材料专业英语

第一章材料

Definition ；Types；Structure ；Structure-properties-processing

材料的重要性：材料的发展史，就是人类社会的发展史。

影响材料使用的因素

Materials Behavior；A vailable；Cost；Synthesis and production；method Processing techniques；Environmental acceptability

Characteristics of materials

Have certain compositions; Can be processed;With certain shape and color;Can be used and reused or recycled.特点：具有一定的成分和配比；可成型加工；保持一定形状和外观；具有使用价值并可回收再利用。

Essential role of materials

Indispensable to our society:Food ，Energy，Transportation

Substances VS Materials：Substances That which has mass and occupies space; matter.

Materials The substance or substances out of which a stuff is made.

材料性能的决定因素：组成材料的各元素的原子结构Atomic structure；原子间的相互作用、相互结合Nature of chemical bonds；原子或分子在空间的排列分布和运动规律Atomic ordering；原子集合体的形貌特征Microstructure；

Nature of chemical bonds:

Metallic bond 金属键；Ionic bond 离子键；Covalent bond 共价键；Secondary bond次价键；V an der waals bond范德华力；Hydrogen bond氢键；

金属键既无饱和性又无方向性，每个原子有可能同更多的原子相结合，并趋于形成低能量的密堆结构。当金属受力变形而改变原子之间的相互位置时，不至于使金属键破坏。良好延展性；良好的导电性能；良好的导热性能

离子键一般离子晶体中正负离子静电引力较强，结合牢固。因此，其熔点和硬度均较高。另外，在离子晶体中很难产生自由运动的电子。它们都是良好的绝缘体。但当处在高温熔融状态时，正负离子在外电场作用下可以自由运动，即呈现离子导电。

共价键共价键在亚金属（碳、硅、锡、锗等）、聚合物和无机非金属材料中占有重要地位。共价键晶体中各个键之间都有确定的方位，配位数比较小。共价键的结合极为牢固。共价晶体具有结构稳定、熔点高、质硬脆等特点。共价形成的材料一般是绝缘体，其导电性能差。Classification：Metals and their alloys:-metallic bonding

Organic polymers Covalent bonding & secondary bonding

ceramics/ inorganic nonmetallic materials Ionic bonding & covalent bonding

Metals and their alloys:

Are good conductors of heat and electricity;Are opaque(遮蔽性的) to visible light;Are hard, rigid;Can undergo plastic deformationHave high melting temperatures (T m).

Organic polymers:Made up of long-chain molecules;Are electrical and thermal insulators;Are light and easily formed;he best-known organic polymers are:poly (vinyl chloride)(聚氯乙烯，PVC）；polyethylene（聚乙烯，PE）；polystyrene（聚苯乙烯，PS）。

Ceramics / inorganic nonmetallic materials:

The combination of metallic elements (Mg, Al, Ti,…) with non-metallic elements (O…);Have high mechanical properties;Are very hard and used as abrasives;Are electrical and thermal insulators;Some are thermal conductors, or Semiconductors.

Composite materials:

Are constituted by two or more different materials with specific properties.

Glass fiber reinforced resins: lightweight composites with high mechanical strength

Concrete:an agglomeration of cement, sand and gravel

Homework:

Why do we study materials science and technology?

What type of bonding would be expected for each of the following materials: brass, rubber, barium sulfide (BaS), solid xenon, nylon, and aluminum phosphide (AIP)?

Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties:The behavior of materials deformed by a set of forces.

弹性Elastic ity；塑性Plasticity；强度Strength；硬度Hardness；韧性Toughness；疲劳特性Fatigue behavior；耐磨性Abrasion resistance；

Physical properties：The behavior of materials subjected to the action of temperature，electric or magnetic fields，or light.

电性能Electric properties；磁性能Magnetic properties；热性能Thermal properties；

光性能Optical properties；

Chemical properties：The behavior of material in a reactive environment.

抗腐蚀能力Corrosion resistance；Atmospherically；Chemically (salts, acid, alkali)

Use of materials

Factors on the use of a material include：Quality：Properties and functions。Economy：Costs related to materials，processing and energy。Environment：Environmental behavior of the material。Resources & Recycling:Resources and possible recycling。

Materials Science

To establish the relation between composition,，atomic or molecular organization,the microstructure,and the macroscopic properties

Materials Science studies:

●化学组成、化学键、合成方法：Chemical composition，chemical bonds and synthesis methods ●特性：Nature of materials

●结构与性能的关系：Describe the relationship between structure and properties based on crystal physics and solid physics。To obtain optimal properties, it is essential to master the structure and composition of the material.

材料科学的主要任务：

基于现代科学技术：一方面，利用化学手段研究材料的化学成分、化学键和合成方法；另一方面，借助物理学方法，研究材料性质，主要根据晶体物理和固体物理描述材料结构和性能的关系。

材料科学与工程的四大要素；performance；properties；composition structure ；synthesis manufacturing processing。

Materials Engineering：Concerned with processes ofManufacturing，Transformation，Shaping Structural Characteristic of Materials

Forms of solids:crystalline &amorphous；Crystalline state of solid is more stable than amorphous state Structural Characteristic of Materials

Crystalline: an ordered arrangement of the elementary particles (ions, atoms or molecules).

晶体结构：晶体中微观粒子（原子、离子或者分子）在空间规则排列的方式。

Properties of crystals

Depend on：the electronic structure of atoms；the nature of the interactions in the crystal；the spatial arrangement of elementary particles；the composition, size and shape of crystals.；

点阵

为了便于分析研究晶体中质点的排列规律性，可先将实际晶体结构看成完整无缺的理想晶体并简化，将其中每个质点抽象为规则排列与空间的几何点，称之为阵点。这些阵点在空间呈周期性规则排列并具有完全相同的周围环境，这种由它们在三维空间规则排列的阵列称为空间点阵，也称晶格（Lattice）。

关于点阵的基本假设

Elementary particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are spheres;In a simpler model, spheres are replaced by points具有代表性的基本单元（最小平行六面体）作为点阵的组成单元，称为晶胞（cell）。

An elementary cell: described by

Three angles made by each two of these sections,α,β, and γ；晶格常数lattice constant/lattice spacing: a、b、c.

T ypes of elementary cell:

Simple three-dimensional lattice：Simple cubic；Body centered cell (BCC)；Face centered cell (FCC)；Simple elementary cell

晶胞中的原子数：面心立方结构n=8*1/8+6*1/2=4；体心立方结构n=8*1/8+1=2

间隙金属晶体存在许多间隙，这种间隙对金属的性能、合金相结构和扩散、相变等都有重要影响。位于6个原子所组成的八面体中间的间隙称为八面体间隙，而位于4个原子所组成的四面体中间的间隙称为四面体间隙。间隙的半径实质上是表示能放入间隙内的小球的最大半径。Close packing of atoms in crystal

The atoms of the next layer of the structure will preferentially sit in some of the hollows in the first layer – this gives the closest approach of atoms in the two layers and thereby maximizes the cohesive interaction.

Packing mode

(a) abab – Closest packing(b) abca – Closest packing

Anisotropy (向异性)Anisotropy:

The properties of crystals are different in various crystallographic directions, which are associated with an ordered arrangement of atoms (ions, molecules) in space.

晶体的各向异性即沿晶格的不同方向，原子排列的周期性和疏密程度不尽相同，由此导致晶体在不同方向的物理化学特性也不同。

Virtually all properties of crystals are anisotropic.；The phenomenon is more pronounced in crystals with structure of a poor symmetry.；Natural crystalline solids are mostly polycrystals；Homework:Cite the primary differences between elastic, anelastic, and plastic deformation behavior. What material could be used to insulate a furnace heated to 1000°C? Why?

第二章金属

What are the most common types of metals?Iron；Gold；Aluminum；Copper；Lead；Silver；Tin；Mercury；Zinc；

Definition of metals

A metal is an element that readily loses electrons to form positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds between metal atoms.

Advantages of Metals

Strong；Soft: Cutting, Machining, Shaping；Melting and casting；Heat conductive；Electric conductive；Light-Reflective；

Introduction

The properties of all types of solid materials, including metals, arise from their atomic architecture:The manner in which their atoms arrange themselves into a crystalline order；The number and types of imperfections(缺陷) found in the structure；The bonding forces that keep the collection or structure of atoms bound or joined together.

Introduction

Most metals occur in nature as compounds. These compounds(复合物) must be reduced to free the metal.

Introduction

In this chapter we shall explore in great detail the variety of metallic materials.

The ferrous metals(黑色金属)：Carbon steel；Alloy steel；Cast iron.；

The nonferrous metals are all other metals that do not contain iron as the major constitute, such as aluminum, magnesium, copper, titanium, nickel, as well as the refractory and precious metals. Introduction

Because of the strong bonding of metals, metallic materials have crystalline structures that differ from nonmetals；The three most common crystal structures of metals are Body-centered cubic structure (BCC)；Face-centered cubic structure (FCC)；Hexagonal close-packed structure；(HCP 密排立方结构）

Ferrous metals group

Iron and its many alloys, including cast irons and a nearly limitless variety of steel, comprise the ferrous metals group.

Ferrous Alloys

Ingot iron(工业纯铁) contains about 0.1% impurities including 0.01% carbon.It is used in applications where high ductility(延展性) or corrosion resistance(耐腐蚀能力) is needed.

Electrolytic iron(电解铁), about 99.99% pure, is used mostly for research.

Primary ores

Magnetite(磁铁矿)；Hematite(赤铁矿)；Taconite(铁英岩)；

Production of iron

Magnetite is a combination of ferric oxide(Fe2O3) and ferrous oxide (FeO) that is black in color.it contains approximately 65% iron and is highly magnetic.

Lodestone(磁石): A form of magnetite found in nature.

Hematite is typically ferric oxide(Fe2O3), or what we typically refer to as rust.it is blood red in color and contains approximately 70% iron.是一种氧化铁的矿石，主要成份为Fe2O3，呈暗红色，比重大约为5.26，是最主要的铁矿石，赤铁矿研碎了的粉末，可用作棕红色素Taconite is a green-colored, low-grade ore that contains less than 30% iron.it often contains much silica.铁燧岩基本上是由细粒石英，铁的硅酸盐和铁的氧化物组成的低品位铁矿石Other ores that are available include：limonite [hydrated ferrous oxide(FeO·H2O)]；siderite [ferrous carbonate (FeCO3)]；iron pyrites, which are iron sulfides (FeS).

Principles

Pig iron(生铁) contains too much carbon and too many impurities to be used directly in most applications.

It must be converted to steel in one of several typed of converters. These converters may differ in appearance, but they do the same thing:burn off the carbon in the iron；removing the impurities.

Molten pig iron is poured into a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) for conversion to steel

Production of steel

Phosphorus(磷) and sulfur(硫):0.05%；Manganese(锰):0.2% to 2.0%；Silicon(硅):0.01% to 3.5%；Introduction

A large group of ferrous alloys, which solidify with a eutectic(共溶质).

The color of a fractured surface can be used to identify an alloy.White cast iron；Grey cast iron；Mottled cast iron(麻口铸铁)；

Its melting temperature of 1150 to 1200℃is about 300℃lower than the melting point of pure iron.

Properties of Cast Iron

Advantages:Low melting point,Good fluidity,Castability,Excellent machinability，Wear resistance They are brittle(脆性的) except the malleable cast irons(可锻铸铁).

Production of Cast Iron

中国古代铸铁的生产方法（元朝，约公元1313年）

Cast iron alloys

Iron(Fe) accounts for more than 95 wt% of the alloy material,The main alloying elements are carbon(C) and silicon (Si).Carbon in cast irons:2.1%- 4%wt.Silicon, 1-3%wt.

Cast iron is often alloyed with elements:Nickel,chromium(铬),molybdenum(鉬),vanadium(钒)，copper(铜),titanium(钛).；Alloying elements toughen and strengthen cast irons.；The supersaturated or excess carbon will either form graphite flakes(石墨片) as seen in grey cast iron, or iron carbide as often seen in white cast iron.；Graphite may also take the form of spheres or nodules as found in

nodular cast iron(球墨铸铁) and malleable cast iron.

White cast iron

White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components,；But, good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost；Rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell of white cast iron. The resulting casting has the benefits of a hard surface and a somewhat tougher interior.；Can also be made by using a high percentage of chromium in the iron.；Silicon causes the carbon to rapidly come out of solution as graphite.；Sharp castings, good corrosion resistance, wear resistance.；Ease the machining of grey cast iron.；Less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel.；Difficult to weld.；Grey cast iron’s high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity are often exploited to make cast iron cookware.；

Nodular or ductile cast iron

The carbon is mostly graphite in the form of spheroids(球粒)。Produced during solidification by doping the cast iron with an element such as magnesium while it is still in the ladle.

Malleable cast iron(锻造铸铁)

The carbon in malleable cast iron is also in the form of graphite spheroids。But is formed as a result of lengthy heat treatment of white cast iron at high temperatures.

Iron alloy phases：

Austenite (γ-iron; hard)奥氏体；Bainite贝氏体；Martensite马氏体；Cementite(iron carbide; Fe3C)渗碳体；Ledeburite(ferrite-cementite eutectic, 4.3% carbon)莱氏体；Ferrite(α-iron, δ-iron; soft)铁氧体；Pearlite(88% ferrite, 12% cementite)珠光体；Spheroidite粒状体；

Steels

Steels are the cheapest and most versatile of metals for modern engineering purpose.

Steels are available in thousands of types, ranging from:Hard to soft,；Magnetic or nonmagnetic,；Heat-treatable Heat-treatable,；Weldable,；V arious resistances to heat, corrosion, impact, and abrasion. Carbon Steel

Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is a metal alloy, a combination of two elements, iron and carbon, where other elements are present in quantities too small to affect the properties.

The only other alloying elements allowed in plain carbon steel are:manganess(1.65% max),；

silicon(0.60% max),；copper(0.60% max).；

Strengthening Effect of Carbon

Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon molecules fit into the interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-centered cubic arrangement of the iron molecules.；

The interstitial carbon reduces the mobility of dislocations, which in turn has a hardening effect on the iron.；

T ypes of carbon steel

Mild (low carbon) steel: approximately 0.05-0.15% carbon content for low carbon steel and 0.16-0.29% carbon content for mild steel；

Appl. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing (渗碳过程)；Medium carbon steel: approximately 0.30-0.59% carbon content.；Appl. Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.；High carbon steel: approximately 0.6-0.99% carbon content.；Applications: very strong, used for spring and high-strength wires.；Ultra-high carbon steel: approximately 1.0-2.0% carbon content.；Steels that can be tempered to great hardness.；Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose)knives, axles or punches (打孔头)

Alloying Elements and Alloy S teels

Hig h-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steel

Stainless Steel：Ferritic(铁素体钢，10%-20% chromium)；Martensitic(马氏体钢，11.5% chromium up to 18% chromium, with higher levels of carbon than ferritics)；Austenitic(奥氏体钢，16%-30% chromium and 2% to 20% nickel)；Precipitation Hardening Alloys(弥散强化钢)；Tool Steel。

Case-hardened steel 渗碳钢

Characteristics:

Combination of wear resistance and fatigue strength in the surface and impact strength in the core zone；Achieved by carburizing the surface layer of the component, which is subsequently quenched and tempered.；

Applications:Transportation；Energy generation；General mechanical engineering；

Hardened steel 调质钢

A medium or high carbon steel that has been given the heat treatments of quenching followed by tempering

应用：一般尺寸重要零件，如齿轮、主轴。较大截面零件，如曲轴、连杆。大截面重载零件，如汽轮机主轴和叶轮。

Introduction

●There are a number of nonferrous metals (those that do not contain iron) and alloys that are widely applied in modern products.

Introduction

●The radioactive metals uranium (铀), thorium (钍), and plutonium (钚) are used as nuclear fuels.

●Zirconium (锆) is an alloying element and is also used in the nuclear field.

Nonferrous Metals

●The light metals aluminum, beryllium (铍), calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, titanium, and sodium also have their particular uses.

●Aluminum, beryllium, and titanium are used as structural metals, whereas the remaining light metals are too soft and chemically reactive; these metals are used to extract metals from their ores. Nonferrous Metals

●Sodium and potassium are used in the nuclear field as coolants.

●Nickel and lead are versatile metals used in many applications, whereas copper is used primarily for its thermal and electrical conductivity.

Nonferrous Metals

Cadmium, tin, and zinc are often used in electrical applications and for bearings.；Cobalt(钴) and manganese(锰) are used as alloying elements in ferrous and nonferrous metals.；Nonferrous Metals；Silver is used as a decorative metals and in brazing alloys(钎料) ；The refractory metals, those with melting point above 2000℃, such as columbium(钶), titanium, tungsten, vanadium, and zirconium, are used in applications requiring high strength, hardness, and high temperatures.

变形铝合金

防锈铝，不可热处理强化，做油箱、油管、铆钉。硬铝，做螺旋桨叶片、支柱;超硬铝，做飞机大梁、起落架;锻铝，做锻件、模锻件。

Cu及Cu合金的特点

熔点1083℃，密度8.9g/cm3

导电导热性仅次于Ag；耐大气、水腐蚀；切削性好，塑性好，可冷、热成形；铸铜合金的铸造性能好；纯铜——紫铜（紫红色）

工业纯铜：做电导体；力学性能σb=230-250 MPaδ=40-50%

铜合金：黄铜——Cu-Zn系合金；普通黄铜——Cu-Zn合金；单相黄铜——如H80，含80%Cu，单相α，塑性好，可冷成型；双相黄铜——如H62 ，α+β，可热变形；铸造黄铜——如ZCuZn38 ，含38%Zn 。

青铜：Cu-Sn、Cu-Al、Cu-Be等系合金

压力加工青铜：Sn青铜——如QSn4-3，含4%Sn、3%Zn，其余为Cu。做轴承、弹簧等；Al 青铜——如QAl10-3-1.5，做耐腐蚀、抗磨的齿轮、轴套等；Be青铜——如QBe2，做弹簧，高速轴承等；铸造青铜——如Sn青铜，ZCuSn10Zn2；

Mechanical properties of metals:

Stress versus strain (应力—应变关系)；Hardness(硬度)；Fracture toughness(断裂韧性)；Fatigue(疲劳)；Creep(徐变)；

Homework

●What are the advantages of metals?

●List a few examples of non-ferrous metals…

第三章

1 陶瓷的概念和分类

Concept and Classifications

1.1 概念Concept

陶瓷Ceramic: 烧过的粘土。是陶器(pottery)和瓷器(porcelain)的总称。

定义:陶瓷指经过高温处理所合成的无机非金属材料(Inorganic & nonmetallic materials),简称无机材料。

Ceramic compounds:

?Ceramics are refractory polycrystalline（多晶）compounds

?Highly inert (惰性); biocompatible(生物适应性的）

?Hard and brittle（脆性）

?High compressive strength（耐压强度）

?Generally good electric and thermal insulators

?Good aesthetic appearance

先进无机材料(advanced inorganic materials):

用氧化物、氮化物、硅化物、碳化物以至各种无机非金属化合物经过特殊的先进工艺制成的材料。

传统陶瓷：

◆又称普通陶瓷，主要是指以天然无机物如粘土等为主要原料、经高温处理得到的制品，

主要用于制造日用器皿、生活洁具等生活用具。

◆瓷器Porcelain; Chinaware ：细密的陶瓷器皿，质硬、半透明、白色、发声清脆以

及无孔，以长石(Feldspar)、石英（Quartz）和高岭石(Kaolin)为基本原料经一次烧成。

◆又称为精细陶瓷、新型陶瓷、高技术陶瓷、特种陶瓷等。

◆是指以精制的高纯天然无机物或人工合成无机化合物为原料，采用精密控制的制造加工

工艺烧结，得到的具有独特性能的高功能陶瓷。

先进陶瓷：

◆又称为精细陶瓷、新型陶瓷、高技术陶瓷、特种陶瓷等。

◆是指以精制的高纯天然无机物或人工合成无机化合物为原料，采用精密控制的制造加工

工艺烧结，得到的具有独特性能的高功能陶瓷。

◆Advanced ceramic: the scale of the raw materials and microstructures, including the

crystal grains, crystal interface, pores and defects is at the level of microns.

◆先进陶瓷，从原料、显微结构中所体现的晶粒、晶界、气孔、缺陷等在尺度上都是处在

微米级的水平

先进陶瓷的分类：

◆组成composition：氧化物oxide 、氮化物nitride 、硅化物silicide、碳化物carbide ◆性能properties & applications：结构陶瓷structural ceramics、功能陶瓷functional ceramics

◆结构陶瓷: 以力学、机械性能为主。Mechanic properties

◆功能陶瓷:①利用材料的电、磁、光、声、热等性能及其耦合效应，如铁电、压电陶瓷、

敏感陶瓷、快离子导体陶瓷等。②主要从电性能上考虑有绝缘陶瓷、介电陶瓷、半导体陶瓷、导体陶瓷以至高临界温度的超导陶瓷。

陶瓷的发展趋势：纳米陶瓷nano-ceramic

◆特性：①原材料粉末raw materials powder颗粒为纳米级nano-level grains；②微观结

构microstructures, 晶粒grains, 晶界interfaces，气孔pores以及晶体缺陷defects 同样在纳米级nano-level。

◆两种晶型复合的复相陶瓷：同一化学组成的物质经适当的工艺控制,得到不同晶型和

不同的颗粒形貌的复相陶瓷，达到自补强的目的。

◆有机和无机复合的复相陶瓷：介于有机与无机材料之间，不需要高温处理而获得的一种

新型材料。

◆金属陶瓷：金属与陶瓷复合的复相陶瓷。

普通陶瓷的显微结构主要由晶相、玻璃相、气相及晶界构成。

晶相crystal phase

Crystal phase: the main phase in ceramic materials, and composed of some solid solutions and compounds. Its structure and morphology decide the microstructure, properties and applications of ceramics.

Structures ~ Properties

◆Atoms are held strongly: the atoms are difficult to move or slip in relation to each other.

the ductility of ceramics is very low and they are brittle.

①High shear stresses ②Low ductility ③High compressive strength 抗压强度④Low tensile strength 抗张强度.

◆Bend strength: the maximum bending stress in tension of failure.

◆Metals VS ceramics:①at room temperature: they are competitive;②>850 oC, metals

weaken while ceramics retain much of their strength.

◆Ceramics: good heat resistance.①alumina: 1800 oC②silicon carbide: 1700 oC

Ceramic Processing:T raditional Processing:①structural clay products and the whitewares.

②Formation →Drying →Firing

成型Forming将粉料直接或间接地转变成具有一定形状、体积和强度坯体，称为素坯或生坯(roughcast)。

成型的方法有很多，主要有可塑法、注浆法与压制法:

可塑成型：利用泥料的可塑性。将粉料与一定水份或塑化剂混合均匀，使之成为具有良好塑性的料团，再用手工或机械成型制成坯体。②可塑成型：利用泥料的可塑性。将粉料与一定水份或塑化剂混合均匀，使之成为具有良好塑性的料团，再用手工或机械成型制成坯体。③注浆成型：即浆料成型法，是将原料配制成胶状浆料注入具有所需形状的模具中成型，又可分为注浆成型和热压注浆成型。④压制成型：ⅰ.将粉料填充在模型中，施加压力，制成具有一定现状和强度的坯体。ⅱ.分类：普通压制成型和等静压制成型。适宜于干料(含水3～7％)或半干料(含水8～15％)。

The roles of clay minerals:①Hydroplasticity: by adding water, the clays become very plastic.②Dense & strong ceramics: clay fuses or melts over a range of temperatures; then, producing a dense and strong ceramics during firing without complete melting so that the desired shape is maintained.

Advanced Ceramic Processing：①制备工艺：不再以熔炉为主要烧结工具, 如真空烧结、气氛烧结、热压烧结、气压烧结等。②性能：高强度、高硬度、耐腐蚀、导电、绝缘以及磁、电、光、生物相容性等。③Chemical processes。ⅰSol-gel processingⅱMelt processing④Producing single-crystal materials⑤Vapor processing⑥Directed metal oxygen process

①固相法：包括热分解法(thermal decomposition)；非晶合金退火结晶法（在玻璃转变温度下结晶）；自蔓延高温合成方法（制备金属复合材料）。②液相法：包括沉淀法；水解法；溶胶-凝胶法（通过水解金属醇盐或金属无机盐来合成氧化物的一种化学方法）。③气相法：包括气

相合成法；气相热分解法。④机械法：球磨、振动磨、高能球磨、气流粉碎。⑤溶剂蒸发法：酒精干燥法、冷冻干燥法、热石油工作法、喷雾工作法。液相法和气相法是制备超细粉的主要方法。

Properties of Ceramics：Mechanical properties 、Physical properties 、Chemical Properties 、Fabricability 、Other properties

第四章

玻璃的定义

Glass is an inorganic product of fusion which has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallization

熔体在冷却过程中粘度逐渐增大而得的不结晶的固体材料。

Features of glass玻璃的通性

Lack of the periodic (long range) order of a crystal、Infinite unit cell (no repeating large scale structures)；3D network lacking symmetry and periodicity；Isotropic 各向同性: same properties in all directions、Metastability 介稳性能：Compared to its crystalline form无固定熔点(no fixed melting temp.)：Can be either solid or liquid / viscosity (粘度)

性质变化的连续性与可逆性：Continuous and reversible(可逆的) changes

Major applications of industrial glass（工业玻璃的主要用途）

Now commonly applied for:Containers (容器)；Window；Decoration；Lenses (镜头)；Fiberglass (玻璃纤维)；Fiberoptics (光导纤维)；Road signs；Composites。

Classification of glasses according to compositions玻璃的分类: 按成份分

Oxide glasses；Chalcogenide Glasses (硫属化物玻璃) ；Thioborate glasses (B2S3) (硫硼玻璃)；Halide glasses (BeF2, ZnCl2 etc.) (卤化物玻璃)；Heavy metal fluoride glasses (ZrF4) (重金属氟化玻璃)；Oxy-halide glasses (氧卤玻璃)；Oxynitride glasses (氧氮玻璃)；Metallic glasses (金属玻璃)；Glass-like Carbon (玻璃碳)。

特种玻璃是指除日用玻璃以外的、采用精制、高纯或新型原料，或采用新工艺在特殊条件下或严格控制形成过程制成的一些具有特殊功能或特殊用途的玻璃，也包括经玻璃晶化获得的微晶玻璃。（1）使玻璃具有特殊的功能；（2）将常规特性发挥至极点；（3）将上述某项特性以另一种特性置换；（4）牺牲上述某些性能而赋予某项有用的特性。

Oxide glass

More than 90% of the glass in use is based on oxides and in particular silica：Silica and silicate glasses (硅酸盐玻璃）；B2O3 and borate glasses (硼酸盐玻璃）；GeO2 and germanate glasses （锗酸盐玻璃）；P2O5 and phosphate glasses （磷酸盐玻璃）；Complex oxide glasses ；

Classification of glass according to applications

Plate glass ：Generally plate glass comes in two thicknesses, ? inch and 1/8 inch.；Can be polished or float glass. 。

Tempered glass (钢化玻璃)：Heated on both sides and cooled rapidly with a stream of air.；This causes the outside to compress rapidly and place tension on the inside of the glass.；Approximately four times stronger than untempered glass；Breaks in small pieces；Used for car windows, shower doors, windows in public buildings。

Laminated glass (夹层玻璃)：Made by placing a piece of plastic between two layers of glass；Main use is for windshields and bulletproof glass。

Container glass：Blown at 600 – 800 celsius；Contain very little iron；Refractive index can vary from top to bottom of bottle；Annealing will raise the refractive index

Glass Manufacturing

Four Market Segments：Container Glass；Float (Flat Glass)；Fiber Glass；Special Glass。

辅助原料是使玻璃获得某些必要性质和加速熔制过程的原料，根据作用的不同，分为：澄清剂：加入玻璃配合料或玻璃熔体中，在高温下分解或气化形成气体以促进玻璃液中气泡排除的物质；

助熔剂：能促使玻璃熔制过程加速的原料；着色剂：是使玻璃着色的物质。根据着色剂在玻璃中呈现的状态，可分为离子着色剂，硫、硒化合物类分子着色剂和金属胶体着色剂三大类；脱色剂：是指能减弱铁及其它杂质离子或化合物对玻璃着色影响的物质。主要是消除Fe2+的着色。又分为物理脱色剂和化学脱色剂两大类；乳浊剂：是指在玻璃中的溶解度不大，随着温度下降，重新以微粒状从玻璃中析出，使玻璃产生乳浊现象的物质；氧化剂及还原剂：是在熔制玻璃时能释放出或夺取氧的物质。可以形成氧化或还原的熔制条件。

对混合料的质量要求

保证配合料的质量要求是加速玻璃熔制和提高玻璃质量，防止产生缺陷的基本措施，对配合料的主要要求是：构成配合料的各种原料均应有一定的粒度组成，即同一种原料应有适宜的粒度，不同原料间保持一定的粒度比，以保证配合料的均匀度、熔制速度、玻璃液均匀度，提高混合质量，防止配合料的分层；配合料中应具有一定水分，使水在石英颗粒原料表面上形成水膜，5%的纯碱和芒硝溶于水膜中，有助于加速熔化；为了有利于玻璃液的澄清和均化，配合料需有一定的气体率。对钠钙硅酸盐玻璃，气体率为15%～20%；必须混合均匀，以保证玻璃液的均匀性。

Melting of glass：The process of firing the pre-mixed admixture of raw materials and forming the homogenous glass melt.；Melting of glass is a complex process involving a serial of physical and chemical changes；The result of these changes is to turn the raw materials into a complex glass melt；The melting process of glass can be divided into five stages called: formation of silicates, melting, fining, homogenization (均化) and cooling. 。

Structural approach to glass formation ：Glass Formation results when Liquids are cooled to below T g sufficiently fast to avoid crystallization；Nucleation of crystalline seeds are avoided；Growth of Nuclei into crystallites (crystals) is avoided；Liquid is ―frustrated‖ by internal structure that hinders both events。

Forming of glass玻璃的成形与定形

◆玻璃的成形是指熔融的玻璃液转变为具有固定几何形状制品的过程。玻璃必须在一定的温度范围内才能成形。在成形时，玻璃液除作机械运动之外，还同周围介质进行连续热传递。由于冷却和硬化，玻璃首先由粘性液态转变为可塑态，然后再转变脆性固态。因此，玻璃的成形过程是极其复杂的多种性质不同作用的综合。其中，机械的和热的作用具有重要的意义。

◆玻璃制品的成形过程和其它塑性材料相同，分为成形和定形两个阶段。第一阶段是赋予制品一定的几何形状，第二阶段是把制品的形状固定下来，玻璃的成形和定形是连续进行的，定形实际是成形的延续。定形所需要的时间比成形时间要长。

◆决定成形阶段的因素：流变性，即粘度；表面张力；弹性及其与温度的变化特征。

◆决定定形阶段的因素：热性质；硬化速度；

Major forming techniques：Blowing 吹制法；Compression 压制法；Drawing 拉制法；Floating method 浮法→float glass；Rolling 压延法；Casting 浇铸法；

Production of glass plates:Originally, glass plates made one at a time using the Pittsburgh process Production of float glass：Originally able to make only 6mm thick glass, now made as thin as 0.4mm and as thick as 25mm；There are around 260 float plants worldwide with a combined output of about 800,000 tonnes of glass a week；A float plant, which operates non-stop for between 11-15 years, makes around 6000 kilometres of glass a year；

The floating part：Molten glass, at approximately 1000oC, is poured continuously from a furnace onto a shallow bath of molten tin.；It floats on the tin, spreads out and forms a level surface.；Thickness is controlled by the speed at which solidifying glass ribbon is drawn off from the bath.；After annealing (controlled cooling) the glass emerges as a 'fire' polished product with virtually parallel surfaces.。

Annealing of glass：Annealing, in glassblowing and lampworking, is the process of heating, and then slowly cooling glass to relieve internal stresses

消除玻璃制品在成形或热加工后残留在制品内的永久应力的过程称为退火。

Flat glass must be annealed to free of strain so that it can be cut straight and easily

平板玻璃必须通过退火来消除应力，以利直线切割

Containers and pressed ware must be free of stresses so that they don’t spontaneous fail under pressure 容器玻璃和受压器皿必须消除自身应力以避免在压力作用下突然破坏

Optical glasses must be free of stresses that change the index of refraction

光纤玻璃必须消除自身应力以避免折射率的变化

Preparation of special glass：

溶胶凝胶法（Sol-gel method）：The method is based on the phase transformation of a sol (a solution containing partic les in suspension) is polymerized at low temperatureto form a wet gel, which is going to be densified through a thermal annealing to give an inorganic product like a glass or a dry gel.

气相法：该方法是以气体作原料，或者是将固体原料气化成气体，再加热发生化学反应而制备玻璃或非晶态物质的方法。该方法主要用于光纤预制棒的制造，也用于光掩模基板等的制造。Properties of Glass

The glass transition is the region of temperatures where the properties of a cooled liquid continuously change from being ―liquid-like‖ to ―solid-like‖；Structure is continuous with the liquid state；Properties are continuous with the liquid state；Y et, the Glass Transition occurs over a relatively narrow range of temperatures and can be a ―sharp‖ transition in some cases。

The glass transition results from the slowing down of the internal relaxation time necessary to achieve equilibrium properties as the temperature is lowered；Rapidly rising viscosity and the associated viscosity relaxation time are at root of the slowing down of the liquids’ response to temperature change；Most liquids have a weakly temperature dependent viscosity；Glass forming liquids have a strongly temperature dependent viscosity。

T emperature dependence of viscosity：Soda lime glass as a common example；Viscosity decreases rapidly above the annealing point, Tg；Decreases less rapidly at higher temperatures。

Why is phase separation so important ?Materials properties change and become non-uniform；Optical properties, transparency, are dramatically degraded；Electrical properties can change from insulating to conducting；Appearance can change from clear and colorless to dark and absorbing；Processing can become difficult ；General overall behavior of glass changes。

Properties of glass

Density ：glasses is dependent upon its thermal history and decreases with temperature；Glasses cooled at various rates from above the annealing point will differ in density with the more rapidly cooled glasses having a lower density

Hardness ：Glasses are brittle in a macroscopic scale, but they can flow under shear stresses in a microscopic scale ；Hardness is a property closely related to the mechanical strength of a glass and to its low temperature viscosity 。

Strength ：The measured mechanical strength of glass is much lower than the theoretical strength ；Most glasses show a reduction of strength with increasing temperature 。

Brittleness ：One of the main causes of this loss of strength is the presence of surface defects ；The stress will concentrate over only a few inter-atomic bonds at the apex (顶点) of the crack ；If the glass is cooled too rapidly it does not have time to release stresses set up within it during cooling. These stresses are ―frozen-in‖ and can cause the glass to shatter(粉碎) when it becomes a solid.。

Optical Properties :The refractive index depends upon the wavelength of light, the density, temperature, thermal history, stress, and composition of the glass ；Glasses of higher refractive index have greater dispersion. The higher the index, the more the dispersion tends to increase with decreasing wavelength ；The refractive index of a glass and its change with the composition and heat treatment are of primary importance for optical glasses ；

The Importance of Chemically Durable Glass:Large amounts of architectural glass are in place around the world；Air borne contaminants such as NO x, SO x, produce nitric and sulphuric acids；Such acids and salts do attack glass and cause discoloration。

T ypes of Optical Fibers：多模光纤；阶跃光纤；渐变光纤；单模光纤。

第七章

Motivations

●It has always been the hope to produce structural materials possessing both great ductility and extreme strength.

●Strength provides load carrying capability while ductility prevents sudden failure.

●Strength and ductility tend to be incompatible properties of simple, homogeneous materials.

●The idea of combining different materials seems to be a effective way.

Mechanism

●Man-made composites are advantageous mechanically in that they typically combine the ductility and toughness of some matrix material with the load carrying ability of some introduced strong fibers or particles.

●Unlike metal alloys, the matrix and reinforcement do not interact chemically.

●Structural composites often have superior strength-to-weight and/or stiffness-to-weight ratios compared with homogenous materials.

Definition of composite

●A composite is a combined material created by the synthetic assembly of two or more components a selected filler or reinforcing agent and a compatible matrix (基体) binder (e.g. a resin) in order to obtain specific characteristics and properties.

Requirements for composites:

●two or more chemically distinct constituents

●distinct interface separating constituents (different phases)

●significant property difference among constituents

●significant volume fraction

复合材料在材料科学中是一门新兴学科，理论尚不成熟，还没有形成统一的、普遍接受的定义。国际化组织为复合材料下的定义：复合材料是由两种或两种以上物理和化学性质不同的物质组合而成的一种多相固体材料。

●改进的定义：复合材料是由两种或两种以上物理和化学性质不同的物质采用适当的工艺组合而成的一种多相固体材料，而且这种多相固体材料的性能比单一材料的性能优越。

复合材料定义要点

复合材料包含两种或两种以上物理上不同并可能用机械方法分离的材料。一般其中一种为连续相，另一种为功能增强相。

几种材料通过某种方法混合在一起获得复合性能。

复合材料的总体性能优于各单独组分材料，并在某些方面可能具有独特性能。

木质素、纤维素

Functions of matrix:to bind the reinforcements；To transfer load；To protect reinforcements from environmental attack；To protect reinforcements from damage due to handling；

Function of Reinforcement

限制微裂纹延伸；提高材料强度与刚性；改善材料抗疲劳、抗蠕变特性；提高材料使用寿命及可靠性

复合材料的分类（按照基体材料分类）

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC’s)—Also known as FRP– Fiber Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics) Metal Matrix Composites (M MC’s)—Uses a metal such as aluminium as the matrix, and reinforce it with fibers such as silicon carbide.

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC’s)—Uses a ceramics as the matrix and reinforce it with short fibers or whiskers made from silicon carbide and boron.

The Materials of Construction

The primary reinforcing agents used in the production of composite at the present time are glass, paper (cellulosic fiber 纤维素纤维), cotton, polyamide (聚酰胺) and other natural fibers, asbestos (石棉), sisal (剑麻), and jute (黄麻). Specially agents include carbon (碳纤维), graphite (石墨纤维), boron (硼砂), steel (钢纤维) and whiskers (晶须)

Primary Reinforcing Agents

Common:glass, paper, cotton, polyamide, other natural fibers, asbestos, sisal, jute.

Special :carbon, graphite, boron, steel, whiskers.

T ypical reinforcing agent – Fiber Glass

Known as fiberglass and glass fiber；Material made form extremely fine fibers of glass.；It is used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products.；The resulting composite materials, properly known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).；

T ypical reinforcing agent – carbon fiber；

碳纤维可以根据来源不同分为人造丝、石油（或煤的蒸馏残渣）以及PAN（聚丙烯腈）系碳纤维等。其特征也因原材料而有所差别。碳纤维最突出的优点是：强度高、模量高、密度小；耐高温，可在2000℃使用，3000℃非氧化气氛中不熔不软；耐酸，能耐浓盐酸、硫酸、磷酸、笨、丙酮等介质侵蚀；热膨胀系数小，约等于零；热导率高；导电性好；摩擦系数小并具润滑性。Advantage of using reinforcing filler :Increased strength, increased stiffness, heat resistance, heat conductivity, increased impact strength, reduced cost, stability, wet strength, fabrication mobility, viscosity, abrasion resistance, shrinkage, exothermic heat, thermal-expansion coefficient, porosity, crazing, surface appearance…

Disadvantages: They may limit the method of fabrication, inhibit curing of certain resins, and shorten the pot life (存储期) of the resin.

Application of MMC

有人形容美国的校车是客车的设施、卡车的骨架，安全性是普通车辆的40倍。油箱四周有保护钢板，非常厚，将近4厘米，如果被撞倒，油箱不会漏油，不会着火或爆炸。

美国校车车声也极度坚固，内部都是特殊加固的前后左右全部加装防撞钢梁，特殊加厚钢板，窗户上全部装的防弹玻璃，美国一辆校车价格都在几十万美金！而要知道美国丰田凯美瑞轿车等中档轿车在美国的售价只要2.2万美元，而一辆Lexus豪华SUV也只要5万美元。

―神舟‖六号载人飞船―防护颈托‖航天员在着陆冲击过程中最容易受损伤的部位是颈椎，防护颈托就是为保护航天员颈椎安全而设计的特殊吸能装置。看起来不大的防护颈托，却是一个技术难度很大的项目。它要求材料性能既要有高刚度，同时要具备低强度、高延伸率特性，但至今也没有一种材料能同时满足以上两个要求。

Other advantages:Higher strength；Less creep；Enhanced abrasion resistance；Reduced density；Thermo properties；

Application of CMC:与钛和不锈钢等金属材料相比：质量轻、耐腐蚀、热稳定性好、线膨胀系数小。应用：汽车发动机、战车发动机、屏蔽材料、热交换器。

Si3N4基复合材料:特点：具有优异的耐热性、耐热冲击性、热性和耐磨性；应用：作为耐磨材料可以减轻磨损，在汽车中得到了良好的应用效果；在重油、原油火力发电机的火焰喷嘴中得到了应用。可望在宇宙、航空领域得到应用。

Application of PMC:强度高、质量轻、使用方便、防腐、耐水、使用寿命长、综合性能高、节省能源、成本低、成型性能好。

Essential role of materials

Indispensable to our society:

□ Food

□ Energy

□ Transportation

□ ……

Substances VS Materials

□ Substances

That which has mass and occupies space; matter.

□ Materials

The substance or substances out of which a stuff is made

Homework:

Cite the primary differences between elastic, anelastic, and plastic deformation behavior? Elastic deformation.

When the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was applied.

Deformation is reversible, non permanent

Plastic deformation.

When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation

What are the advantages of metals?

Strong

Soft: Cutting, Machining, Shaping

Melting and casting

Heat conductive

Electric conductive

Light-Reflective

Characteristics of materials材料特性

Have certain compositions;

Can be processed;

With certain shape and color;

Can be used and reused or recycled.

特点：

具有一定的成分和配比；

可成型加工；

保持一定形状和外观；

具有使用价值并可回收再利用。

玻璃成分

Glasses have been made from elements, simple chemical compounds, complex organic molecules, salt mixtures and alloys.

Role of oxides in glass

Glass formers: B2O3, SiO2, GeO2, P2O5, Al2O3

Intermediates: TiO2, ZnO, PbO

Glass modifiers: Li2O, Na2O, K2O, MgO, CaO

The key factor in the preparation of glasses is how fast the melt can be quenched.

弹簧用碳钢片

CarbonSteel Strip For Spring Use

冷轧状态Cold Rolled Strip

回火状态Annealed Strip

淬火及回火状态

Hardened & Tempered Strip/ Precision – Quenched Steel Strip 贝氏体钢片Bainite Steel Strip

弹簧用碳钢片材之边缘处理Edge Finished

淬火剂

Quenching Media

碳钢回火Tempering

回火有低温回火及高温回火

Low & High Temperature Tempering

高温回火

High Temperature Tempering

退火Annealing

完全退火Full Annealing

扩散退火Diffusion Annealing

低温退火Low Temperature Annealing

中途退火Process Annealing

球化退火Spheroidizing Annealing

光辉退火Bright Annealing

淬火Quenching

时间淬火Time Quenching

奥氏铁孻回火Austempering

马氏铁体淬火Marquenching

高碳钢片用途End Usage of High Carbon Steel Strip

冷轧高碳钢–日本工业标准

Cold-Rolled (Special Steel) Carbon Steel Strip to JIS G3311 电镀金属钢片Plate Metal Strip

简介General

电镀金属捆片的优点

Advantage of Using Plate Metal Strip

金属捆片电镀层

Plated Layer of Plated Metal Strip

镀镍Nickel Plated

镀铬Chrome Plated

镀黄铜Brass Plated

基层金属Base Metal of Plated Metal Strip

低碳钢或铁基层金属

Iron & Low Carbon as Base Metal

不锈钢基层金属Stainless Steel as Base Metal

铜基层金属

Copper as Base Metal

黄铜基层金属

Brass as Base Metal

轴承合金Bearing Alloy

简介

General

轴承合金–日工标准JIS H 5401

Bearing Alloy to JIS H 5401

锡基、铅基及锌基轴承合金比较表

Comparison of Tin base, Lead base and Zinc base alloy for Bearing

purpose

易溶合金Fusible Alloy

焊接合金Soldering and Brazing Alloy

软焊Soldering Alloy

软焊合金–日本标准JIS H 4341

Soldering Alloy to JIS H 4341

硬焊Brazing Alloy

其它焊接材料请参阅日工标准目录

Other Soldering Material

细线材、枝材、棒材

Chapter Five Wire, Rod & Bar

线材/枝材材质分类及制成品

Classification and End Products of Wire/Rod

铁线(低碳钢线)日工标准JIS G 3532

Low Carbon Steel Wires ( Iron Wire ) to JIS G 3532

光线(低碳钢线)，火线(退火低碳钢线)，铅水线(镀锌低碳钢线)及制造钉用低碳钢线之代号、公差及备注

Ordinary Low Carbon Steel Wire, Annealed Low Carbon Steel Wire,

Galvanized low Carbon Steel Wire & Low Carbon Steel Wire for nail

manufacturing - classification, Symbol of Grade, Tolerance and

Remarks.

机械性能

Mechanical Properites

锌包层之重量，铜硫酸盐试验之酸洗次数及测试用卷筒直径

Weight of Zinc-Coating, Number of Dippings in Cupric Sulphate Test

and Diameters of Mandrel Used for Coiling Test

冷冲及冷锻用碳钢线枝

Carbon Steel Wire Rods for Cold Heading & Cold Forging (to JIS

G3507)

级别，代号及化学成份

Classification, Symbol of Grade and Chemical Composition

直径公差，偏圆度及脱碳层的平均深度

Diameter Tolerance, Ovality and A verage Decarburized Layer Depth

冷拉钢枝材

Cold Drawn Carbon Steel Shafting Bar

枝材之美工标准，日工标准，用途及化学成（转载自第一范文网https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d410626124.html,，请保留此标记。）份

AISI, JIS End Usage and Chemical Composition of Cold Drawn Carbon

Steel Shafting Bar

冷拉钢板重量表

Cold Drawn Steel Bar Weight Table

高碳钢线枝

High Carbon Steel Wire Rod (to JIS G3506)

冷拉高碳钢线

Hard Drawn High Carbon Steel Wire

(to JIS G3521, ISO-84580-1&2)

化学成份分析表

Chemical Analysis of Wire Rod

线径、公差及机械性能(日本工业标准G 3521)

Mechanical Properties (JIS G 3521)

琴线(日本标准G3522)

Piano Wires ( to G3522)

级别，代号，扭曲特性及可用之线材直径

Classes, symbols, twisting characteristic and applied Wire Diameters 直径，公差及拉力强度

Diameter, Tolerance and Tensile Strength

裂纹之容许深度及脱碳层

Permissible depth of flaw and decarburized layer

常用的弹簧不锈钢线-编号，特性，表面处理及化学成份StainlessSpring Wire – National Standard number, Charateristic, Surface finish & Chemical composition

弹簧不锈钢线，线径及拉力列表

Stainless Spring Steel, Wire diameter and Tensile strength of Spring Wire

处理及表面状况

Finish & Surface

各种不锈钢线在不同处理拉力比较表

Tensile Strength of various kinds of Stainless Steel Wire under Different Finish

圆径及偏圆度之公差

Tolerance of Wire Diameters & Ovality

铬镍不锈钢及抗热钢弹簧线材–

美国材验学会ASTM A313 –1987

Chromium – Nickel Stainless and Heat-resisting Steel Spring Wire –ASTM A313 – 1987

化学成份Chemical Composition

机械性能Mechanical Properties

305, 316, 321及347之拉力表

Tensile Strength Requirements for Types 305, 316, 321 and 347

A1S1-302 贰级线材之拉力表

Tensile Strength of A1S1-302 Wire

日本工业标准–不锈钢的化学成份(先数字后字母排列)

JIS – Chemical Composition of Stainless Steel (in order of number & alphabet)

美国工业标准–不锈钢及防热钢材的化学成份

(先数字后字母排列)

AISI – Chemical Composition of Stainless Steel & Heat-Resistant Steel(in order of number & alphabet)

易车碳钢

Free Cutting Carbon Steels (to JIS G4804 )

化学成份Chemical composition

圆钢枝，方钢枝及六角钢枝之形状及尺寸之公差

Tolerance on Shape and Dimensions for Round Steel Bar, Square Steel

Bar, Hexagonal Steel Bar

易车(快削)不锈钢Free Cutting Stainless Steel

易车(快削)不锈钢种类Type of steel

易车(快削)不锈钢拉力表

Tensile Strength of Free Cutting Wires

枝/棒无芯磨公差表(μ) (μ= 1/100 mm)

Rod/Bar Centreless Grind Tolerance

易车不锈钢及易车钢之不同尺寸及硬度比较

Hardness of Different Types & Size of Free Cutting Steel

扁线、半圆线及异形线

Flat Wire, Half Round Wire, Shaped Wire and Precision Shaped Fine

Wire

加工方法

Manufacturing Method

应用材料

Material Used

特点

Characteristic

用途

End Usages

不锈钢扁线及半圆线常用材料

Commonly used materials for Stainless Flat Wire & Half Round Wire

扁线公差

Flat Wire Tolerance

方线公差

Square Wire Tolerance

您可以访问第一范文网（https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d410626124.html,）查看更多与本文《金属材料相关英语词汇(3)》相关的文章。

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（6）Level, liquid level sensor （7）Pressure Sensor （8）Vibration Sensor （9）Gas Sensor （10）Acoustic sensor （11）Visual, image sensor （12）Moisture and humidity sensor （13）Displacement sensor （14）传感器Sensor sensor 6.传声器microphone 7.电容器capacitor （1）Glass capacitors （2）Glazed glass capacitors （3）Composite Dielectric Capacitors （4）Electrolytic capacitors

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心理学是什么－－What Psychology Is Why people do the things they do is an age-old question. However, psychology--the science concerned with behavior, both humans and animals--is only about 125 years old. Despite its youth, it is a broad discipline, essentially spanning subject matter from biology to sociology. Biology studies the structures and functions of living organisms. Sociology examines how groups function in society. Psychologists study two critical relationships: one between brain function and behavior, and one between the environment and behavior. As scientists, psychologists follow scientific methods, using careful observation, experimentation, and analysis. But psychologists also need to be creative in the way they apply scientific findings. Psychologists are frequently innovators, evolving new approaches from established knowledge to meet changing needs of people and societies. They develop theories and test them through their research. As this research yields new information, these findings become part of the body of knowledge that practitioners call on in their work with clients and patients. Psychology is a tremendously varied field. Psychologists conduct both basic and applied research, serve as consultants to communities and organizations, diagnose and treat people, and teach future psychologists and other types of students. They test intelligence and personality. They assess behavioral and mental function and well-being, stepping in to help where appropriate. They study how human beings relate to each other and also to machines, and they work to improve these relationships. And with America undergoing large changes in its population makeup, psychologists bring important knowledge and skills to understanding diverse cultures. Many psychologists work independently. They also team up with other professionals--for example, other scientists, physicians, lawyers, school personnel, computer experts, engineers, policy makers, and managers--to contribute to every area of society. Thus we find them in laboratories, hospitals, courtrooms, schools and universities, community health centers, prisons, and corporate offices. Psychologists traditionally study both normal and abnormal functioning, and also treat patients with mental and emotional problems. Today, they are increasingly concentrating on behaviors that affect the mental and emotional health and mental processes of healthy human beings. For example, they work with business executives, performers, and athletes to combat stress and improve performance. They advise lawyers on jury selection and collaborate with educators on school reform. They show up immediately following a disaster such as a plane crash or bombing, to help victims and bystanders recover from the trauma, or shock, of the event. They team with law enforcement and public health officials to analyze the causes of such events and prevent their occurrence. Involved in all aspects of our fast-paced world, psychologists must keep up with what's happening all around us. When you're a psychologist, your education never ends. Psychology is a discipline with a bright future. Among fields requiring a college degree, it is expected to be the third fastest-growing field in America through the year 2005 and to continue to grow steadily for at least another dozen years after that. Opportunities for work in psychology are expanding in number and scope. The move toward preventing illness, rather than merely diagnosing and treating it, requires people to learn how to make healthy behavior a routine part of living. Indeed, many of the problems facing society today are problems about behavior, for example, drug addiction, poor personal relationships, violence at home and in the street, and the harm we do to our environment. Psychologists contribute solutions to problems through careful collection of data, analysis of data, and development of intervention strategies--in other words, by

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认知失调 cognitive dissonance 认知地图 cognitive map 认知技能 cognitive skill 认知方式 cognitive style 信息 information 信息论 information theory 信息加工 information processing 信息加工心理学 information processing psychology 信息加工理论 information processing theory 信息加工模型 information processing model 中央处理器模型 central processor model 信息储存 information storage 信息提取 information retrieval 人工智能 artificial intelligence, AI 计算机类比 computer analogy 计算机模拟 computer simulation 计算机模型 computer model 唯心主义心理学 idealistic psychology 意动心理学 act psychology 唯意志论 voluntarism 唯灵论 spiritualism 强调超自然精神作用。 心灵学 parapsychology 心灵决定论 psychic determinism 心灵致动 psychokinesis, PK 心理技术学 psychotechnics 内省 introspection 内省法 introspective method 直觉主义 intuitionalism

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