耶鲁大学公开课英国近代史文本
1.Early modern England
Tudor and Stuart England reigns 1480-1710s
Faces on the coins: great figures who gave their names to the age
1.Notorious Henry VIII and his six unfortunate wives who are always difficult to remember in the right order.
( divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived)
2.Stunning and perplexing Queen Elizabeth I--Gloriana
The virgin queen (joke, whether you imagine her as Cate Blanchett. Or Judi Dench)
3.Four Stuart Kings
①James I “the wisest fool in Christendom”, a man who after an adventurous youth as a King of Scotland and became a King of England.
②Charles I (his son) whose policies precipitated civil war in the middle 17 century, and was eventually put on trail and executed by his own people in 1649.
③Charles II (his son) restored to the throne after ten years of republican government (1649--1659 Oliver Cromwell) known as the “Merry Monarch”, famous for having innumerable mistresses and 14 illegitimate children.
④James II (his brother) former Duke of York, came to the throne. After three years, was driven from it in the second English Revolution of the 17 century, and driven into exile, later known as the King over the water.
It has been said that two of the Stuart Kings were politically astute狡猾的, but morally defective, and two were virtuous men, whose political ineptitude cost them the throne.
Oliver Cromwell-- He was born and died on September 3rd, also fought his two greatest battles on September 3rd. The greatest Puritan General. 清教领袖The lord protector of the English republic between 1653 to 1658. A quite extraordinary figure, ahead of time on religious toleration.
Early modern England
The broad period between the end of 15 century and the middle of 18 century.
This was a time of great events: the Reformation; the civil wars of 17 century; the foundations of the first British Empire.
Besides these rules, others like Shakespeare, Milton, diarist Samuel Pepys ( you say Peeps), the Proto-democrat John Lilburne, the early feminist writer Mary Astell
In 1500, England was very much a personal monarchy, the King really ruled.
By 1700, a constitutional monarchy, in which the centre of political life is a sitting elected Parliament, and it was not a King of England, but United Kingdom of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.
In 1500, England: Catholic, Christendom, practice late medieval Catholicism
In 1700, Protestant 新教政策
In 1500, a localized economy of peasant families and urban craftsmen
By 1700, a commercialized market economy
In 1500, illiterate
By 1700, literacy widespread; a print culture; the first English language newspaper
In 1509, Edmund Dudley, laid imprisoned in the tower of London
He wrote a book
“Commonwealth” has four roots: 1. Love of Gods 2. Justice 3. Trust 4. Concord
It also has four fruits: 1. Tranquility 2. Good example 3. Worldly prosperity 4. The honor of God
Three estates or orders: 1. Clergy 2. Chivalry 骑士: Dukes公爵, nights普通骑士, esquires侍从, gentlemen绅士3. Commonalty 平民
二．Hierarchy 等级
1.King: “anoinited of God”
2.Chivalry (beneath the crown)：peerage 世袭贵族; gentry 绅士阶层
①Peerage: Inheritable titles: dukes 公爵；earls 侯爵；marquises 伯爵；viscounts 子爵；barons 男爵；lords 勋爵
特权：1. Only be tried by their peers, in the House of Lords when Parliament sat. 只能在上议院上由贵族审判
2.Had the right to sit in Parliament by virtue of their birth and social position. 由出身和社会地位直接进入议会
Churchmen 神职人员：(在上议院中)
The bishop主教, and the abbot of great monasteries 大修道院院长both sat in the Parliament in the House of Lords
不停之处Distinction:
Their position were not inheritable. They were pointed by the pope 国王 Gentry : knight 骑士；esquires 侍从；mere gentlemen 一般绅士
1. Knights were created by the monarch for service mainly in war or in government. “dubbing the knights”授予
In 16 century, they were usually selected to be made knights from amongest the leading families of each of 40 countries of the kingdom.
2.Enquires
3. Mere gentlemen : No titles, except the right to be called “Mister”先生; had the right to bear a coat of arms.
In summary, peerage & churchmen & gentry were the principal landowners of England and Wales.
A study showed that in 16 century, peerage accounted for 27% of the land; gentry 46%, all the rest belonged to churchmen.
Land: incomes, the rents were paid to the landowners. 地租收入是主要来源
A source of power over tenants; “lordship” over men. 贵族身份
In rural society 农村社会
Commonalty: people divided into four subordinate groups: yeomen 约曼；husbandmen自耕农；craftsmen and tradesmen手工艺者和小买卖者；cottagers and laborers 耕农和苦力
1.Yeomen: defined as being owner-occupies who possessed freehold lands. 自有土地的农场主, but most of them were tenant farmers. 农场租户
What is crucial is substantial tenant farmers 农场承租人: they employ labor and produce surplus
2.Husbandmen: small family farmers, with holdings of under 30 acres or so .小家庭式农场主，大部分自有土地30英亩, but replying on their direct family labor. 家庭劳力
3.Village craftsmen and tradesmen: some might be of substance, e.g. Millers and blacksmiths 磨坊主和铁匠；others usually poor, e.g. Tailors and alehouse keeps 裁缝和酒屋主
4.Cottages and labors: some held a few acres of land, some might have a trade, most of them relied upon wages for at least a part of income.
In summary, the rural society was highly differentiated 高度分化
Gender & Age
Women: take their society order from their husbands, fathers, and masters, and their social identities were “subsumed” of adult male heads.
Young people: apprentices 学徒
“长着政治” gerontocratic: the old should rule
三．The household 家庭
The household can be defined in the first instance as being a unit of residence; it was a unit of authority; and has been described as a unit that was “geared for work”为工作而生
Different from modern households in there essential respects:
1.Differed structurally in that a substantial number of them contained. 家庭成员结构不同
2.Differed conceptually 家庭概念不同
3.Differed functionally 家庭功能不同
A patriarchal society 族长制观念的社会
四．Community 社区
The first county maps, which county by county were produced by Christopher Saxon 1576.
The characteristic unit of lordship was “manor”. 统治的基本单位是“庄园”Basically, each manor was divided into the demesne land and tenant land.自留地和租地
Demesne land: in the middle ages had been mostly cultivated by self labor. 由农奴耕种
By 1500, the demesne land tended to be let out by lords in large units to yeoman farmers.
As for tenant land, some was held by freehold, 1/5. A freeholder, owned his land, could leave it in his will or sell it., but he owned the duty of “recognition of lordship”to the lord of the manor, which he had to pay a small annual sum.
Most tenants held their land by “customary tenure”惯例性土地权，that is to say, the land was granted out to them in the court of the manor. 土地在庄园法庭授予他们耕种
They held it on terms “according to the custom of the manor”. 其土地权形式“依据庄园惯例”
The customary tenants were usually described as “copyholders”公薄持有农“copyholders”paid a down payment to their lord called a fine 罚金，they paid an annual rent.
sometimes custom has governed their rules in that locality “time out of mind of man”太久导致记不清了
To this extent, custom was seen as being essentially the property of the tenant community 惯例是租户社区的基本性质
Peasant rebellion and popular protest revolves around custom.
Another aspect of tenant community, the community of neighborhood.邻里关系
If custom was one key word in rural society, “neighborhood”was emphatically another.
Neighborliness also found its expression in four forms: one form was ecclesiastical parish 教区
England was divided not only into units of lordship, manor, but also into about ten thousand ecclesiastical parishes.
The towns also have distinctive institutions which wouldn?t find in the countryside. Most towns had a strong sense of identity as autonomous, self-governing communities.
六．Politics and structures of Power under the early Tudors 权力机构
On the 22nd of August 1485, Henry Tudor, who was then the earl of Richmond, defeated and killed King Richard III at the battle of Bosworth Field, a battlefield which is located in the central England in the county of Leicestershire, and was crowned upon the battlefield with the crown which was found in the King?s tent, and became King as Henry VII. In fact, he claimed to the throne was somewhat weak. He was descended on his father?s side from the widow of King Henry V, who had married Henry?s grandfather after the King?s death. His claim from principally through his mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, who was a descendant of 14 century King Edward III. Nevertheless, weak as he was, Henry was the last of claimants of the Lancastrians House.
In the 24 years following his seizure of the throne, he made it his business first of all to hang on to it, secondly to assert his authority as best as he could, and thirdly to pass on his crown to his son Henry VIII, who succeeded him in 1509., and by doing so, he founded a new dynasty, the Tudor dynasty. 都驿王朝
By “power”, I?m concerned with the capacity to secure compliance and obedience on the part of others.
By “authority”, I mean legitimate power: those forms of power and its manifestations which were deemed by most, if not all, people to be legitimate, to put you obligation to obey.
The polity, a system of established government and rule.
In 1500, England was a quiet intensively and uniformly governed monarchy. It has existed as a single monarchy for 600 to 700 years already. The origin of the high degree of centralization probably go back to the late Saxon kings, but in particular to the time of Norman conquest of the 11 century. The king was, of course, at the centre of the polity.
在1500年英国是一个统一的集权国家，作为单独王国它已经存在了六七百年，这种高度集权的统治可以追溯到古老的撒克逊诸王，特别是在11世纪诺曼底征服时期，国王是政体的中心
The principal function of the king were seen to be those of : keeping the peace and defending the realm; maintaining the law and the administration of the law; and upholding the church: a relatively limited set of functions compared to the modern government. And to achieve those ends, the king enjoyed a variety of powers. He enjoyed what was thought of his ordinary powers, and exercised within the framework of the law, but in time of emergency, he might also exercise residual absolute powers, which could go beyond the normal boundaries of the law.
国王的基本职责是保卫和平，防御领土，维持法律，维护和平，还有支持教会，这些职责相比现代政府相当有限，为了履行这些职责，国王拥有强大的权利，
平时它可以在法律范围内享有其通常的权利，紧急情况下还能执行绝对权利，这将远远超过通常的法律界限。英格兰国王已经拥有相当高的君威和主权。
In 1400 onwards, they were often represented in the coinage, --they were represented what?s known as the “imperial crown”. The crown was symbolized that they recognized no authority higher than themselves save God alone. And though the authority of the pope was exercised within the kingdom over the church, agreements which had been reached and statutes meant that in practice in making appointments in the church, the pope usually act on the advice and in consultation with the king. So a monarchy of considerable dignity claiming a sovereignty represented in the imperial crown.
十四世纪后，硬币上的肖像通常都头顶皇冠，皇冠象征着除了上帝，没有谁的权威能高过君王，因此，虽然英格兰的教会也属于教皇管辖，但根据14世纪的协议，教会任命的实践中，教皇通常需要征求国王的意见，权威不能凌驾于国王，因此这是有名的君主国。
Royal authority was supreme. 皇权至高无上
Restrictions: 1. Kings were expected to take advice, to be guided by the counsel, by the counsel of their leading subjects. They ruled with the advice of a variety of councils. In addition, he was restricted by the law, the “common law” of England. The common law was administered in the King?s names. All legal writs began with the king?s title.
虽然如此，君主还是要受制于一些特定的政治期望和特定的宪政制度。首先，国王听取意见，需要听取其高级臣民的意见，其统治需要各种咨议会议，偶尔举行大型会议，日常是小型会议，某些会议成员是大贵族，但通常是荣誉席位。此外，国王还受英格兰普通法的约束。普通法已经有几个世纪的历史，依赖惯例和先例，以国王的名义进行治理，所有文书均打着国王的名号，以国王的名义治理。
The administration od the law, the provision of justice, and the redness of grievances, the means of settling disputes peacefully, was one of the principal functions in the royal government.
依法治理，促进公平，冤情补偿，和平解决争端，这都是皇家政府的基本职能，偶尔国王也会亲自到法庭，但多数情况，皇室成员都不出席法庭，法庭总在威斯敏斯特开庭，就是现在的英国国会大厦，法官都是皇家官员。
主要法庭：
The principal courts: a court of King?s bench: criminal matters 王室法庭处理刑事案件
The court of Common Plea: civil cases 民诉法庭处理民事案件
The Chancery, or the Court of te Lord Chancellor 衡平法庭或大法官法庭: it was a court of equity. 特殊在于它是衡平法法庭
In addition to the central courts, the Kings also exercised justice by commission. 国
王还通过委任来执行公正
In addition, the king exercised justice through the commission of the peace.
此外，国王还委任一些人来维持治安
Counsel and law came together in another great institution: Parliament. the periodic meeting of the king, the nobility who had the right to sit in the House of the Lords，and the representatives of the commons of the kingdom
会议和法律合起来又构成了不得不提的制度，国会制度。国王和有权入席上议院的贵族及王国内平民的代表，共商国是的周期性会议制度。
The House of the Lords consists of the leading lay and church nobility of the realm, summoned by a person writ to attend. 上议院由主要有贵族和教会贵族组成，通过个人文书召集.
The House of Commons consists of a gathering of two representatives for each county, they were known as the “knights of the shire”, and two representatives from the each city which had the parliamentary franchise, they were known as burgesses.
下议院在每个郡有两个议员，被成为“郡之骑士”；拥有国会特权的额城市也有两名议员，称为城市议员
Parliament, then, represent the while realm, and it had two great functions, long established:
1. Only parliament could make statutes, new laws which could override or modify common law custom, so the legislative sovereignty of the realm lay in the Parliament, where the king, the lord, the commons acted together. Bills proposing new laws were presented, they were read and debated in each of the houses before being passed, and passed on to the king for his consent or veto.
有权立法的只有国会，新法能推翻并修正普通法惯例，王国的立法主权位于国会，由国王，贵族，平民共同商议，新发议案提交以后，在两院进行宣读和讨论后通过，呈送国王准许或否决。
2.Parliament could grant taxes, which from the 14 century required the consent of the House of the Commons.
国会还能通过税案,从14世纪开始，课税要通过下议院同意。
One last word on institutions and that concerns finance. The king was expected to “live on his own”, that means he was expected to live on the revenues of the royal and holdings, the customs dues and other dues which were due to him as feudal overlord of the kingdom, and for all normal purposes, that should provide for all his expenses. The collection and the disbursement of royal revenues was handled by an institution called the Exchequer, at Westminster.
最后是关于财产的，国王需要自理生计，国王需要以皇家土地的收入来过活，包括作为王国最大封建主的惯例收入及其他收入，一般情况下这些需要提供国王的所有支出。皇家财政的收入和支出由威斯敏斯特的财务部主管。
Reliance on taxation was rare, taxes would be voted by Parliament for extraordinary circumstances, and would then be collected and returned to the Exchequer.
通常国王不会依赖税收，税收需要在特殊情况下由国会表决，之后收集上交财务部。
The nobility were rich and powerful, but they didn?t have fully independent jurisdiction of their own, where the king?s authority didn?t run. English nobles depended ultimately for their power upon grants of royal office, their local authority was granted to them by the king.
贵族富有而有权势，但他们没有独立的司法权，必须服从国王的权威。因此英格兰贵族权利最终需要得到皇家机构的授权，其地方权威由君主授权。
So hoe did the early Tudors handled the relationships with the various institutions and groups on whom the effectiveness of their rule depended?
I think one can suggest four ways. Propaganda,patronage, consultation, coercion.
宣传，恩赐，问政和强制。
There was laws of treason，in the 14 century the law of treason had been introduced defining treason as acts against king?s person or his family or open rebellion against his authority. By the time of Henry VIII, it came to include even treasonable words such as, for example, denying the legitimacy of the king?s many marriage.
之后还有叛国法,14世纪叛国法得以引入，定义叛国为反对国王个人或王室家族的举动或公开反对国王权威的叛乱。在亨利八式时期叛国甚至包括了叛国言论，比如否认国王多次结婚的合法性。
七中世纪晚期宗教以及批判
At the beginning of the century, the church was of course the greatest corporate institution in the kingdom. It was the English branch of a great International institution, which gave western Europe its identity, collectively, as Catholic Christendom.
在16世纪早早期，教会显然是当时国内最大的机构，它是一个国际机构的英格兰分支，这个国际机构也就是统驭西欧的天主教教会。
The church of England was organized into two provinces with archbishops at Canterbury and York, and then there were 21 diocese each of them headed by a bishop to somewhat to mor than 9000 parishes at most local level.
全国只有两个教省，有坎特伯雷和约克两位大教主，然后是21个主教区，分别尤其主教掌管，最后是9000多最基本的教区单位
Member of the clergy enjoyed a privileged position before the law, and they were supported by a variety of fees and dues paid to them
神职人员早法律面前享有特权，教会由各种费用支持
八宗教改革和分化1530-1558
The English reformation was once famously described as being essentially “an act of state”. Its essence of being the transfer of legal authority over the church in England, from a distance papacy to a very present English crown. The universal Catholic church in England became the Anglican Church of England.
宗教改革一度被称为国家法案，其实质在于英格兰教会的统治权威从罗马教皇转移到英格兰君主，英格兰由天主教变为安立甘教会，（Anglican Church, 安立甘教会，英国国教，又译为圣公会）
And yet the two dimensions of the reformation, the legislative and the Protestant, inevitably went together.
而两个维度改革，法定改革和新教改革无疑汇聚在了一起
The first phrase ran roughly from 1527 to 1531, which we can call a gathering crisis,
第一阶段称之为危机积累阶段
Henry needed a male heir, and Katherine had originally come to England as the bride of Henry?s brother, Arthur, who had shortly died, and she had subsequently married Henry.
凯瑟琳一开始来英格兰是是嫁给亨利哥哥亚瑟的，亚瑟早逝，之后她才嫁给亨氏的
A few arguments: First, the church in England had exercised independent provincial rights. That is to say, it had the right to autonomy in the settlement of certain internal affairs without reference to Rome.
英格兰教会都是独立行使教会权利的，在特定内务的解决上它有自治权，而不用请示罗马。
Second, within England, the king enjoyed imperial power, not only over the state, but over the church in matters,
英格兰国王享有王权，不仅凌驾于国家，还凌驾于教会
The phase Two the royal supremacy 阶段二至尊王权
It was masterminded by Thomas Cromwell between 1532 to 1535
First of all, they put still more pressure on the church to break any resistance within England. Parliament was brought to pass the Act of Restraint of Annates.
他们继续向教会施加更大压力来打破束缚，召开国会要求通过“首岁教捐禁止法案”
Secondly, the House of Commons pur forward what was called its supplication Against the Ordinaries,
下议院提出所谓“反对教会管辖的陈情”
In 1536 was the fall of Anne Boleyn, after her marriage to the king, and the promising start of the birth of Princess Elizabeth, no male heir had been born. The queen was arrested and executed, and shortly thereafter Henry married Jane Seymour, another lady of the court.
1536年安波林被处死，结婚后很愉快，生了伊丽莎白公主，但没有儿子生出，这位王后被逮捕并斩首，不就亨利迎娶了珍西摩。
In 1537, Jane Seymour gave birth to a male heir, Prince Edward. Jane herself died in childbed. 珍死于难产
In 1539, Henry was persuaded to endorsed the Act of Six Articles, which returned England to unambiguous Catholic doctrinal orthodoxy in matters of faith.
1539年，他们说服了亨利批准了六大信条法案，明确让英格兰回归到天主教在信仰上的“正教”思想。
In 1540, Thomas Cromwell having been accused by his enemies od secretly encouraging heresy, was arrested and swiftly executed. His real crime was in fact the fiasco of having arranged te King?s fourth marriage. His marriage to the German Princess Anne of Cleves, which brought Henry into alignment with the Lutheran princes of Germany.
1540年克伦威尔被政敌指控为秘密鼓吹异教邪说，逮捕并立刻处决.处决的真正原因是他在国王婚姻安排上的大失败。国王的第四任是德国一位亲王之女，他想让亨利与德国路德教亲王组成同盟。
Henry refused to consummate the marriage and it was swiftly dissolved.
亨利拒绝完成婚姻并迅速解除
When Norfolk brought to his attention his young niece, Katherine Howard, who became Henry?s new bride, his fifth wife. And after the discovery of Katherine Howard?s adultery in 1542, and her execution, the king was much less influenced by his more conservative advisers.
In 1543, Henry?s last Queen, Queen Catherine Parr, favored protestant.
A Fourth phase: the Edwardian reformation 第四阶段爱德华改革
Henry VIII at last died in January, 1547, and the new King, King Edward, was only nine and a half years old. Edward?s uncle, Edward Seymour, led a group of reform-minded men in taking control at the center of power.
In 1547, parliament was persuaded to repeal the heresy laws and the Six Articles, no more burning of Protestants. They issued reformist injunctions for the removal of images, and the obliterations of religious paintings by whitewashing them in churches.
1547年，他们说服国会废止异教法和六大信条，他们颁布改革教令，清除教堂的宗教壁画
In 1553, there was an emphatically Protestant statement of faith, the Forty-two Articles.
颁布四十二信条
By 1553, the church of England was clearly Protestant in doctrine and in form of worship, centered on the English Bible and on the Prayer book, and the nation had become deeply divided in matters of faith.
1553年英格兰国教会在教义和仪式上已成为新政，它以英国圣经和祈祷书为纲，而国家在信仰上出于深深的分裂状态。
And that led to the fifth phase of this process, the Marian Reaction.第五阶段玛丽复仇
Edward VI, the boy king, died of pulmonary tuberculosis only a month after the issue of the Protestant Forty-two Articles of Religion and the wheel turned again. So after the turmoil of the previous twenty-five years Mary had become queen after all. And she was a deeply loyal Catholic. Late in 1553, after her accession, parliament was persuaded to repeal Edward?s Act of Uniformity,which had enforced the uniform Protestant worship in the nation.
在1553年玛丽继位不久，国会被说服废除爱德华王的一致法案，该法案要求全国一致奉行新教崇拜
Early in 1554, Mary married. She married Prince Phillip of Spain, the future King Phillip II. Then in the fall of 1554, full papal jurisdiction was restored in England. From December 1554, those who remained in England faced the penalties of a revival of the Heresy Act. Mary died in November 1558, aged only 42.
然后1554年秋，英格兰恢复了完全的教皇管辖。1554年“异教法案”得到重申，留在国内的异教徒收到惩罚。
九商品和联邦：经济和社会问题1520-1560
十伊丽莎白和国教：信仰一致，天主教徒清教徒
On the 17th of November, 1558, Elizabeth I was proclaimed queen, she was of course Anne Boleyn?s daughter.so the church of England had been reestablished, English was Protestant, again, sort of, it was a confessional state bound by an Act of Conformity, that the prayer book should be used throughout the kingdom, what was often described as …the religion by law established?. There was no doubt that Engand has turned in a broadly Protestant detection again.
So what was England religion in the 1560?s? Ultimately, one could say it was queen?s religion, with regard to the Pope?s authority, it was emphatically schismatic. Papal
authority had been abrogated once again. With regard to essential doctrines, it was essentially Protestant.
1560年是女王的宗教时期，但用教皇的权威来看，这段然是宗教分裂主义，教皇权威再一次被摒弃，从核心教义上来看，大体上是新教
What about the other threat? The radical Protestants, those who we think of now as Puritans but that was not a term they used initially, it was a term of insult that was sometimes thrown to them. They were described usually as the time as “the hotter sort of Protestants”.
激进新教分子，puritan新教徒这个词并非他们自己首创的，而是别人对他们污蔑性的称呼，他们通常被描述为新教中的狂热分子
十一伊丽莎白和君主共和国：政治参与
The reign of Elizabeth I tends to shimmer in the historical imagination. She reigned for 45 years, she restored political stability, she settled the religious question, at least for the time being, she survived a power foreign enemy--spain.
When Elizabeth came to the throne on the 17th November 1558, the situation was far from stable, and that was evident in far various ways, not only in the risk imposed by the clear internal divisions in matters of religions, but also of International situations of considerable dangers. England as an ally of Spain was at war with France. Elizabeth?s cousin. Mary, Queen of Scotland, then aged only 16, was married to the heir of French throne, and she had a claim to the English throne, via her grandmother, Henry VIII?s sister, that raised the possibility of French ambition of uniting both Scotland and perhaps England to the French crown.
Spain was currently an ally because of Mary?s marriage to Phillip II, but Spain was also the champion of resurgent Catholicism in Europe, and closely identified with Mary?s Catholic restoration in England.
What about those vital …matters of state??
The first was religion, the religious settlement; the issue of foreign policy, and the succession were much more fraught.
So to look at the foreign policy first of all, early in the reign, in April1559, the war with France was ended by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis. England suffered the humiliation of losing Calais, the last French possession once and for all, bu that could be blamed on Mary and Phillip, and there was a positive of the Treaty, that the peace treaty meant that the other monarchs recognized Elizabeth as Queen of England, and still, however, left the problem of Scotland, Scotland was still being ruled by French
protectorate by Mary of Guise, and then in 1559 Mary, Queen of Scots, became Queen of France as her husband acceded to the French throne.
In 1560, some English troops and ships were sent to aid the Scottish Covenanters, they were not very successfully militarily, but in June 1560 Mary of Guise died, and in July the war in Scotland was brought to an end with the Treaty of Edinburgh. French troops were evacuated from Scotland, and the Protestant lords took control in Edinburgh.
1560年英格兰军舰和舰船派往苏格兰帮忙，军事上没有取得胜利，但1560年6月玛丽-德-吉斯死亡，7月苏格兰的战争以爱尔兰条约告终，法国军队撤出苏格兰，新交贵族控制了爱丁堡。
In December,1560, Francis II of France, the young king, husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, died, leaving Mary an 18 years old widow, and she returned to Scotland, she accepted the Protestant settlement which had taken place there, though she was herself an Catholic, but she also made great show after her return to Scotland of the fact that she maintained the claim to the English throne, a claim to the succession. This situation became even worse in the mid 1560.
苏格兰女王玛丽返回苏格兰，接受了新教的安排，尽管她本身是天主教教徒，不过她回国后就大肆渲染自己对英格兰王位的主张权，这种局势在1560年中期更加恶化了
First of all, when Mary married Henry, Lord Darnley, who was also descended from the same Tudor grandmother as Mary, Queen of Scots herself, by a second marriage that she contracted, and who also had a distinct claim to the throne. And in 1566, they had a son, James, who was baptized a Catholic, a potential successor to the English crown. By 1556, she had fallen out of love disastrously with Lord Darnley, and in 1567, Darnley was murdered by a group of Scottish lords acting, it was sain with the covert assistance of Queen Mary herself.
苏格兰女王玛丽第二次婚姻在1566年诞下一子，詹姆斯，男孩受洗礼为天主教教徒，也是英格兰国王的潜在继承者
When Darnley died, Mary embarked with an adulterous affair with lord James Bothwell, and they married in May 1567. And all of this was too much for the Lords of Congregation and they rebelled. In June, 1567,Mary was forced to abdicate, and she was forced to flee to England. She crossed the border, and she appealed to Elizabeth for help in restoring the throne.
1567年6月，玛丽被迫退位，从关押的监狱中逃脱后被迫流亡英格兰，她请求伊丽莎白帮她夺回王位
This was a highly embarrassing situation. They didn?t want to restore Mary, Queen of Scots, to the Scottish throne, because power in Scotland was in the hands of friendly Lords of the Congregation, who had proceeded to bring up the young James as a Protestant. They couldn?t let Mary go to France,either, if they allowed that, she might in France reassert her claim to the English throne as well as the Scottish, and perhaps tried to be restored to Scotland and possibly to England with French military aid.
他们并不想让玛丽重夺回苏格兰女王的宝座，因为苏格兰权利落到了友好的教众贵族手上，这些贵族会把年轻的詹姆斯培养为新教徒。他们也不会让玛丽去法国，否则的话她在法国甚至会主张英格兰的王位，可能会通过复辟英格兰将法国援军开往英国兰。
Scotland was neutralized, it was to remain under the rule of the Protestant regency.
苏格兰于是被中立了，出于新教摄政的统治之下。
Mary was held in custody, but almost from the beginning she became the the focus plots against Elizabeth. Elizabeth wouldn?t execute an anointed queen, nor would she quietly accede in Mary?s assassination.
玛丽虽然身处软禁但从此开始针对伊丽莎白的阴谋就没有停止。
And Elizabeth also was refused to budge on the matter of succession. In 1563 when Parliament met it almost immediately petitioned the Queen to marry and to name a successor. By the time they met again in 1566, the situation was even worse, because Mary, Queen of Scots? marriage to Lord Darnley and her pregnancy.
1563年国会首先请求女王结婚并提名继承人
In 1586, following the clear implication of Mary, Queens of Scotland, into the Babington plot to kill Elizabeth, which may possibly involved entrapment, Mary, Queen of Scots was at last sentenced to death. Elizabeth signed her death warrant, but then withheld it, until the council acted without permission by dispatching the death warrant to Fotheringhay Castle where Mary was promptly executed.
1586年由于苏格兰女王明显卷入到刺杀伊丽莎白的巴兵顿阴谋，可能还涉及到某些圈套，苏格兰女王玛丽最终被判死刑。伊丽莎白签署了死刑执行令，但一直没有发出去。她的顾问们擅自行动将死刑执行令发给佛瑟琳黑城堡。玛丽在此被立刻处死。
When the news came to London, the Queen was furious. Mary?s son, James VI of Scotland, now age 20 and beginning to rule in his own right, protested against his mother?s death.
消息传到伦敦，女王震怒。玛丽的儿子，詹姆斯六世此时已经年满20岁，独立执掌朝政，抗议其母亲的处死。
The last of the Elizabeth?s reign were focused upon the war with Spain, and upon a united effort to sustain it. In 1588, the whole nation was mobilized as the Spanish Armada approached English coast,and the defeat of the Armada, the prevention of the loading troops from Netherlands to the land in England and its eventual scattering as it made its way back to Spain around the northern coast of Scotland and Ireland.
女王统治的最后专注于同西班牙的战争。让全国统一为敌。1588年，西班牙无敌舰队靠近时，全国都被动员，而对无敌舰队的挫败，防止了从荷兰往英格兰运兵。无敌舰队最终溃不成军，沿苏格兰和爱尔兰回西班牙。
And when the queen finally died in 1603 somewhat withdrawn, James entered joyfully upon the inheritance for which he had waited so long. As he rode south from Edinburg to become not James VI of Scotland but James I of England.
女王在1603年去世，有些孤独，詹姆斯喜出望外的成为了继承人，他期盼了很久，但继位十分复杂，他从爱丁堡出发向南，成为英格兰的詹姆斯一世，
十二经济扩张1560-1640
So by the 1560 already, population growth and price inflation, especially on the land between landlords and tenants.
1560年已经出现了人口增长和价格膨胀，特别是土地的领主和雇户的关系。
十三两极分化的社会1560-1640
十四巫术Witchcraft
We could perhaps define the world of magic as being essentially a large body of beliefs, and practices regarding supernatural power, which stood outside the world of formal religion and yet were widely known and helped people to cope with their anxiety and their insecurities. It helped them above all, because it involved various means of manipulating supernatural powers, so as to misfortune or else to alleviate it.
或许法术可以定义为一种信仰，一种信奉超自然力的信仰。这些广泛存在与正式宗教之外的，并帮助人们处理焦虑和不安的。通过操纵这种超自然力的仪式，帮助人们避免不幸或减轻痛苦。
This world of magic, then, was essentially a world of trying to propitiate or to manipulate unidentified supernatural powers, largely for the purposes of protection and relief.
在这样一个法术的世界中，人们通常试图通过供奉或操控未知的超自然力来达到保护和缓解的目的。
It is important to stress, that it was not an alternative religion. It was a whole mass of supplementary beliefs and practices. But the world of the magic also had its specialists. These individuals were those who were known to have special knowledge over and above the average knowledge of magical practices, and who were often believed to have a special inherent power, often inherited. It was thought to pass through blood.
我要强调的是这不是一种代替宗教，而只是一种对宗教信仰和实践的补充。不过，法术世界里当然还有专家，这些术士具有超过普通的专业术士知识。他们的法力通常被认定是天生的，继承的，通过血缘传递。
So to conclude, the whole issue of the history of witchcraft, why people were so concerned with it at a particular point in time, is clearly enormously complex. But what I;m suggesting is first, the case of England was different to a degree from what was going on elsewhere in Europe at the time. There were no mass witch hunts to marry popular superstition and ecclesiastical fantasy in the way found in various parts of Europe and in Scotland.
总结起来，整个巫术问题的历史以及人们为什么在特定时间里那么关注它，显然非常复杂。我认为，首先，英格兰的情况与欧洲其他地方大不相同。没有大规模猎巫运动出现，不像欧陆或苏格兰出现严重宗教臆想。
Secondly, in England witchcrafts prosecutions did come up spontaneously from below
第二，英格兰的巫术起诉都是发自地下
Thirdly, these cases could only arise because of the existence of the law, which were perhaps essentially symbolic and contingent in their origins.
第三，这些案件的发生还需要法律的存在，这些法律本身是象征性的或偶然性的
十五犯罪和法律
One aspect of crimes of violence and the other crimes against property.
一类是暴力犯罪，另一类是财产犯罪
十六示威抗议
十七教育和识字
十八宗教街道战：清教徒和阿民念派Arminians
The Arminians were another minority who occasioned a good deal of conflict in the early Stuart church, but this time they can be defined more easily in terms of theology. Theoretically, they comprised a minority of English churchmen who rejected Calvinism. They rejected Calvinist doctrine of predestination. Rather than believing that the only elect were predestined to salvation. They believed more traditionally, in the universality of God?s grace and in the free will of all mankind to choose salvation. So they are theologically distinct.
阿民念是另一个少数群体，他们引发了斯图亚特教会早期的大量冲突，其神学主张是很明确的，这是一个抵制加尔文主义的教会少数群体。他们拒绝加尔文主义的预定论，认为并非被选中者才能得到救赎。他们认为上帝恩典遍布世间，任何人都能选择得到救赎，其神学主张相当不同。
In the early seventeenth century, they came to be labeled “Arminians”, after a Dutch theologian who took this position, Arminius of Leiden. His criticism of Calvin was deemed so important at the time. The Synod of Dort, which met at 1618 at which Arminius teaching were denounced. But Arminianism also existed amongst a minority of English churchmen.
在17世纪早期，他们被称作“阿民念族”，以取此立场的荷兰神学者阿民念命名。他对加尔文的批判在当时非常重要，即1618年多特会议，会上阿民念的教义被拒绝，不过阿民念主义还是吸引了少数英格兰教士。
In the Netherland, Arminius was operating within the context of Dutch Reformed church with its congregational structure. English Arminians existed in the context of church was a traditional Episcopal system of church government and a highly traditional form of prayer book ceremonial. The English Arminians tended to link their belief in the doctrine of free grace to other beliefs to the structure of the Church of England. They believe in Episcopacy, not simply as a form of church government amongst others,but as a divinely sanctioned form of church government. They were very keen on structure of hierarchical authority in the church. They were also very keen on the sacraments as means of grace, as a way of coming to God.
在荷兰，阿民念是在荷兰改革派教会的公里会结构下运作; 而英格兰阿民念派所处的是传统教会管理的主教体系，具有高度传统的祷告书仪式。英格兰阿民念派希望将自由恩典的教义融入到英格兰国教会的其他信仰中。他们相信主教制度，认为这绝不是教会管理的普通形式，而是上天圣裁的管理形式。他们热衷与教会的等级权威机构，也热衷于将圣礼看作是恩典的方式，看作是接近上帝的方式。
They tend to play down preaching, preaching so dear to the heart of Puritans as the essential means of communication, as an element in worship, upon ritual, upon the performance of the sacraments. They spoke the beauty of holiness. They thought that reverent participation, in services and rituals of great beauty, had a spiritual function. 他们倾向与减少布道，布道是清教核心的交流方式，转而强调崇拜中的仪式和圣礼元素，他们强调圣美，认为美好圣礼和虔诚参与，具有精神作用。
They also had a very high notion of the dignity of the priesthood. The Arminians were a minority even amongst the bishops of the church under James I, that became clear at the very end of Jame?s reign in 1624.
他们非常在意神职的高贵，在詹姆士一世的统治之下，阿民念派在主教中占少数，这在1624年詹姆士执政末期非常明显。
First of all, some of the Arminians were of a singularly combative and authoritarian frame of mind. They were equal in their determination to impose their will to any of the most fervent Puritans, whom on the whole they detested. And secondly, in the 1620s, the Arminians succeeded in winning over to their side the young Charles, the future Charles I.
首先，一些阿民念教徒非常好战而且乐于权威，他们决心将自己的观念强加于那些自己所厌恶的虔诚的清教徒。然后字1620年阿民念派成功获得查理王子，后查理一世的支持
In 1625, Charles came to the throne of the death of James I, and as head of the church, he advanced the Arminians and to exclude the Calvinists.
十九国王和政治群体
We looked at the development of a political system which was in may ways highly centralized, but at the same time increasingly participatory and consultative. In certain matters of state, the royal will was supreme, and the prerogative power of the monarch was paramount. The prerogative power could not override the liberties of the
subject enshrined in law. And the monarch was also expected to have an eye to the views and interests of the broader political nation those who governed the localities and who acted, in a sense, as brokers between the royal administration and the nation at large.
我们讨论了都怿王朝的政治体系，它高度集中，但同时参政议政也越来越多，特定问题上，国王具有至高无上的特权。不能凌驾与法律中臣民的神圣自由，留意更广泛政治群体的意见和群体，关注地方层面的治理者，他们是皇家政府和实际治理之间的代理人。
Despite of all that, in the mid-seventeenth century that system collapsed. In 1642, civil war broke out between the crown and the parliament. In 1649, King Charles I was put on trial by a High Court of Justice formed from Parliament and executed and a republic was declared which lasted for over a decade.
然而，到17世纪中期，整个体系崩溃了。1642年内战在国王和国会之间爆发。1649年，查理一世被国会的高等法院送上了断头台，之后宣布共和国，共和国存在了十年。
二十宪政改革和内战
A brief explanation of the Irish situation. In the aftermath of the rebellion against Elizabeth, by the Earl of Tyrone in the late 1590s, land had been confiscated from the chieftains of northeastern Ireland, the area known as Ulster, and that land had been planted with Protestant settlement, mostly people by settlers who came across from Scotland, southern Scotland, and from England. Their relation with the Irish population were fraught from the beginning. By 1641, some of the Irish chieftains in Ulster resentful of their loss of land and of power in that area planned to imitate the Scotts rebelling, seizing control of the Irish government and then negotiating a better settlement. Once the rebellion began, however, they proved unable to control it. Meanwhile, the so-called old English aristocracy of other parts of Ireland, mos of whom were Roman Catholic. They were descended from medieval Norman conquerors of Irish land, known as the old English. They joined the rebellion, principally motivated by the fact that as Roman Catholics, they were fearful of a Puritan-dominated parliament in London and what it might mean for them.
1590年代泰隆伯爵反对伊丽莎白叛变之后，英国政府没收了北爱尔兰当地首领的土地，阿尔斯特地区被移民为新教定居点，多数定居者来自苏格兰南部和英格兰。他们和爱尔兰本土居民的关系从一开始就不太好。阿尔斯特的爱尔兰首领们对失去土地和权利本来就不甘心。1641年他们效仿苏格兰叛变并控制爱尔兰政
府，以此寻求更好的待遇。叛变一发不可收拾，而爱尔兰其他地区的旧贵族仍然信奉天主教，他们是中世纪诺曼底征服者的后裔，他们也加入到反叛行列作为天主教徒，清教徒主导的国会对他们非常不利。
With the joining together of these two sources of discontent in Ireland, the rebellion became both a religious, a Roman Catholic, and a nationalist rebellion fueled by bitter resentment against the plantations in the north, marked by massacres and evictions of settlements.
爱尔兰的这两股力量，让反叛同时是天主教叛变，也是民族主义叛变。充满了对定居者的屠杀和追逐。
So by the time civil war broke out in July, August 1642. To the Scots, it was about religion and distinctive institutions of what was still an independent kingdom even if they had the same king as the kingdom of England.
在战争刚打响的1642年7月8月，不同的人对于内战爆发的原因有不同的看法。苏格兰人民这是宗教和独立的问题，具有相同君主，并不代表就是一个王国。
To the Irish, it was about land and religion.
爱尔兰人认为这是宗教和土地问题。
Brief word about Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell was a squire of high birth but low means, a younger son, who had been MP for Cambridge in the Long Parliament, and who had left parliament in order to raise forces. He had gradually risen from captain of a troop to colonel of a calvary regiment.
他出身绅士家庭却地位卑微，因为他不是长子，后来他成为长期国会中的剑桥成员。战争爆发后他离开国会，为东部联盟招募军队，并逐渐从上尉晋升为骑兵团上校。
二十一弑君和共和国1647-1660
二十二不平静的平静：王政复辟时期1660-1688