as

payroll taxes, are incurred by the organization because of its use of labor.

Manufacturing overhead: The items classified as manufacturing overhead

usually cannot be specifically identified with direct labor quantities.

Either direct labor or manufacturing overhead: Some cost items can be

classified as either direct labor or manufacturing overhead, depending on the

size of the cost object. For example, for very large projects employee time

can be easily associated with the projects (such as the time of specific

managers, engineers, draftspersons, janitors, and material handlers).

Therefore, all costs associated with these employees can be classified as

direct labor costs. For smaller cost objects, such as a variety of products or

subassemblies, costs are more difficult to identify with the cost objects, and,

therefore, they are classified as manufacturing overhead.

d. The quantity of labor hours that should be included as direct labor or

manufacturing overhead reflects a measure of activity. The activity that was

performed was either directly related to the product or indirectly related (or not

easily traceable) to the product. The dollar amount assigned measures the

cost of the activity. Wages and salaries are not necessarily directly tied to

production activity. For example, assume a direct labor employee makes $10

per hour and time-and-a-half for overtime. This employee’s activity is no

different during the overtime hours—only the wage rate differs. Thus,

measurement of activity and measurement of cost must be separated.

46. a. Overhead costs are the easiest to assign to other classifications since those

costs are not directly related to the production of the goods.

b. Each student will have a different answer, but the following should be

considered: the reason for th e bank’s loan-granting criteria; the effect on the

company’s suppliers, employees, and customers should this loan not be

granted; the ability to manipulate financial income; and the inappropriate ―tone

at the top‖ that the president is suggesting.

c. The memo should contain information as to the nature of costs and the fact

that the ―cost‖ of a product can, in many instances, have many different

meanings. It should indicate the need for the loan, the ability to provide

(完整版)高二数学归纳法经典例题

例1.用数学归纳法证明: ()()12121217 51531311+=+-++?+?+?n n n n Λ. 请读者分析下面的证法: 证明:①n =1时,左边31311=?=,右边3 1121=+=,左边=右边,等式成立. ②假设n =k 时,等式成立,即: ()()12121217 51531311+=+-++?+?+?k k k k Λ. 那么当n =k +1时,有: ()()()()32121121217 51531311++++-++?+?+?k k k k Λ ????????? ??+-++??? ??+--++??? ??-+??? ??-+??? ? ?-=3211211211217151513131121k k k k Λ 322221321121++?=??? ??+-= k k k ()1 121321+++=++=k k k k 这就是说,当n =k +1时,等式亦成立. 由①、②可知,对一切自然数n 等式成立. 评述:上面用数学归纳法进行证明的方法是错误的,这是一种假证,假就假在没有利用归纳假设n =k 这一步,当n =k +1时,而是用拆项法推出来的,这样归纳假设起到作用,不符合数学归纳法的要求. 正确方法是:当n =k +1时. ()()()()32121121217 51531311++++-++?+?+?k k k k Λ ()() 3212112++++=k k k k ()()()()()() 321211232121322++++=++++=k k k k k k k k

()1 121321+++=++=k k k k 这就说明,当n =k +1时,等式亦成立, 例2.是否存在一个等差数列{a n },使得对任何自然数n ,等式: a 1+2a 2+3a 3+…+na n =n (n +1)(n +2) 都成立,并证明你的结论. 分析:采用由特殊到一般的思维方法,先令n =1,2,3时找出来{a n },然后再证明一般性. 解:将n =1,2,3分别代入等式得方程组. ?????=++=+=603224 26321 211a a a a a a , 解得a 1=6,a 2=9,a 3=12,则d =3. 故存在一个等差数列a n =3n +3,当n =1,2,3时,已知等式成立. 下面用数学归纳法证明存在一个等差数列a n =3n +3,对大于3的自然数,等式 a 1+2a 2+3a 3+…+na n =n (n +1)(n +2)都成立. 因为起始值已证,可证第二步骤. 假设n =k 时,等式成立,即 a 1+2a 2+3a 3+…+ka k =k (k +1)(k +2) 那么当n =k +1时, a 1+2a 2+3a 3+…+ka k +(k +1)a k +1 = k (k +1)(k +2)+ (k +1)[3(k +1)+3] =(k +1)(k 2+2k +3k +6) =(k +1)(k +2)(k +3) =(k +1)[(k +1)+1][(k +1)+2] 这就是说,当n =k +1时,也存在一个等差数列a n =3n +3使a 1+2a 2+3a 3+…+na n =n (n +1)(n +2)成立. 综合上述,可知存在一个等差数列a n =3n +3,对任何自然数n ,等式a 1+2a 2+3a 3+…+na n =n (n +1)(n +2)都成立. 例3.证明不等式n n 21 31 21 1<++++Λ (n ∈N). 证明:①当n =1时,左边=1,右边=2.

简单讲解加密技术

简单讲解加密技术 加密技术是最常用的安全保密手段,利用技术手段把重要的数据变为乱码(加密)传送,到达目的地后再用相同或不同的手段还原(解密)。 加密技术包括两个元素:算法和密钥。算法是将普通的信息或者可以理解的信息与一串数字(密钥)结合,产生不可理解的密文的步骤,密钥是用来对数据进行编码和解密的一种算法。在安全保密中,可通过适当的钥加密技术和管理机制来保证网络的信息通信安全。 什么是加密技术呢?加密技术是电子商务采取的主要安全保密措施,是最常用的安全保密手段,利用技术手段把重要的数据变为乱码(加密)传送,到达目的地后再用相同或不同的手段还原(解密)。加密技术包括两个元素:算法和密钥。算法是将普通的文本(或者可以理解的信息)与一窜数字(密钥)的结合,产生不可理解的密文的步骤,密钥是用来对数据进行编码和解码的一种算法。在安全保密中,可通过适当的密钥加密技术和管理机制来保证网络的信息通讯安全。密钥加密技术的密码体制分为对称密钥体制和非对称密钥体制两种。相应地,对数据加密的技术分为两类,即对称加密(私人密钥加密)和非对称加密(公开密钥加密)。对称加密以数据加密标准(DES,Data Enc ryption Standard)算法为典型代表,非对称加密通常以RSA(Rivest Shamir Ad 1eman)算法为代表。对称加密的加密密钥和解密密钥相同,而非对称加密的加密密钥和解密密钥不同,加密密钥可以公开而解密密钥需要保密。 加密技术的种类:对称加密(私人密钥加密),非对称加密(公开密钥加密),单项加密。 对称加密:对称加密采用了对称密码编码技术,它的特点是文件加密和解密使用相同的密钥,即加密密钥也可以用作解密密钥,这种方法在密码学中叫做对称加密算法,对称加密算法使用起来简单快捷,密钥较短,且破译困难,除了数据加密标准(DES),另一个对称密钥加密系统是国际数据加密算法(IDEA),它比DNS的加密性好,而且对计算机功能要求也没有那么高。IDEA加密标准由PGP(Pretty Good Privacy)系统使用。 对称加密的种类:DES(数据加密的标准)使用56位的密钥。AES:高级加密标准。3 DES:三圈加密标准它作为现在加密算法的标准。 非对称加密:即公钥加密,非对称加密算法需要两个密钥:公开密钥(publickey)和私有密(privatekey)。公开密钥与私有密钥是一对,如果用公开密钥对数据进行加密,只有用对应的私有密钥才能解密;如果用私有密钥对数据进行加密,那么只有用对

通过加密云数据的安全的排名关键字搜索

教育部伊诺理工大学芝加哥 教育部伍斯特理工学院伍斯特 摘要:随着云计算的普及,敏感信息越来越集中在云端。为了保护数据安全,敏感的数据必须在外包之前就被加密,这使得有效的数据利用变成了一项非常有挑战性的任务。虽然传统的可搜索加密方式允许用户安全地通过关键字搜索加密数据,但是这项技术仅仅支持布尔搜索,而没有捕获数据文件的任何相关性。在直接应用于云计算的背景下,这种方法有两个主要的缺点。一方面,用户对于云数据加密并不一定具备前置知识,这就导致了他们不得不对每一项检索到的文件去进行后置处理以找出那个最符合他们要求的文件。另一方面,每次都要检索包含查询关键字的所有文件进一步引起了不必要的网络流量,这在今天的即用即付的云模式中是绝对不可取的。 在本篇论文中,我们第一次定义并解决了在加密云数据中进行有效且安全的排名关键词搜索问题。通过将匹配的文件按一定的相关性标准返回,排序搜索极大地提高了系统的可用性(例如,关键字的频率),因此,在云计算中更接近于实际部署保护隐私的数据托管服务。 我们首先给出了一个简单而又理想的结构,在最先进的可搜索对称加密(SSE)安全定义下,对关键字搜索进行排序,并展示其效率低下。为了实现更实际的性能,我们提出了一种可搜索对称加密的定义,并通过正确地利用现有的加密原语——保序对称加密,给出了一个有效的设计(OPSE)。深入分析表明,与以往的SSE方案相比,我们提出的解决方案具有“尽可能强的”安全性保证,同时正确实现了关键词搜索的目标。大量的实验结果证明了该方法的有效性。 1、介绍 云计算使云客户能够远程将数据存储到云中,以便从共享的可配置计算资源池中享受随需应变的高质量应用程序和服务。这个新的计算模型带来的好处包括但不限于:减轻存储管理的负担,独立地理位置的通用数据访问,硬件、软件和人员维护等方面的支出的避免等等。 随着云服务的普及,越来越多的敏感信息被集中到云服务器中,如电子邮件、个人健康记录、私人视频和照片、公司财务数据、政府文件等。为了保护数据隐私并打击未经请求的访问,必须在外包之前对敏感数据进行加密,以便在云内外提供端到端的数据保密保证。然而,数据加密使有效的数据利用成为一项非常具有挑战性的任务,因为可能会有大量的外包数据文件。此外,在云计算中,数据所有者可以与大量的用户共享他们的外包数据,这些用户可能只希望在给定的会话中检索他们感兴趣的特定数据文件。最流行的方法之一是通过基于关键字的搜索。这种关键字搜索技术允许用户选择性地检索感兴趣的文件,并在纯文本搜索场景中得到广泛应用。不幸的是,数据加密限制了用户执行关键字搜索的能力,并进一步要求保护关键字隐私,这使得传统的纯文本搜索方法无法应用于加密的云数据。 尽管传统的可搜索加密方案允许用户通过关键字安全地搜索经过加密的数据,而不首先解密它,但这些技术只支持传统的布尔关键词搜索1,而不捕捉搜索结果中文件的任何相关性。当直接应用于大型协作数据外包云环境时,它们可能会出现以下两个主要缺陷。一方面,对于每一个搜索请求,没有云数据加密的先验知识的用户为了找到最匹配他们的兴趣的文件,必须处理每个检索文件,这可能要求大量的后处理开销;另一方面,仅仅基于存在/没有关键字,总是发送所有文件,进一步带来大量不必要的网络流量,这在今天的即用即付的云模式下是绝对不可取的。简而言之,缺乏有效的机制来保证文件检索的准确性,这是在云计算环境下现有的可搜索加密方案的一个重大缺陷。尽管如此,信息检索(IR)社区中的最新发展已经利用各种评分机制来量化和排序任何给定的搜索查询对应的文件的相关性。尽管排名搜索的重要性在IR社区的明文搜索背景下已经引起了人们的关注,但令人惊讶的是,它仍然

914 机械原理与设计

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