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翻译_TR 16_伽玛照射_Gamma Irradiation_1992

翻译_TR 16_伽玛照射_Gamma Irradiation_1992
翻译_TR 16_伽玛照射_Gamma Irradiation_1992

Effects of Gamma Irradiation on Elastomeric Closures

伽马射线对橡胶容器的作用影响

Table of Contents 内容列表(目录)

MISSIO任务S1 INTRODUCTION 绪论S1 EXPEJXIMENTAL DESIGN 实验性设计S1 PHASE I-ELASTOMER SCREENING STUDY 人造橡胶的筛选研究

S2 Materials and Methods 材料和方法

1. Elastomers 人造橡胶

2. Gamma Irradiation 伽马射线

3. Test Methods 测试方法

a) tensile strength 抗张强度

b) elongation at break 断裂伸长率

c) modulus 系数

PHASE 11-ELASTOMER PERFORMANCE EV ALUATION

第二阶段----人造橡胶的性能评估

Materials and Methods 材料和方法

1. Elastomers 人造橡胶

2. Gamma Irradiation 伽马射线

3. Test Methods 测试方法

a) chemical tests 化学测试

-turbidity 浑浊度

-reducing agents 还原剂

-heavy metals 重金属物

-pH change PH值

-total extractables 全部萃取物

b) physical tests 物理测试

-crosslink density 耦合密度

-durometer measurement 硬度测量

-compression set 压缩应变

-surface characteristics 表面特征

-viscoelasticity 粘弹性

c) use related tests 应用相关的测试

-coring 取芯

-coefficient of friction 摩擦系数

-tackiness 黏滞性

-needle penetration force 穿透力

4. Results 结果

a) chemical tests 化学测试

b) physical tests 物理测试

-crosslink density 耦合密度

-durometer measurement 硬度测量

-compression set 压缩应变

-surface characteristics 表面特征

-viscoelasticity 粘弹性

c) use related tests 应用相关的测试

-coring 取芯

-coefficient of friction 摩擦系数

-tackiness 黏滞性

-needle penetration force 穿透力

TABLES 表格

I. PDA Irradiation of Rubber Formulations 合成橡胶的配方的辐射PDA

I-A. Formulation Ingredient Details 配方原料的详细资料

11. PDA Irradiation of Rubber Formulations 合成橡胶的配方的辐射PDA

-Physical Properties 物理属性

111. Phase I1 Elastomer Formulations 第二阶段的人造橡胶配方

IV. Dosimetry Summary Stoppers and Discs 瓶塞和圆盘的测试放射剂量概要V. Stopper Durometer Hardness Study 瓶塞硬度的研究

VI. DMA Viscoelasticity DMA粘弹性

FIGURES 图解

1. Dumbbells for Physical Tests 哑铃状的物理测试效果图

2. 20mm Stopper 20mm的瓶塞

3. Typical Rheometer Curing Curve 典型的固化的流变曲线

4. Compressiion Set Plugs 压缩应变测试的效果图

5. Closure discs for DMA 用于DMA的封闭塑料圆盘

6. Compression Set Device 压缩应变测试的设备

7. Closure Disc Cut for DMA 用于封闭塑料圆盘的切片

8. Turbidity 浑浊度

9. Reducing Agents 还原剂

10. pH shift PH值

11. Total Extractables 全部的萃取物

12. Crosslink Density 耦合度

13. Durometer Measurement Manually Held Stoppers

14. Compression Set 压缩应变

15. Coring 取芯

16. Coefficient of Friction 摩擦系数

17. Needle Penetration Force 穿透力

APPENDICES 附录

I. Stopper Durometer Test Procedure 瓶塞硬度的测试流程

11. Needle Penetration Force Test Procedure 穿透力的测试流程

INTRODUCTION 绪论

Traditionally dry or wet heat, or chemical sterilants such as ethylene oxide. However, heat sensitive polymeric packaging materials or drug products cannot tolerate autoclaving or dry heat sterilization. Disposal of ethylene oxide and its toxic degradation products is a growing concern with the environmentally conscious and aeration of these chemicals from the sterilized product requires time consuming handling procedures. As a result, radiation sterilization has increased in popularity as a sterilization process for medical devices, pharniaceutical processes and packaging. Yet even with the wide acceptance of radiation sterilization, consideration must be given to the medicament as well as the package to ascertain whether or not any deleterious effects have occurred as a result of irradiation。

传统灭菌方法为干热灭菌,湿热灭菌或化学灭菌,比如利用环氧已烯。然而,热敏感的化合物制成的包装材料或者药物产品不能承受高压蒸汽灭菌或者干热灭菌,对环氧乙烯的处理和降低产品的毒性在环境保护方面的影响也越来越被重视。对于分解无菌产品中的化学物质来说急需一个严格的处理规程。因此,在医药设备,制药工艺,包装工艺,放射灭菌法已成为一种流行的灭菌方法。人们广泛接受了放射灭菌法。但与此同时还必须考虑到,对于药物产品和包装材料,放射是否会导致不利影响。

This Task Force concentrated its efforts on examining the effects of gamma irradiation emitted by the isotope Cobalt 60 on elastomeric closures used in parenteral vial packaging. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of extremely short wavelength and moderately high energy (in the range of 0.014 MeV for Cobalt 57 to 2.75 MeV for Sodium 24). Gamma rays originate in the atomic nucleus and are very penetrating which makes this form of energy quite useful for sterilization processes. Cobalt 60 the most popular source of gamma irradiation used by the industry. has gamma ray intensities of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV: too low to induce radioactivity into a product. 工作组主要检验注射类药物小瓶包装使用的橡胶容器中钴的同位素钴60放射的伽马射线的影响。伽马射线是以电磁形式辐射的射线,属于中高能量的短波射线。(在钴57产生0.014兆电子伏的能量到由钠24产生的2.75兆电子伏能量之间)。伽马射线是由于原子核碰撞产生的,产生的能量对无菌工艺很有用途。钴60已成为工业生产中伽马射线的主要来源,由于伽马射线的辐射能量在1.17兆电子伏特到1.33兆电子伏特之间,因此在生产中并不会引起放射性伤害。

Electron beam radiation is also a commonly utilized source of sterilizing radiation. Electron beams are produced by "boiling off" electrons from a wire filament. then directing them into an electric field where they are accelerated. The accelerated electrons are directed out of the source through foil windows, and are spread out into a sweeping fan shape by special focusing magnets. Electron beam irradiation uses higher energy levels than does gamma irradiation. The energy levels begin at 7 MeV and presently can go to 20 MeV. Because this form of irradiation uses particles rather than rays it is unable to achieve the same depth of penetration as does gamnia irradiation (a few centimeters versus meters). Since there is a desire to achieve more penetration with this form of radiation, the energy levels are raised. Once the energy level exceeds 5 MeV it becomes necessary to watch for induced radioactivity in the

product since at levels above 5 MeV one begins to approach the cross section of the nucleus for capturing an electron.

放射性电子束同样是一种普遍应用的灭菌辐射源。电子束是由导电灯丝中的自由电子产生的,它们直接进入加速电场。得到加速的电子通过箔窗定向逃逸,并分散进入有聚焦磁体形成的扇形扫描区域。电子束辐射利用的能量水平高于伽马射线的能量。其拥有的能量在7兆电子伏特,并且目前可以到达20兆电子伏特的能量级。由于该形式的辐射度与伽马射线的辐射度相比,其辐射深度没有伽马射线的辐射深度大。人们希望该形式的射线能够具有更大穿透能力,其能量水平才会提高。一旦其能量级超过5兆电子伏特,那么有必要寻找感光发射性产品。在能量级超过5兆电子伏特时,接近能捕获电子的范围。

The high energy rays of Cobalt-60 irradiation not only sterilize elastomeric, but could also trigger complex reactions within the elastomeric matrix. Generally these reactions are categorized as either polymeric chain crosslinking or chain scission. Both types of reactions occur to varying degrees within all rubber formulations. Even after exposure, free radicals generated during irradiation continue to trigger chain crosslinking and scission for many months. It was the goal of the Task Force to evaluate the impact of gamma irradiation exposure and the resultant deterioration on the performance characteristics of elastomeric closures.

钴60的同位素产生的高能量射线用于无菌人造橡胶,同时会引起人造橡胶模型的一系列复杂的连锁反应。一般将这类反应归纳为聚变耦合反应或者裂变连锁反应。两种类型的反应在所有的人造橡胶配方中发生不同程度的反应。甚至在二次抛光之后,其游离基在辐射期间能够连续引起聚变和裂变反应并持续数月。工作组的目的是评估伽马射线曝光的影响和橡胶密封件的性能特点导致的衰变。

Experimental Design 实验性设计

The investigation was comprised of two phases. In the first phase fourteen formulations, representative of common closure formulations were molded into standard test dumbbells and exposed to four levels of gamma irradiation (0 Mrad. 1.5 Mrad. 2.5 Mrad, and 5.0 Mrad)' (7). These test pieces were evaluated for change in their physical properties of elongation, tensile strength, and modulus one month after irradiation. Based on these test results six representative formulations were selected for further evaluation. In Phase Two rubber items (20 mm stoppers, plugs, and discs) were molded from the six selected formulations. Again, these samples were exposed to the same four levels of radiation. The samples were tested over time for changes in chemical properties (turbidity, pH shift, reducing agents, heavy metals, and total extractable~); for changes in physical properties (crosslink density, cornpression set, microscopic surface characteristics, durometer hardness, and viscoelastic moduli); and for changes in use related parameters (coring, needle penetration, tackiness, and coefficient of friction).

这项科学研究分为两个阶段。第一阶段的14个配方代表普通容器配方被制成

标准测试模型并暴露于4个等级的伽马射线(0Mard,1.5Mard,2.5Mard,和

5.0Mard)。这些测试样本用来评估放射一个月后的物理延展性,抗张强度和系数。

基于这项测试,6个代表性的配方被选用为更深层次的计算。在第2阶段,橡胶制品(20mm的瓶塞,塞子,和圆盘)根据6种配方制成模型。长期测试样品的化学特性的变化(浊度,PH值,还原剂,重金属和析出物等),物理特性的变化(耦合浓度,压力设置,细微的表面特性,硬度和黏弹性系数)和相关参数的变化(晶内偏析,穿透度,黏性,摩擦系数等。)

Phase I-Elastomer Screening Study 阶段1——人造橡胶筛选研究

Materials and Methods 材料和方法

1. Elastomer人造橡胶

Fourteen formulations of elastomers were selected as being representative rubber formulations commonly used for molded stoppers in the pharmaceutical industy. These formulations were designed solely for this study.

No attempt was made to duplicate any marketed stopper product. The ingredients of each formulation are presented in Tables 1 and I-A. They represent seven natural rubber formulations (A through G) four bromobuty formulations (I through L), one natural bromobuty blend (M), one nonhalogenated buty formulation (N).

and one chlorobuty formulation (0). The natural rubber and bromobutyl elastomers varied primarily in their cure systems (e.g. resin, sulfur, zinc oxide).

The elastomers were compounded and molded into sheets in accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Procedure D31S2-89, "Standard Practice for Rubber, Materials, Equipment, and Procedures for Mixing Standard Compounds and Preparing Standard Vulcanized Sheets" (3). Standard size dumbbells were then die cut according to the specifications for Die C in ASTM D412-87. "Standard Test Methods for Rubber Properties in Tension" (Fig. 1 and

(4)).

14种人造橡胶的配方被选作为普遍用于制药生产中的瓶塞塑模的配方典型。这个配方仅仅用于此项研究的设计,没有尝试复制任何市场上的瓶塞。每个配方的配料在表1和表I-A中有列出。它们代表7种天然橡胶的配方(A-G),4种丁溴醛合成橡胶的配方(I-L),1种天然丁溴醛混合物(M),1种无卤代酸的合成橡胶的配方(N)和一种氯代合成橡胶的配方(O)。天然橡胶和丁基合成橡胶主要在固化系统有区别(比如树脂,硫磺处理,氧化锌处理)。,橡胶根据(ASTM)D31S2-89规程,“用于混合标准混合物和制备标准硫化薄片的橡胶,材料,设备和程序的标准规范”进行混合并塑模成薄片。对标准尺寸的哑铃效果图通过Die C in ASTM D412-87的详细说明进行冲切。对合成橡胶的产品的张力进行标准测试。

2. Gamma Irradiation 伽马射线

Each of the 14 formulations of dumbbells was subdivided into four groups, corresponding to four levels of irradiation exposure: 0 Mrad (control), 1.5 Mrad, 2.5 Mrad, and 5.0 Mrad. These represent the minimum target doses of Cobalt-60 gamma irradiation given to the four groups of stoppers.

14种dumbbells配方的每一种又可以细分为4个种群。相当于4个等级的辐射管线的暴露率。0Mard (可控制的)1.5Mard,2.5Mard和5.0Mard。这代表4种橡胶瓶塞所需钴60产生的伽马射线的最小目标量。

3. Test Methods

测试方法

After gamma irradiation, the 14 formulations were evaluated for the physical properties of tensile strength, elongation at break, and modulus described below according to ASTM D412-87, "Standard Test Methods for Rubber Properties in Tension-Method A" (4). According to the test, the three parameters were determined on the dumbbells as they were being stretched at a constant rate of strain of 20 in./minute to the point of rupture. Each test result reported represents the average for three dumbbell replicates.

伽马射线辐射之后,按照ASTMD412-87“应力-方法A(4)中橡胶特征的标准测试方法”对14种配方进行物理特性的测试,包含抗张强度,扯断伸长率以及以下系数。根据测试,哑铃状辐射确定3个参数,以稳定的20英寸/分的拉伸率拉伸以至断裂点。每个测试结果代表3个哑铃状辐射复制品的平均结果。

a) Tensile Strength is defined as the force per unit area which is applied

at the time of rupture. Results are expressed in force units of pounds per

square in, and typically range from 500-1000 psi with as much as a

+20% variation between samples of a given test group.

抗张强度是指在某个单位区域被拉伸至断裂所施加的力量。测量结果都是以每平方英寸所承受力(以磅为单位)的大小表示,在给出的测试组中,典型的范围是500-1000 psi,+20%的误差。

b) Elongation at Break is the maximum degree of extension of the

dumbbell specimen measured at the moment of rupture. Elongation is

expressed in percentage units according to the following equation:

断裂处延伸是断裂时测量的哑铃状辐射的最大延伸度。延伸度是用百分比

表示,计算公式如下:

100 x [(L - L,)/Lo] = Elongation

Where

Lo = initial length of specimen 样品初始长度

L = final length of specimen at break 断裂瞬间的最终长度

Results can be as high as 1200%, with a variation between samples of a given group of as much as + 15%. 结果最高为1200%,给定组中样品的偏差最多为+ 15%。

c) Modulus is the stress (psi) required to produce a designated

elongation. In these studies, the modulus was measured at 200%

elongation. Results may be as high as 2000 psi with a +20% variation

between samples of a given test group. 系数是一种让物体产生指定延

伸长度所要求的压力值。在这里的研究中,该系数是在其延伸达到+200%

时所测量到的数值。测量结果可以高达2000 psi,其误差在+20%左右。

Results 结果

The tensile, elongation, and modulus results for the 14 formulations are presented in Table 11. Results are expressed as percentage change of the irradiated samples from the control. With all seven natural rubber formulations, the percentage difference from the control was within reasonable anticipated limits and implied that irradiation is not a

factor. All bromobutyl formulations (I through L), chlorobutyl (0). and nonhalogenated butyl (N) showed more change in physical properties than the 100% natural rubber formulations. Among the butyl formulations the resistance to irradiation varied depending on the cure system. In general. the resin cured and/or sulfur cured systems were more resistant to irradiation than formulations using a zinc oxide cured system alone. The halobutylinatural rubber blend formulation (M) was effected less by irradiation than the pure butyl formulations. Based on these results, six representative formulations were selected for Phase 11, Elastomer Performance Evaluation.

14种配方的张力,延伸率系数的测量结果列在表11中。对经过控制的放射样品测量结果用百分比表示。对于所有7种天然橡胶配方,其百分率值与控制中所预期的限度不同并且表明放射性并不是其中因素。所有的丁基橡胶配方(I-L)氯丁基(O)和卤化丁基(N)表明它们在物理属性的变化方面要比天然橡胶配方的变化方面多出一倍之多。在丁基橡胶配方当中,其对放射的阻值取决于固化系统。一般来说,树脂硫化(固化)和/或者用硫磺处理固化的系统要比仅用氧化锌进行固化的系统更具放射抵抗性。丁基橡胶很合物配方受放射影响要比单纯的丁基合成橡胶受的影响要小。基于这个结果,6个典型的配方用于第2阶段,人造橡胶的性能评估。

Phase Il-Elastomer Performance Evaluation Materials and Methods 第二阶段——性能评估材料和方法

1 Elasrormrs人造橡胶

Six formulations from Phase 1 were selected for further evaluation in Phase 11.

The formulations identified were: a natural rubber with sulfur cure (B). a bromobutyl with zinc oxide cure (J). a bromobutyl with resin cure (L), a halobutyllnatural blend with resin cure (M). nonhalogenated butyl with sulfur cure (N). and a chlorobutyl with sulfur cure (0). For simplicity in future discussions, the formulations were

renamed PDA# 1 through PDA# 6, respectively (Table 111). The formulations of natural, butyl, and blends are representative of the major elastomers used to make stoppers in the industry. They also reflect the range of physical test results noted in Phase 1.

从第一阶段挑选出来的6种配方是为了进行第二阶段更深层次的评估。配方的识别如下:天然橡胶是用硫磺固化B,丁基橡胶是利用氧化锌进行固化J,利用树脂硫化处理的丁基橡胶L,树脂固化丁基混合橡胶/天然橡胶M,硫磺固化的非卤化橡胶N 和硫磺固化的氯丁基橡胶O。为了简化更深的讨论,这些配方通过PDA#1到PDA#6进行各自命名(表3)。天然的,丁基合成以及混合的配方代表着主要的人造橡胶配方并用于工业生产中橡胶瓶塞的制造。它们同时也反映了第一阶段记录的物理测试结果的范围。

To make stoppers of these formulations, an internal mixer batch of each formulation was prepared, the curing agent was added, and 20 mm plug style

stoppers were molded (Fig. 2). The curing characteristics of each formulation were established using standard methods. All curing conditions were established via oscillating disc rheometer curing curves (Fig. 3 and (5)). Five thousand pieces of each formulation were made. Each formulation was then subdivided into four

groups of stoppers boxed into corrugated cartons and sent for irradiation.

为了制成这些配方的瓶塞,准备了一种用于每组配方的密闭式混合机,增加了固化剂,且制成20mm的插塞式瓶塞模塑。每种配方的固化参数是通过标准方法确定的。

所有的固化条件是通过电流表的指针曲线变化来确定。按照每个配方都制作出了5000只。每个配方在被细分为4组瓶塞,并将其装入褶皱的纸盒中接受辐射。

In addition to the stoppers described above, plugs for compression set testing were molded (Fig 4). Irradiation was accomplished with the plugs compressed as described in the Test Method for Compression Set.

除了上述瓶塞,也制成了用于压缩应变设置测试的插塞模型(Fig 4)。插塞按照应变设置的测试方法进行压缩时辐射已完成。

The same formulations were molded into 20 mm discs (a minimum of 20 discs for each formulation) to be used for viscoelastic evaluation via dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). These discs were the same thickness as the flange of a 20 mm plug style closure, but without the plug (Fig. 5). The discs from each formulation were subdivided into four groups for gamma irradiation.

相同的配方被用来模塑出20mm的圆盘,(每种配方至少20个),动态的机械分析(DMA)用于黏弹性评估。这些圆盘与20mm的插塞式密闭容器的法兰具有相同的厚度,但没有插塞(Fig 5)。每种配方的圆盘被细分为4组伽马射线进行辐射。

ML (Viscosity): Measure of the deformability or flow characteristics of the unvulcanized rubber.

ML (粘稠度):对生胶的可塑性或者流动特性进行的测量

ts2 (scorch): Measure of the time at which vulcanization begins.

STs2:橡胶硫化过程的开始时间点。

tc (90) (Cure Time): The time necessary for the torque to reach 90% of the increase from ML to MH is tc(9D). ic(90) is the time to reach 0.9 (MH-ML) + ML tc(90)(固化时间):从ML上升到MH的90%扭矩力所需要的时间。Ic(90)就是指达到0.9 (MH-ML) + ML的时间。

MH (Max Torque): Measure of shear modulus of the fully vulcanized test specimen at the vulcanization temperature.

MH(最大转矩):表示样品在硫化温度点完全被硫化的剪切系数。

1. Gamma Irradiation

The four subgroups of stoppers and discs from each formulation were exposed to the nominal doses of 0 Mrad (control), 1.5 Mrad, 2.5 Mrad, and 5.0 Mrad. Each carton of rubber pieces was monitored for the actual range of irradiation exposure using Harwell dosimeters3 (Table IV). In all cases, the actual exposure level was within 0.6 Mrad of the minimum target dose.

In a separate shipment, the compression set plugs compressed in the compression fixtures were gamma irradiated also at the above nominal irradiation doses.

1. 伽马射线

每个配方中得到的4组瓶塞和圆盘暴露在普通计量0Mard,1.5Mard,2.5Mard和

5.0Mard的辐射当中,通过利用Harwell 放射量测定器对每个装有橡胶片的纸盒

暴露辐射的实际辐射范围进行监测。在所有的情形中,实际的曝光等级是在最小计量为0.6Mard的辐射量。

2. Test Methods测试方法

After gamma irradiation, the test pieces of the six formulations were evaluated over time for changes in the chemical properties of turbidity, reducing agents, heavy metals, pH shift, and total extractables. Stopper physical properties monitored include crosslink density, durometer hardness, and visible surface characteristics. Discs were tested for physical changes in compression set and viscoelastic moduli. Use related parameters of coring, needle penetration force, tackiness, and coefficient of friction were determined using the various formulations of stoppers. Each test method is described in greater detail below.

经过伽马射线的辐射,对6种配方的测试薄片在浑浊度,还原剂,重金属,PH 值和全部的萃取物方面的化学特性进行持续的评估。瓶塞的物理属性监测包括耦合厚度,计示硬度,和显露面得特性参数。

a) Chemical Tests The physicochemical tests specified in the United

States Pharmacopeia (USP) XXII monograph, "Elastomeric Closures

for Injections" (6) were used for characterizing the six formulations

after gamma irradiation over time. The tests are designed to determine

pertinent physicochemical extraction characteristics of elastomeric

closures. Elastomers were evaluated initially, 3 and 9 months post

irradiation. For all tests, the extraction solvent selected was purified

water. 化学测试,在美国药典USPXXII专论中明确指出物理化学测试。

“人造橡胶注射管”被用来做6种配方在经过连续的伽马射线辐射之后

的特性定义。这项测试被设计用来测定的弹性橡胶(容器)管的相关物

理化学特性。人造橡胶的最初评估需要3个月和9个月的在位辐射。对

于所有测试,萃取溶剂是纯化水。

Turbidit y--- is an indirect measure of the insoluble extractables removed from a closure. In this study, the stopper extracts were tested for

relative turbidity versus a blank solution using a Coleman Nephelometer. Turbidity is expressed in relative Nephelos units which range from 0 (absolute clarity) to 100 (turbid).

浑浊度—指的是一种对从容器中得到的部溶性的萃取物的间接测量。在这项研究中,瓶塞的提炼物被用来通过Coleman浊度计对萃取后溶液进行相对浊度进行测试。混作度一般是利用相对浊度表示的,其范围是在0到100之间。

ReducingAgents-are a measure of the organic extractables that are oxidizabie by iodine. The results are expressed in milliliters of 0.01 N iodine solution.

还原剂---是一种对被碘氧化的有机提炼物的测量。这个结果用0.01N的碘溶液的毫升数表示。

Heavy Metals-in the closure extract were measured according to the U.S.P. XXII Monograph < 231 >, Method 1 (7).

重金属-提炼物中重金属的测量是通过USP XXII专论(231),方法I(7)进行的。

pH Change-is simply the difference between the sample extract and a blank water solution.

PH值---PH值仅是样品萃取物和萃取后水溶液之间的差异

Total Extractables-are measured by evaporating a given volume of extract to dryness and comparing the residue weight with that of a blank solution. Units are expressed as milligrams of residue per 200 mL of extract.

全部萃取物----通过蒸发给定容积的溶液来萃取残基,干燥并比较残基与萃取后溶液的重量进行测量。单位为每200毫升萃取物中的残基的毫克数。

b) Physical Tests 物理测试

Physical tests used to determine the effects of gamma irradiation of elastomeric materials include crosslink density, durometer measurement, surface appearance, compression set, and viscoelastic moduli. Each test is further described below.

物理测试是用来确定伽马射线对高弹性材料的影响包括耦合厚度,硬度测量,表面状况,压缩应变和黏弹性系数。每项测试将在下面的内容中作详细描述。

Crosslink Densin.-is the measure of the degree of cure of the rubber. A change in crosslink density as a result of gamma irradiation can provide an indication of the degree of chain scission or crosslinking occurring in the elastomer. In this study, crosslink density was indirectly determined by measuring the average weight increase of 10 stoppers from each test group after immersion in cyclohexane for 24 hours at ambient temperatures. Elastomers were tested initially, 3, 9, 12 and 15 months post gamma irradiation.

耦合厚度----是对橡胶的固化度的测量,由于伽马射线辐射的缘故,耦合厚度的改变可以提供对人工橡胶中发生的断链度或者耦合度的表示。在这个研究中,耦合度是通过在常温中将10个瓶塞浸入环已烷中24小时后其平均重量与之前相比增加的量来间接表示的。最初的人工橡胶的测试是在经过伽马射线辐射之后的

第3个月,第9个月,第12个月和第15个月都要进行测试的。

Durometer Measurement-is a measure of the hardness of an elastomer. Durometer hardness is measured with a Shore A Durometer instrument equipped with an indentor pin and spring connected to a dial gauge. The test method generally used is described in ASTM 2240-86. "Standard Test Method for Rubber Property-Durometer Hardness" (8). In this procedure, the indentor is allowed to penetrate the precisely positioned elastomeric test speciman under controlled conditions. The hardness is inversely related to the penetration, and is dependent on the elastic modulus and compression modulus of the material. The results are expressed in relative Shore A Hardness units ranging in value from 0-100.

硬度计测量----硬度计测量是对人工橡胶硬度的测量。硬度计硬度通过配有凹口引脚和链接到指示表盘弹簧的Shore A硬度计进行测量。通常用到的测试方法在ASTM2240-86“合成橡胶的硬度性能的标准测量方8”中有详细叙述。在这个步骤中,引脚在受控条件下可以插入恰当的位置对人造橡胶进行测试。硬度与穿透深度有逆向相关的联系。它取决于材料的弹性模数和挤压模数。测量结果用相对Shore A硬度计表示,数值在0-100之间。

Durometer hardness readings were determined on the 20 mm plug-style closures by two different modifications of the ASTM procedure. In the first procedure hardness was determined by manually holding the stopper underneath the plug and forcing the indentor into the thickest part of the flange by hand. Repeatability of this method is reported to be about 22%. Tests were conducted initially after irradiation, and 3 and 9 months post irradiation. Results are reported as the average of 5 closures per formulation, where each closure was tested twice.

硬度计的读数取决于ASTM程序的两种不同步骤制成的20mm的插塞式容器。在第一步,硬度通过手动保持瓶塞在插座下面并且手动将引脚强行插入其边缘中最厚的部分来确定。报告说这种方法具有22%的可重复性。辐射之后的第3个月和第9个月都要进行测试。测试结果表示了每种配方的5个容器的平均值,并且每个容器都要测试两次。

The second method tested the durometer hardness on the 20 mm plug-style closures by utilizing a special stopper positioning adaptor designed to work with a Shore Durometer Conveloader System. The test procedure is detailed in Appendix I. By this method stoppers were tested by three companies in a round robin study using the same test equipment to minimize error. All stoppers were tested 15 months post gamma irradiation exposure. The test results were statistically analyzed.

第2种测量20mm的插塞式容器硬度的方法是通过一个特殊的瓶塞安装在一个合适的位置,并与一个Shore硬度计系统设计在一起工作。这个测试程

序在附录1中有详细叙述。这个方法中,瓶塞经过3家公司的检测,在同一回合中采用同一测试设备来进行,以保证最小的误差。所有的瓶塞在经过伽马射线辐射之后15个月内都要进行检测。测试结果需经系统分析。

Compression Set-tests are intended to measure the ability of rubber compounds to return to their original dimensions after prolonged compressive forces. The ASTM D2309-68 procedure, "Standard Test Methods for Rubber Property-Compression Set Induced by Nuclear Radiation-Method C" (9) was modified for this study to evaluate the extent to which compressed stoppers are affected by irradiation. This was done to simulate the effects of terminal sterilization via gamma irradiation on stoppers crimped onto vials. Test specimens were individually molded according to the ASTM dimensional specifications for Type 2 samples described in (10).

-

-这项测试的目的是为了测量橡胶混合物在长时间施加压缩力之后恢复原来尺寸大小的能力。ASTMD2309-68程序,“核辐射法处理的橡胶压缩性能的标准测试方法”经过修改,可用来评估压缩胶塞受辐射影响的程度。张力模拟的是伽马射线在最终灭菌时对被压入小瓶中瓶塞的影响。依照第10小节2类型样品的ASTM尺寸说明分别制作测试样品。

For this study, the sample plugs were compressed to 25% of the original sample thickness. Figure 6 illustrates the compression set device. While under constant compression, the plugs were gamma irradiated at the levels described earlier. All plugs were subsequently stored under compression at ambient conditions until 3and 9 months had elapsed, when they were removed from the compression devices and allowed to return to their original uncompressed shapes. Percent compression set is calculated according to the following equation:

在这个研究中,样本插塞被压缩到原来样本厚度的20%,图6是压缩设备的样图。在承受恒压力的同时,插塞已经过了在前面所叙述到等级的伽马射线的辐射处理。所有的插塞在挤压的环境条件下保存3到9个月的时间,到时从压缩设备中转移出来并且允许让其恢复到初始无压力情况下的形状尺寸。受压变形率的计算公式如下:

where. 此处:

Cb = compression set as 5% of original deflection 5%的压缩变形

T0 = original specimen thickness样本的初始厚度

Ti =final specimen thickness 样本的最终厚度

Tn = thickness of specimen during compression 样本在挤压过程中的厚度The results reported are the average compression set values determined on three sample replicates. Sample to sample repeatability for this test is given as approximately ±10%.

显示的结果是一个平均的压缩值,它取决于3个样本的重复的结果。用于进行重复测试的样本数大约在10%左右。

Surface Characteristics-of the stoppers were examined visually only at the initial time point post irradiation using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). 表面参数----瓶塞的表面参数仅仅是在开始对其进行辐射处理的时候利用电子显微镜进行直观的诊察。

viscoelasticiry--of the natural rubber formulation (PDA# 1) and the butyl formulation (PDA# 5) was quantitatively determined by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) approximately one year after exposure to irradiation. Samples from the control (0 Mrad) and 5 Mrad exposure conditions were tested. To perform the test, each elastomeric disc sample was cut in a strip configuration of approximately 2.3 cm x 0.3 cm x 0.08 cm (L, W, T) (Fig. 7). Each sample was then clamped into the dynamic mechanical analyzer test chamber at a clamp distance of about 0.7 cm, and was

evaluated for the ratio of viscous (G") to elastic modulus (G'),。One sample of the natural rubber (PDA# 1) formulation was tested, and two samples of the butyl (PDA# 5) formulation were tested.

黏弹性—天然橡胶配方(PDA#1)和丁基合成橡胶的配方(PDA#5)的粘弹性在数据上取决于其在经过辐射处理之后,大约一年后的动力机械分析。经过控制等级0Mard 和等级为5Mard辐射的样本要经过测试。为了进行测试,每个人造橡胶制成的圆盘样本要被分割成一个个尺寸大约为2.3厘米*0.3厘米*0.08厘米的小块。接着每个样本在保持相互距离为0.7厘米的情况下被固定并送入动态机械分析实验室中,并且测评弹性组件的粘性的比例。测试一个天然橡胶配方的样本时,则测试2个丁基合成橡胶配方的样本。

Use Related Tests 使用相关测试

The following tests were used to determine the effects of gamma irradiation on the use related parameters of coring, coefficient of friction, tackiness, and needle penetration force.

以下应用到的测试用于确定伽马射线去芯测试,摩擦系数,黏着性和穿透力量等相关数据。

Coring-is a standard closure test described in detail in the PDA Technical Bulletin #2 (I), where the number of rubber particles or fragments that result from the insertion of a needle through a closure are counted. An increase in coring versus time and/or irradiation is interpreted as the degradation of a stopper's resealability. This is especially important for multiple dose injectable products. In this study, 10 stoppers were tested from each formulation/dose condition initially, 3 and 9 months post gamma irradiation. The average number of cores per 100 punctures are reported in each case.

去芯测试是一个标准的压缩测试并在前面的PDAT技术公报#2(1)中有所描述,穿过封闭容器室引起的合成橡胶微粒或者碎片数量则进行统计。在去芯测试中所用的相对时间和/或者辐射的增加是由瓶塞重复使用造成的。这一点对多种注射产品来说很重要。在这项测试当中,每个配方/最初剂量条件下的每10个瓶塞都要进行测试,之后的每3个月和第9个月都对其要进行测试。在每个实例当中,每100个穿刺芯数的平均数都要对其进行整理报告。

Coeficient of Friction-is a measure of the friction between the rubber sample and a given surface. For this study, the West Co. Method CF-01 (11) was followed. The results are reported as the average angle of incline at which stoppers begin to move for three sets of stoppers at each formulation/dose condition. Stoppers were tested initially, 3 and 9 months post gamma irradiation.

摩擦系数---摩擦系数是指在给出的平面和合成橡胶样品之间的摩擦力的大小,在这项测试当中,应用到West Co. Method CF-01 (11)。在每种配方/剂量条件下测量到的3套瓶塞移动的角度以平均值的形式表示出来。在经过最初的测试之后,辐射处理之后的

3个月和第9个月各进行一次测试。

Tackiness-is defined as the phenomena where the rubber parts have the potential to stick together and require force to separate. Tackiness is qualitatively expressed as ranging from "severe" (where parts stick together firmly and are hard to separate) to "not tacky" (where parts do not stick together) to "slippery" (where parts will slip between each other).

黏着性---- 定义为对合成橡胶的某些部分有可能会粘在一起,因此需要强制将其分开的现象。黏着性的程度范围可以表示为“严重的”(某些部分粘合的很坚固并且很难分开)到“不黏的”(某些部分互相之间不粘合)再到“光滑”(指某些部分之间很光滑)

Needle Penetration Force-is the force required to puncture a closure with a needle. This test is significant for stoppers intended to be pierced with a needle. The method used in evaluating the stoppers is described in Appendix fcrctaeiti 11. For this study, the average force of penetration for 10 stoppers per formulation/dose condition was determined initially, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 months post gamma irradiation. The results are presented as the ratio of the penetration force obtained for each irradiated formulation to the penetration force of the nonirradiated control.

贯穿力度---是指要使用探针穿透封闭容器所需要的力量的大小。这项测试对于需要进行贯穿处理的瓶塞来说很重要。这个用于瓶塞的测评的方法在Appendix fcrctaeiti11有描述到。对于这个研究,对每个配方/剂量的每10个瓶塞需要的穿透力由在辐射处理之后的最初,之后3个月,6个月,9个月,和12个月和15个月之后所测量到的数值的平均值决定。这个结果是通过对每个经过辐射处理的配方的穿透力量同未经辐射处理的所需的穿透力量的比值的形式表达出来的。

Results/ 结果。

a) Chemical Tests 化学测试

The chemical test results for turbidity, reducing agents, PH shift, and total extractables are presented in Figures 8 through 11.

浑浊度,还原剂,PH值和萃取物等方面的化学测试结果在表8到11中有列出。

Greater turbidity correlates to increasing irradiation for PDA# 2 (bromobutyl formulation with zinc oxidecure), PDA# 5 (butyl, sulfur cured elastomer), PDA# 6 (chlorobutyl sulfur cured), and to some degree PDA# 1( sulfur cured natural rubber) (Fig. 8). As none of the resin cured systems demonstrated turbidity, it was concluded that turbidity is a function of the ingredients of the formulation, rather than the elastomer.

越高的浑浊度对PDA#2(氧化锌处理的丁基合成橡胶配方)和PDA#5(丁基,硫磺固化处理的人造橡胶),PDA#6(氯丁基硫化处理固化),一定程度的对PDA#1(硫化处理固化的天然橡胶)辐射强度的增加有相关联系。没有哪种硫化处理固化系统可以论

证浑浊度,它表明的是配方原料的功能而不是人造橡胶的。

Gamma irradiation showed no effect on reducing agents (Fig. 9), no aeffect on pH shift (Fig. lo), and no effect on heavy metals extraction. For formulations DA# 2, 4 and 5, total extractables appear to be influenced by irradiation (Fig. ll), the effect of irradiation being formulation dependent。For formulation PDA #4, radiation appears to increase the extractables for all time points, but for #5radiation would appear to decrease the level of extract able.

伽马射线对还原剂无影响,对PH值无影响,对重金属物取样无影响。对于PDA#2,4,5号配方来说,其萃取物受辐射的影响。配方依赖辐射的效果。对于PDA#4 配方来讲,辐射在所有的时间点都显现出增加了萃取物等级。而对于5号配方来说又似乎起到了降低其等级的作用。

高中阅读长句分析与翻译

句子分析(初级) 1. However, many scientists who specialize in ageing are doubtful about it and say the human body is just not designed to last past about 120 years. 2. Some companies have made the manufacturing of clean and safe products their main selling point and emphasize it in their advertising. 3. At the press of a button, a microcomputer locks all other floors chute(道) doors and sets the recycling container turning until the right box comes under the chute. 4. The hot sun had caused the dough (面团) to double in size and fermenting yeast(酵母) made the surface shake and sigh as though it was breathing. 5. Miss Germaine’s mother looked anxious through the wedding and Mr. Cordell’s parents are reported to be less than delighted. 6. Whereas a woman’s closest femal e friend might be the first to tell her to leave a failing marriage, it wasn’t unusual to hear a man say he didn’t know his friend’s marriage was in serious trouble until he appeared one night asking if he could sleep on the sofa. 7. If you ask people to name one person who had the greatest effect on the English language, you will get answers like “Shakespeare”, “Samuel Johnson”, and “Webster”, but none of these men had any effect at all compared to a man who didn’t even speak English—William, the Conqueror. 8. When two cars travelling at 30 mh hit each other, an unbelted driver would meet the windshield with a force equal to diving headfirst into the ground from a height of 10 meters. 9. What Winter knows of the 19-year-old who saved his life is only that he died in a car accident and that his family was willing to honor his wishes and donate his organs for transplantation(移植). 10. This chance discovery ended a 12-day search by the Library Company of Philadelphia for a historical treasure—a 120-page diary kept 190 years ago by Deborah Logan—“a woman who knew everybody of her day,” James Green, the librarian told the magazine “American Libraries”. 11. The alarm had been raised because Vicki became suspicious(怀疑) of the guest who checked in at 3 pm the day befo re New Year’s Eve with little luggage and wearing sunglasses and a hat pulled down over his face ... 12. At the conference in San Francisco, Donald Louria, a professor at New Jersey

历年英语四级翻译真题与答案

2013年12月: 段落翻译: 试卷一:中餐 【真题原文】许多人喜欢中餐,在中国,烹饪不仅被视为一种技能,而且也被视为一种艺术。精心准备的中餐既可口又好看,烹饪技艺和配料在中国各地差别很大。但好的烹饪都有一个共同点,总是要考虑到颜色、味道、口感和营养(nutrition)。由于食物对健康至关重要,好的厨师总是努力在谷物、肉类和蔬菜之间取得平衡,所以中餐既味美又健康。 【翻译答案】Most people like Chinese food. In China, cooking is considered as not only a skill but also an art. The well-prepared Chinese food is both delicious and good-looking. Although cooking methods and food ingredient vary wildly in different places of China, it is common for good cuisine to take color, flavor, taste and nutrition into account. Since food is crucial to health, a good chef is insistently trying to seek balance between cereal, meat and vegetable, and accordingly Chinese food is delicious as well as healthy. 试卷二:信息技术 【真题原文】信息技术(Information Technology),正在飞速发展,中国公民也越来越重视信息技术,有些学校甚至将信息技术作为必修课程,对这一现象大家持不同观点。一部分人认为这是没有必要的,学生就应该学习传统的课程。另一部分人认为这是应该的,中国就应该与时俱进。不管怎样,信息技术引起广大人民的重视是一件好事。 【翻译答案】As China citizens attaching great importance to the rapidly development of Information Technology, some college even set it as a compulsory course. Regarding to this phenomenon, people holding different views. Some people think it is not necessary, for students should learn the traditional curriculum. Another part of people think it is a need, because China should keep pace with the times. Anyway, it is a good thing that Information Technology aroused public concern. 试卷三:茶文化 【真题原文】"你要茶还是咖啡?"是用餐人常被问到的问题,许多西方人会选咖啡,而中国人则会选茶,相传,中国的一位帝王于五千年前发现了茶,并用来治病,在明清(the qing dynasties)期间,茶馆遍布全国,饮茶在六世纪传到日本,但直到18世纪才传到欧美,如今,茶是世界上最流行的饮料(beverage)之一,茶是中国的瑰宝。也是中国传统和文化的重要组成部分。 【翻译答案】"Would you like tea or coffee?" That’s a question people often asked when having meal. Most westerners will choose coffee, while the Chinese would like to choose tea. According to legend, tea was discovered by a Chinese emperor five thousand years ago, and then was used to cure disease. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, tea houses were all over the country. Tea drinking spread to Japan in the 6th century, but it was not until the 18th century does it spread to Europe and America. Nowadays, tea is one of the most popular beverage in the world, and it is not only the treasure of China but also an important part of Chinese tradition and culture. 试卷四:中国结

大学英语四级长句翻译方法及技巧

第19卷第12期 武汉科技学院学报Vol.19 No.12 2006年12月 JOURNAL OF WUHAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Dec. 2006 英语长句翻译方法及技巧 张艳萍 (湛江师范学院大学外语部, 广东湛江 524048) 摘要:英语长句翻译是英语学习中的一个难点,本文从英汉语言对比的角度,探讨了英汉两种语言的 差异,进一步分析了两种语言长句的特点,概述了英语长句的常用的四种翻译方法,并举例分析了这些 方法在实际中的运用。 关键词:英汉长句;差异;翻译;技巧 中图分类号:H315.9 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1009-5160(2006)-0200-04 我们在英语教学过程中,往往会发现学生在汉译英时出现中国式英语,英译汉时句子却“西化”。究其原因我认为这主要是因为英语和汉语来自两种完全不同的文化语言体系,语序差别甚大,尤其遇到复杂长句,除了需要较强的对比分析理解能力外,还要求我们掌握一定的翻译理论和技巧以及具备较好的语言表达能力。为此,本人结合自己的英语教学实际,拟从英汉语言对比的角度来对英语长句的翻译问题作些探讨。 1 英汉句子结构的差异 人类语言的多样性,使翻译成为人类交流的重要媒介。同时,由于不同语言体系的差异,在英汉翻译里,英语和汉语会在句法结构、内在逻辑关系存在着明显差异: (1)英语句子重形合,汉语句子重意合。汉语注重隐性连贯注重逻辑事理顺序、注重功能、意义,注重以神统形,形合手段比英语少得多,没有英语所常用的那些关系代词、关系副词、连接代词和连接副词。并且汉语介词数量少,句式结构上也无太多的限制,可以利用说话的语气、环境及语言结构内部的相互衬托等条件使语句尽量辞约义丰。所以汉语是一种必须联系交际人主体意识、语言环境、句子表达功能作动态的意念分析的重“意合”的语言,是有别于英语句子重“形合”,试看下面句子: 例1:My idea of a good P.E. class is one where youth are involved in at least 20 minutes of basic movement that gets their heart rates up. 译文:说到一节好的体育课,我的想法是青年在体育课中至少要进行20分钟使他们心跳加快的基本运动。 这是一个典型的重形合的英语句子,全句用两个关系代词将两个定语从句联系起来,在译文中,将关系一层层理清楚,整句语气从容不迫,这就符合了汉语的叙事方法。 例2:不听老人言,吃亏在眼前。 译文1:If you wish good advice, consult an old man. 原文中的假设关系是隐含的,译成英语时用连词if把假设关系给表达出来,从这一例句可以看出英语重形合而汉语重意合的句子特点。 译文2:Who never consults an old man may suffer loss. 此句用名词性从句来翻译,同样体现了英汉两种语言在“形”和“意”上的区别。 (2)汉语通常根据时间顺序逐个翻译,而英语则较注重空间顺序。 汉语句中可常见两个以上的动词,甚至几乎全句皆动词。如:孩子们手里拿着老师给他们的礼物,唱着、 收稿日期:2006-09-17 作者简介:张艳萍(1978- ),女,硕士研究生,研究方向:英语翻译.

大学英语四级翻译(全)

英语四级翻译常用词汇:123个中文高频成语翻译 Automation 1502 YuDeyu 一、复习建议: 1. 加强历史、文化、经济以及社会发展相关热词的积累 2. 广撒网,学习、揣摩这些话题相关的难点单句训练 做这些单句训练时,先阅读1遍整个段落,专门挑出自己觉得比较难翻的句子,然后重点练习这一句的翻译。难句会了,简单句自然不在话下。 在做单句翻译时,先尝试自己翻,翻完以后,对照答案,看解析,总结和揣摩其中好的 词汇和表达。下面请大家跟着教研君给出的常考单句示例,具体学习吧~ 1. 对于大多数年轻人来说,结婚意味着独立组建家庭,然而物价的不断上涨使这一切 变得越来越困难。 参考译文:For most young people, marriage means s etting up a family independently, which has become increasingly difficult because of the constantly rising prices. 词汇点评: 组建家庭:set up a family。有同学容易使用start a family。start a family表示begin to have children“开始生儿育女”。 越来越:一般看到“越来越”大家习惯译为more and more,比如“越来越多的人”more and more people,但译为 a growing number of people可令人眼前为之一亮;而表达“变 得越来越”的含义时,使用become increasingly的译法更好。 物价的不断上涨:constantly rising prices,而不是price rising。 表达点评: 本句是一个表转折关系的并列句,后半句中的“物价的不断上涨使这一切……”中的“这一切”指代前半句中提到的“结婚意味着独立组建家庭”,因此,用which引导的非限制性定语从句,让整个句子简洁明了。 使字句的翻译:“物价的不断上涨”是“这一切变得困难”的原因,因此处理为原因状 语,用because of…来带出原因。 2. 过去十年中国房地产(real estate)行业高速发展。 参考译文:The past decade has witnessed a high-speed development in China's real estate. 词汇点评: 十年:decade 高速发展:develop rapidly; high-speed development 表达点评:

历年英语四级翻译真题及答案

历年英语四级翻译真题 及答案 集团标准化办公室:[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]

历年英语四级翻译真题及答案2012年6月翻译真题 87. Those flowers looked as if they __ ___________________________(好长时间没有浇水了). 88. Fred bought a car last week. It is __________________________(比我的车便宜一千英镑). 89. This TV program is quite boring. We might ______________________(不妨听听音乐). 90. He left his office in a hurry, with___________________________(灯亮着门开着). 91. The famous novel is said to _____________________(已经被翻译成多种语言). 2011年12月翻译真题 87. Charity groups organized various activities to ___________________________________(为地震幸存者筹款). 88. Linda __________________________________(不可能收到我的电子邮件) otherwise, she would have replied. 89. It’s my mother _____________________________(一直在鼓励我不要灰心)when I have difficulties in my studies.

For students 新四级翻译练习

很难想象我们的先辈们没有现代技术带来的这么多方便那日子是怎么过的。那个时候只有一小部分人享受一些舒适条件。大部分人连饭都吃不饱,更不要说接受教育的特权了。然而,许多人责怪现代技术,说它带来了很多问题。他们想减慢进步的速度。但是谁也不能阻止时代的前进。我们能做的是技术向哪个方向发展做出明智的决定。 Translation 2 武汉由长江、汉水分为三镇,因而亦被称为“江城”。武汉历史悠久,早在新石器时代(the Neolithic Age)这里就有人聚居和建筑城池。明清年间,汉口已是全国闻名的商埠,为当时中国的四大名镇之一。在中国近代史上,武汉作为民主革命的发祥地,写下了光辉的篇章。武汉具有优越的地理环境,有“九省通衢”之称。 Translation 3 汽车在二十世纪改变了世界,尤其是在美国和其他工业国家。汽车确实对我们大有用处,但也带来了一些危害,比如声音污染、空气污染以及公路死亡事故。据报道汽车事故被列为全世界导致死伤的主要原因之一。可庆幸的是,现代发明家门正在重新发明汽车。新的推进系统(propulsion system)、燃料、设计以及制造汽车的手段在过去的十年中得到迅速发展。例如,通过使用卫星辅助的全球定位系统,汽车里的计算机能给汽车精确定位;随着遥感器(sensor)的应用,智能汽车能排除不少汽车事故。 Translation 4 亨利教授的论文使我深受启发。他认为,在一个多元化社会里,不同意见是不可避免的。关键在于怎样正确对待不同意见,使之发挥建设性、而非破坏性的作用。他还说,在一个多元化社会里,我们必须注重人际关系,强调合作,多从他人视角考虑问题。如果某些群体自视高人一等,不尊重其他种族或宗教,那么整个社会有可能陷入瘫痪。我相信,要是我们把上述想法付诸实践,那我们就有可能创造出一种新的文明。 Translation 5 从前,我们以为技术发展会使我们的生活变得更安逸。那时我们觉得机器会替代我们工作,我们则有越来越多的时间休闲娱乐。但技术发展没有把我们解放出来,而是使我们成为奴隶。新技术纷至沓来,令人目不暇接。而每一项新发明问世,就进一步吞噬我们的光阴。比如,汽车曾使我们希望个人出行会方便得让人难以想象。可如今,城市车辆运行得比马车时代还要慢,我们因交通堵塞而困在车内,徒然浪费生命。在大多数情况下,技术发展并未节省时间,而是使我们得以做更多的事。 Translation 6 工业革命前,人们居住在交通联系不方便得小社区里。在本村范围内,人们自然而然地期望了解该了解的一切,见到该见的一切,做该做的一切。如今,生性好奇的我们仍试图这么做。然而,地球村是一个有着无限可能的世界,我们永远无法实现自己的目标。我们需要的不是更多的时间:我们需要的是更少的欲望。我们需要关掉手机,让孩子们自己玩耍。我们需要少购物,少阅读,少出游。我们需要给自己设定界限,不然注定会越来越感到绝望。 Translation 7 无疑,我们现在处于持续的压力之下,要长时间工作,要创造更多,拥有更多,从而成为一名成功人士。于是乎,工作狂(workaholism)——一种现代癖(addiction),就这样出现了。工作狂其根源是基于这样一种认识:通过长时间地工作、完成更多的项目,我们便能提高我们的自身价值。 许多妇女今天感到同样的压力,要创造,要出人头地,而与此同时,又要养育子女,承担起各种家庭责任。 研究表明,工作狂往往使我们与家人的关系疏远。它会迫使我们长时间地劳作,仅留微乎其微的时间与我们所爱的人聚在一起、交流感情。家庭成员间的亲密关系在此过程中注定要消亡。 Translation 8 日本是世界上最节能的国家之一,但近年来企业和家庭的温室气体排放量不断增长,这一状况促使政府采取措施提高民众对全球变暖问题的关注。气候变化将为七月初在日本召开的八国峰会的主要议题。日本家庭的能耗量一直低于美国和欧洲,但近年来却急剧增长,1990年至2005年间就增长了44%。日本政府于本周二发布的一份报告称,国民缩短洗澡时间有助于减少日本不断增长的能源消耗量及温室气体的排放。

汉语长句的翻译

长句的翻译是建立在字词和短句翻译基础之上的,同时,长句翻译也是构成篇章翻 译的较大单位,处理好了,篇章翻译的质量也就有了保证。 汉语是一种重意合(parataris)、含蓄而又主题突出( topic - prominent)的语言,它具有形式不够具体、成分省略较多、较难确认句子中的主谓成分等特点。汉语的构句非常注重语义的连贯,所呈现的叙事特点是平铺直叙。逻辑顺序是汉语构句所遵循的规律,因为汉语 在时间上重视“先后顺序”,在逻辑上重视“前因后果关系”。 英语是一种重形合(hypotaxis)、明确、主语突出( subject - prominent)的语言,词形变化多,句子中名词和介词占优势,词与词的结合不像汉语那么自由,它更重视句子形式上的严密法则。 2汉语长句的断句的原则及翻译 长句是指字数较多、结构复杂、含有多层语义的句子。一般来说,汉语的长句有两种: 一种长句是内容丰富、陈述比较细致、成份多而复杂的句子;另一种长句是由复句组成的多重复句,这种表达事物间的逻辑关系的句子,能清楚、明确地说明事物间的联系。 长句之所以要进行断句, 是因为汉语句子的结构比较松散,句界比较模糊,多是无连词的复句。几个逻辑上有关系的独立句子凑到一起,用逗号隔开,就可以组成一个复合句,或者一个主语后面有一系列表并列关系的连动句式,就可以组成一个复合句进行话题评述。 汉语句子总的特点是多用动词,尽可能地省略关联词,大量运用“意合句”和“连动句”。它的结构是线条式的,不管多少定语和多少复杂的结构形式,都可以一一排列起来组成一个结构严谨的完整的句子。 此外,汉语长句内的分句往往就是一个表示完整意义的句子,可以单列成句。 汉译英时要注意辨明原 句中各部分之间的实质关系,首先找出主干,即主语和谓语动词,然后打破原句中的时间和逻辑顺序,按原句中各个组成部分之间不同性质的关系对句子结构重新组织排列,以达到结构严谨、关系明确的目的,使之符合英语的表达习惯。 如果按汉语 的结构进行翻译,翻译出来的英语就会成为一个一个简单的独立句,相互之间没有联系,这并不符合英语的句子结构。因此,长句翻译要注意透彻理解原文,体会作者的写作思路,分析句际间和句子内各部分之间的关系。 长句难译,原因在于译者面对复杂的长句,不知从何下手。为了有效地翻译长句,可对其进行语法分析,先找出句子的主语、谓语和宾语,然后找出修饰主、宾的定语与定语从句,以及各个成分的修饰语。有时汉语长句也可进行语义分析,对于那些较长、较复杂的句子,在语义上可以分为多个层次,表示一定的逻辑关系,如并列、递进、转折等等。 从语法和语义两方面,结合具体的实 例,对汉语长句进行分析。 2. 1语法方面 汉语句子从语法方面考虑可分为:简单句和复合句。长句一般都属于复合句型,它包括:并列、递进、转折、疑问、总分及其他。 2. 1. 1汉语句子含有对立句 这种情况前一部分说明一方面的情况,后一部 分说明另一方面的情况,表达一定的逻辑关系:并 列、转折、递进等。如: ①本世纪上半叶的上海曾经是中国工业、贸 易、金融和商业的中心, /有着远东大都会浪漫而传

历年英语四级翻译真题及答案

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