语言学教程胡壮麟考研笔记

Unit 1 invitations to linguistics

1.Design features of language:

The design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals

●Arbitrariness

Theabsence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer. / The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural

relationship to their meaning.

?Arbitrariness relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.

(e.g. murmurous / murderous)

?Arbitrariness at the syntactic level

Functionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language existed in

the distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pin

and bin, or fish and dish.

(e.g. As the night fell, the wind rose.)

?Arbitrariness and convention

Convention: it is an idiom------it is a convention to say things like this way.

(When in Rome, do as romans do.)

●Duality:

Thestructural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (words and phrase) and meaningless segments(sound and letters)

Thesecondary units are meaningless and the primary units are meaningful.

?Traffic light system does not have duality: it cannot be divided into meaningless units, so it only has primary level like animals.

A large number of meaningful units can be formed out of a small number of

elements----productive power.

●Creativity

Thespeaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.

It’s potential to create endless sentences. (recursiveness)

●Displacement

The ability of language enable their users symbolize objects, events an d concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.

2.Origin of language

●The “bow-bow” theory: imitating of animal calls in wild environment

●The “pooh-pooh” theory: they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.

●The “yo-he-yo” theory: as primitive people worked together, they produced some

rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.

3.Functions of language：

●Informative function: to tell and to give something out

●Interpersonal function: (人际功能) by which people establish and maintain their status

in a society.

For example, the way in which people address others and refer to themselves.

Dear Sir……

●Performative function: the performative function of language is primarily to change the

social status of persons, such as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals and

cursing of enemies

●Emotive function: (also called expressive function) uttered without any purpose of

communicating to others, but essentially a verbal response to a person’s own feeling.

●Phatic communion:

It refers to social interaction of language.

Broadly speaking it refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargon…….

●Recreational function: The use of language for hearty joy of using it.

●Metalingual function:

Our language can be used to talk about itself. (self-reflexive) we human beings can talk about talking and can think about thinking.

For example: To be honest, to make a long story short, in a word.

4.Main branches of linguistics:

●Phonetics

It studies speech sound, including the production of speech, the description and

classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech……

●Phonology

It is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.

It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and shape of syllables.

●Morphology

It is concerned with the internal organization of words.

For example: The dog sees the rabbit. In English, different order gives different meaning. However, in Latin and also in Russian, dog and rabbit take on some

morphological endings depending on whether they are subject or object. So,

different sentence order did not change its meaning.

●Syntax

It is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.

For example:

?The children watched [the firework from the hill].

?The children watched [the firework] [from the hill].

●Semantics

Examine how meaning is encoded in a language.

It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below words and above it, such as meaning of morphemes and

sentences.

●Pragmatics

The study of meaning in context.

5.Macrolinguistics

●Psycholinguistics (心理语言学)

It investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing

utterances and in language acquisition for example.

●Sociolinguistics （社会语言学）

It is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their

functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and

change within a speech community.

●Anthropological linguistics （人类语言学）

Anthropological linguist are concerned with the emergence of language and also the

divergence of language over thousands of years.

●Computational linguistics （计算机语言学）

The use of computers to process or produce human language.

6.Important distinctions in linguistics

●Descriptive and descriptive

The distinction lies in prescribing how things are and how things ought to be.

Descriptive:

?To make an objective and systematic account of patterns and use of a language or variety.

?People don’t say X.

Prescriptive:

?To make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.

?Don’t say X

●Synchronic and diachronic

Synchronic (共时)

?Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” of time.

?Fo r example: the structure of Shakespeare’s English.

Diachronic（历时）

?Said of the study of development of language and languages over time.

?For example: Pejorative sense development in English

●Langue and parole

Langue

?The language system shared by a “speech community”

Parole

?The concrete utterances of a speaker.

●Competence and performance

Competence

?Unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. Performance

?The language actually used by people in speaking and writing.

Unit 2 phonetics and phonology

1.The major branches of phonetics:

●Articulatory phonetics

The study of production of speech sounds

●Auditory phonetics

It studies the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, that is, the sound perceived by the

hearer.

●Acoustic phonetics

It studies the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.

2.Speech organs

●Inside the throat: pharynx and larynx

●Inside the oral cavity: upper lip, upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate and the

soft palate, and the uvula.

●The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, lower teeth, the tongue and the

mandible(下颔).

●In phonetics: the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the back

and the root.

●In phonology: the tongue is divided into coronal(tip and blade), dorsal(front and back)

and radical(root)

3.Manner of articulation (a picture is added here)

●Stops:

Thesound is produced when the obstruction is complete, and the sound is produced

when the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out against.

●Nasals

The sound is produced by lowing the soft palate and theair pass through the nose.

●Fricatives:

It refers to sound produced when an obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a

narrow passage in the mouth, so as to cause definite local frication at the point.

●Affricatives

It refers to the sound produced when obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly

with the frication resulting from partial obstruction.

●Approximants

One articulator is close to another but without the vocal tract narrow to cause a

turbulent.

●Laterals

The obstruction of airstream is at a point along the center of oral tract, with incomplete

closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.

●Trill

It is produced when an articulator is set vibrating by air stream, such as /r/ in red.

●Tap

When the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge to produce only one

vibrate.

●Flap

It is produced when the tip of the tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture an

then striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar region as it returns to its position

behind the lower front teeth.

4.Place of articulation:

It refers to wherein the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the obstruction of the air.

5.Vowels:

V owels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.

6.The criteria of the vowel( a picture is added here)

●The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, low

●The position of highest part of the tongue: front, central, back

●The length or tenseness of the tongue: long or short; tense or lax

●The shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded

7.Monophthongs diphthongs and tripthongs

●They are those pure vowels with unchanging quality

●If a single movement from one element of the tongue is involved, the combining vowel

is called diphthongs

●If two movements from one element to second, from the second to the third of the

tongue is involved, the combining vowel is called tripthongs.

8.Coarticulation

It refers to the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors.

●Anticipatory coarticulation: the sound becomes more like the following sound, such as in

the case lamb

●Preservative coarticulation: the sound becomes more like the preceding sound, such as in

the case of map

9.Narrow transcription and broad transcription:

●Narrow transcription: we try to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even

the minutest shades of pronunciation. It contains a set of diacritics.

10.Phonological theory:

●Minimal pairs

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair For example, pin and pen; tip and tap

●Phone, phoneme, and allophones

Phone: it is a basic unit of phonetic study, and it is a minimal sound segment that human speech organs can produce.

Phoneme: it is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features. For example, /t/ /d/……

The different realization of the same phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, [p h]

●Complementary distribution

When two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguishen meaning and never occur in the same context, then the allophones are said to be in

complementary distribution.

[p] and [p h]; [l] and [l]

●Free variation

If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution for another does not produce a different word form, but merely a

different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.

For example, in cup the /p/ and /p/

●Phonemic contrast and distinctive features

Phonetic contrast: if two phonemes occurs in a minimal pair occur in the same place and distinguish meaning, these two phonemes are said to be in phonemic

contrast.

Distinctive features: they are those features which are phonologically revant properties and can distinguish meaning, for example, plosiveness, bilabiality, and

voicelessness in English phonology. Some of the major distinctions include

consonantal, sonorant, nasal and voiced. These are known as binary features which

have two values denoted by “+” and “-”

11.Phonological process

●Any phonological process must has aspects to it:

Aset of sound to undergo the process

A set of sound produced by the process

A set of situation in which the process applies

●Assimilation:

Regressive assimilation: a following sound is influencing a preceding sound

Progressive assimilation: a preceding sound is influencing a following sound

●Devoicing:

Voiced sounds become voiceless

●Epenthesis:

Insertion of a sound

●Nasalization: a sound in a word is influenced by a nasal sound

●Dentalization: a sound in a word is influenced by a dental sound

●Velarization: it refers to the process in which a sound in a word takes on the features of a

velar segment.

●Deletion rule:

Asound is deleted although it is orthographically represented

For example: sign: delete a /g/ in this word.

12.Suprasegmental features

The features that occur above the level of segments and can distinguish meaning are called suprasegmental features.

●Syllable structure: a syllable can be divided into two parts, the rhyme and the onset. As

the vowel within the rhyme is nucleus, the consonants after it will be termed coda.

Maximal onset principle

On set: at most 3; coda: at most 4

●Stress: it refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.

●Tones: tones are pitch variations, which are caused by differing rates of vibration of

vocal cords.

●Intonation: when pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the

word in isolation, they are collectively as intonation.

Falling tone

Rising tone

The fall-rise tone.

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

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语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

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胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12

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2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。

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