英汉对比论文
嘉兴学院
2012-2013学年第1学期期末考试
名称：英汉对比
考试形式：课程论文
开课班级：英语101、英语102（翻译方向）
班级：____英语101_____________
姓名：____黄水玲_______________
学号：___201036635112__________
成绩：————————————
教师签名：
日期：2013/01/07
The first part:The Summary and Conclusion of the course
一．Synthetic vs. Analytic
A synthetic language is characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected to express grammatical relationships.
An analytic language is marked by a relatively frequent use of function words,auxiliary verbs,and changes in word order to express syntactic relations,rather than of inflected forms.
Modern English has become analytic but still frequently uses some hereditary inflections from Old English.It is therefore a synthetic-analytic language.Chinese is a typical analytic language.
Inflection,word order and use of function words are employed as the tress grammatical devices in building English sentences.
1）.Inflectional vs Non-.inflectional
2）Word Order:Flexible vs.Inflexible
3）The Use of Function Words:English and Chinese Employ Different Types of Function Words
4）Intonation vs.Tone
In a language in which inflection has been greatly reduced,word-order must become relatively more rigid.One consequence of this tendency to a fixed word-order is an increase in the role of intonation in the language.The varying of tone to indicate meanings is characteristic of both English and Chinese.Musical variety of tone to indicate shades of meaning becomes natural in both English and Chinese.Chinese finds its natural way of development through a fundamental system of tones and tone-groups.A change of tone in Chinese will turn "to buy "into "to sell".In English,intonation has a very important and far-reaching role.A rising or falling tone in the parts of a sentence determines much of its meaning.Moreover,there is a very close bond between stress and tone or pitch,a strong stress,for instance,often corresponding with a rising tone.Such a sentence as You are going to buy that house"may be statement of fact(declarative)or a question(interrogative)rising at its end.
二．Rigid vs.Supple
English sentence structures are composed of noun pgrases,verb phrases,etc.It has become an invariable custom to have a subject before a verb,and therefore a sentence that does not contain a subject and a verb is felt to be incomplete.The subject
must agree with the predicate verb in person and number,etc.This rigid S-V concord forms the kernel of a sentence,with the predicate verb controlling other main members.English sentences,however long and complicated,can be reduced to five basic patterns:SV,SVP.SVO.SV oO and SVOC.
English sentences are characterized by their variants,expansion,combination,omission,or inversion.Chinese,however,is relatively free from the government of the rigid S-V concord.The subject-predicate structure is usually varied,flexible,and therefore complicated and supple.In addition,there are quite a few "illogical"expressions in Chinese.More ambuguity can be found in Chinese due to the lack of connectives,inflections and other grammatical markers.The suppleness of Chinese also manifests itself in the "run-on"sentence,which is composed of "the full sentence"and "the minor sentence".
三．Parataxis and Hypotaxis
Hypotaxis means that the grammatical and logical relations between words and sentences are carried out by means of formal devices. Formal devices include vocabulary and morphological devices.i.e. the use of different forms of words, and the use of prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and articles; tense, voice, mood, subject and verb agreement; reference, substitution, ellipsis, repetition.
Parataxis means that the connection or relation between words and sentences is carried out by means of the logical relation of their meanings instead of formal devices
To clarify the relations between words,phrases or clauses,English more often resorts to overt cohesion,frequently using various cohesive ties such as coordinators(e.g.and,or,but,yet,so,however,as well as,either...or...,neither...nor...),subordinators(e.g.when,while,as,since,until,unless,lest,s o...that..),relations pronouns and adverbs(e.g.who,whom,whose,that,which,when,where,why,how),preposition and some others.
四．Complex vs Simplex
Subordination,the placing of certain elements in modifying roles,is a fundemental feature of English.With plenty of subornate clauses and phrases,English has comparatively longer and more complicated sentences than Chinese,which,on the other hand,is marked by its coordination,loose or minor sentences,contracted sentences,elliptical sentences,run-on sentences,and composite sentences.English
sentence building is featured by an "architecture style"with extensive use of longer or subordinate structures,while Chinese is marked by a "chronicle style"with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.In short,English sentences are often complex,while Chinese sentences are often simplex.
五．Impersonal vs. Personal
1.Impersonal mode of expression: it is for English. This is characterized by inanimate subjects in narration and describing a person, an object, an event or a thing.
2. Linguistic ways of impersonal and personal modes
Impersonal subjects in English and personal subjects in Chinesempersonal and personal modes are mainly embodied in the use of subjects and predicates.
3. Application of these two modes to translation
A. In C-E translation, impersonal mode is used to replace personal mode.
B. In E-C translation, personal mode is used to replace impersonal mode. 六．Passive vs.Active
Passive voice is more frequently used in English than in Chinese. Active voice is more frequently used in Chinese than in English.And most English passive voice can be translated as active voice in Chinese because of the awareness of subject in Chinese.
The passive voice allows us to express ideas without attributing them to a specific individual source.That is why it is so widely used in government communications in which decisions and opinions are presumed to be those of the bureau or agency as a whole and not considered to be those of individual officials.Anyone who does mot wish to take personal responsibility for his statements find a way out by saying or writing"It is directed that"instead of "I direct that".The weak passive is used in newspaper articles for the same reason:to achieve the impersonal not and thus,in many instances,to disclaim direct responsibility for statements that are based on hearsay.
By contrast,active forms,including those in passive sense are often used in Chinese.There are some reason for the limited use of the Chinese passive forms marked by 被，让，给，叫，挨，受，遭，蒙，etc.The Chinese passive form marked by 被is traditionally felt to be an "inflict voice",mainly expressing things unpleasant or undesirable to the subjective person.Instead,Chinese generally prefers to use active forms;besides,there are many other ways ro denote passive senses which is usually expressed in the English passive form.
七．Dynamic vs. Static
Broadly speaking,nouns are believed to be static in that they refer to entities that are seen as stable.At the opposite pole,verbs are featured as dynamic,for they are fitted by their capacity to show tense and aspect,to indicate action,activity,and temporary or changing conditions.Adjectives and prepositions often go hand in hand with nouns,while adverbs are frequently use with verbs.
English is featured by its predominance of nouns over verbs.English makes more use of nouns,adjectives,and prepositions;as a result,it is more static .Conversely,Chinese often employs adverbs,verbal phrases,repetition and reduplication of verbs;accordingly,it is more dynamic.
八.Abstract vs. Concrete
1. Abstract mode is for English as a result of nominalization. It is widely used in English, esp. in scientific books and papers, official documents, journalistic comments, legal documents and business letters.
Concrete mode is for Chinese.
2. Reasons for abstract mode and concrete mode
Rationality and comprehension
Hypotaxis and parataxis
3.ways to translate the abstract mode in Chinese:
(1) Verbs are used to replace abstract nouns.
(2) Category words are used to make the abstract idea concrete.
(3) Concrete and figurative words are used for the explanation of the abstract meaning.
(4) Figurative words are used for the explanation of the abstract meaning 九．Substitutive vs.Repetitive
Repetition of words in English is generally more or less abnormal and objectionable that it is rhetorical or significant.To avoid repetition,English often employs substitution,ellipsis,variation,and some other devices.
1)Substitution
English generally uses pro-forms or substitutes to avoid repetition,while Chinese often repeats the same words or clauses.
2)Ellipsis
English usually leaves out the same words from a sentence to avoid repetition,while Chinese often repeats the same words.
3)Variation
English often uses synonyms or near-synonyms，super-ordinates,hyponyms,or general words to avoid repetition,while Chinese usually repeats the same words.
4)Reduplication
Chinese often employs various patterns of character-reduplication for rhetorical or other purposes,while English has fewer devices of this kind.
5)Repetition
Compared with English repetition which is generally rhetorical,Chinese repetition of words and meanings is rhetorical or grammatical,and is much more frequent.
6)Antithesis and Parallelism
Chinese antithesis consists of two balanced structures that are matched in sense.Parallelism uses three or more parallel phrases or sentences of relative meanings and similar structures.In writing and speaking,these two rhetorical devices are much more frequently employed in Chinese than in English.
十．Modes of expression:English vs.Chinese
The most important character of English sentences is using hypotaxis and paying much attention to the forms.The words stress the concord of number、tense and so on.The sentences are restrained by S-V concord、logical subject and logical verb.The English sentences are tree-like.The English passages usually have general topic sentence,emphasizing reasoning and linearity and using the "salient order".English sentences emphasize logos.
The most important character of Chinese sentences is using parataxis,underlining meaning instead of the forms.It is high-context language.Chinese sentences attach importance to the topics.It has because-therefore structure、isomorphism、circular or rambling,stressing implicit coherence so that can learn the meaning by themselves.Chinese sentences emphasize comprehension.
十一．Wuxing vs.Rationality
Beyond the difference of parataxis and hypotaxis between Chinese and English is the difference of comprehension and rationality between the two languages.
The Chinese way of thinking pays more attention to comprehension (wuxing) while English way of thinking pays more attention to rationality. The Chinese way of thinking has long been influenced by Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, which emphasize comprehension.
The English way of thinking has been influenced by Aristotle’s formal logic and rationalism popular from the 16th century to 18th century.
Rationalism emphasizes scientific experiment and pays more attention to formal demonstration. So the English language is rich in the use of formal devices such as the use of pronouns, reference, substitution, and conjunctions.
The difference of comprehension and rationality between the two languages is related to the difference of awareness of involvement /participation and awareness of distance.
Involvement features comprehension whereas awareness of distance characterizes rationality.
This is because the Chinese philosophies in essence advocate participation /involvement, participation in the society, the nature, and the after world. The idea of involvement results in the awareness of subject which centers around the man.
Rationalism in the West emphasizes the distance between the object and the participants. Only with a certain distance can the participant have a deep analysis of the object.
Therefore, in English, the subject /participant and the object are clearly distinguished. When the subject needs emphasizing, it is emphasized, and when the object needs emphasizing, it is emphasized.
This difference of awareness of subject and awareness of object between Chinese and English is embodied in the following ways.
第二部分：汉译英中的英汉对比分析
《黄昏》
矛盾
海是深绿色的，说不上光滑：排了队的小浪开正步走，数不清有多少，喊着口令“一，二——一”似的，朝喇叭口的海塘来了。挤到沙滩边，啵澌！——队伍解散，随着忿怒的白沫。然而后一排又赶着扑上来了。
三只五只的白鸥轻轻地掠过，翅膀扑着波浪——一一点一点躁怒起来的波浪。
风在掌号。冲锋号！小波浪跳跃着，每一个象个大眼睛，闪着金光。满海全是金眼睛，全在跳跃。海塘下空隆空隆地腾起了喊杀。
而这些海的跳跃着的金眼睛重重叠叠一排接一排，一排怒似一排，一排比一排浓溢着血色的赤，连到天边，成为绀金色的一抹。这上头，半轮火红的夕阳！
半边天烧红了，重甸甸地压在夕阳的光头上。
愤怒地挣扎的夕阳似乎在说：
——哦，哦！我已经尽了今天的历史的使命。我已经走完了今天的路程了！现在，现在，是我的休息时间到了，是我的死期到了！哦，哦！却也是我的新生期快开始了！明天，从海的那一头，我将威武地升起来，给你们光明，给你们温暖，给你们快乐！
呼——呼——
风带着永远不会死的太阳的宣言到全世界。高的喜马拉雅山的最高峰，汪洋的太平洋，阴郁的古老的小村落，银的白光冻凝了的都市，——一切，一切，夕阳都喷上了一口血焰！
两点三点白鸥划破了渐变为赭色的天空。
风带着夕阳的宣言走了。
象忽然熔化了似的，海的无数跳跃着的金眼睛摊平为暗绿的大面孔。
远处有悲壮的笳声。
夜的黑幕沉重地将落未落。
不知到什么地方去过一次的风，忽然又回来了；这回是打着鼓似的：勃仑仑，勃仑仑！不，不单是风，有雷！风挟着雷声！
海又动荡，波浪跳起来，轰！轰！
在夜的海上，大风雨来了！
译文：
Dusk
Mao Dun
The sea is deep blue, and cannot be called smooth, for countless rows of small breakers are marching in parade-step as if following the shouted command, “One, two! One! "—towards the trumpet-shaped jetty. Crowded close together, they rush to the sandy beach-splash! The marching ranks scatter and burst into angry spray. The rows immediately behind follow suit.
A few white seagulls flicker across the surface of the sea, quickly and lightly, wings skimming the waves which become, little by little, increasingly restive. The wind is trumpeting, a bugle calling to charge! Small breakers spring up, each breaker like a large eye casting out golden sparks. The whole sea is full of golden eyes, all
leaping. Rumble-rumble… beneath the jetty a battle cry bursts forth.
The sea's golden eyes fall into ranks, each rank pursued by the next, each angrier than the last and deepening to blood-red as they stretch to the golden line of the horizon. There, above, lies the fiery half circle of the setting sun!
Half the sky burns red, pressing heavily down upon the bald head of the sun.
The indignantly struggling sun seems to be saying:
"Ohl Oh! 1 have completed today's historic duty; I have finished today's journey! Now, now, my time to rest has come; my time to die is here. Oh! Oh l And yet, it is also my rebirth that will soon begin! Tomorrow, from the other end of the sea, 1 shall bravely hoist myself up, give you light, give you warmth, give you joy!"
Whooo-huuu…
The wind carries the declaration of the never-dying sun to all the world. The highest peaks of the Himalayas; the endless waters of the Pacific; small, old, gloomy villages; cities frozen by silver lights upon each and every one, the setting sun scatters its blood-red flames !
The sky, deepening to ochre, is broken by two or three seagulls.
The wind that carried the declaration of the dying sun has gone.
As if suddenly melting, the countless leaping golden eyes smooth themselves down into a great, dull, green face.
From near, then far, corms the solemn, trade sound of a flute.
Night's black curtain will be heavily lowered, but has not yet completely fallen.
The wind, having gone no-one-knows-where, suddenly returns, returns as a beating drum: Boom-lum-lum, Boom- lum-lum! Ho, not the wind alone, but thunder? The wind carries the voice of thunder!
The sea roils again, waves surging high, crash! Crash!
To the night-bound sea a storm has come!
Notes：选自《名作精译》---《中国翻译》汉译英选萃[J]青岛出版社.2005（3）：343-347
分析：
英语中常用各种形式手段，如连接词，介词，分句或从句，注重显性衔接，注重句子的形式和结构完整，注重以形显义。英语造句主要采用形合法，如译文第一段第一句“The sea is deep blue, and cannot be called smooth, for countless rows of small breakers are marching in parade-step as if following the shouted command,”这句话有连接词and，还有for 引导的原因状语从句；第11段“The wind that carried the declaration of the dying sun has gone.”中有that引导的宾语从句。作者运用连词和从句完整地表达了自己的含义，而汉语造句中少用甚至不用形式连接手段，注重隐性连贯，注重时间和事理顺序，注重功能，意义，注重以表纹形。汉语是重意会的语义型语言。汉语的句子不受严谨的主谓结构的约束，摆脱形式的束缚，抛弃一切不必要的附属成分，只留下纯料的思想，直接表达现实和思维过程，重意合而不重形合。如原文第一段的“喊着口令“一，二——一”似的，”这句话中省略了主语，意思是好像有人喊着口令似的，还有“海是深绿色的，说不上光滑：排了队的小浪开正步走，数不清有多少，喊着口令“一，二——一”似的，朝喇叭口的海塘来了。挤到沙滩边，啵澌！——队伍解散，随着忿怒的白沫。然而后一排又赶着扑上来了。”这一大句中，中间用分号断开，实际上，后半句是说明前半句的原因，即为什么“说不上光滑”。第七段最后一句“明天，从海的那一头，我将威武地升起来，给你们光明，给你们温暖，给你们快乐”运用了排比，词句整齐，结构匀称，并且没用关联词，就很好地表达了作者的想法。英语较常用物称表达法，即不用人称主语来叙述，而是表达客观事物如何作用于人的感知，让事物一客观的口气呈现出来。汉语则较注重主体思维，这种思维模式以“万物皆备于我”作主导，往往从自我出发来叙述客观事物或倾向于描述人及其行为或状态，因而常用人称。如原文第十段“两点三点白鸥划破了渐变为赭色的天空。”主语是白鸥；而译文是“The sky, deepening to ochre, is broken by two or three seagulls.”主语是sky。从这句话中也可以看出，汉语比较喜欢用主动，而英语更偏向于用被动。除此之外，英语还比较忌讳重复，因而常用替代，省略和交换的表达方式；相比之下，汉语则比较习惯于重复，如原文中的“重重叠叠”，“沉甸甸”。总之，英语书面语句显得长而复杂，它用介词，连词，连接代词，关系副词，词的形态变化，非谓语动词等来连接句子，显得非常丰富而灵活；而汉语常
用省略句，并列句，流水句等，以短句居多，如原文中的第三段“风在掌号。冲锋号！小波浪跳跃着，每一个象个大眼睛，闪着金光。满海全是金眼睛，全在跳跃。海塘下空隆空隆地腾起了喊杀。”汉语句子多数显得结构简化，无拖沓、盘错之感。
英译中的英汉对比分析
原文:
The Color of Walden Pond
H.D.Thoreau
Walden is blue at one time and green at another, even from the same point of view. Lying between the earth and the heaven, it partakes of the color of both. Viewed from a hilltop it reflects the color of the sky, but near at hand it is of a yellowish tint next the shore where you can see the sand, then a light green, which gradually deepens to a uniform dark green in the body of the pond. In some lights, viewed even from a hilltop, it is of a vivid green next the shore. Some have referred this to the reflection of the verdure, but it is equally green there against the railroad sand-bank, and in the spring, before the leaves are expanded, and it may be simply the result of the prevailing blue mixed with the yellow of the sand. Such is the color of its iris. This is that portion, also, where in the spring, the ice being warmed by the heat of the sun reflected from the bottom, and also transmitted through the earth, melts first and forms a narrow canal about the still frozen middle. Like the rest of our waters, when much agitated, in clear weather, so that the surface of the waves may reflect the sky at the right angle, or because there is more light mixed with it, it appears at a little distance of a darker blue than the sky itself; and at such a time, being on its surface, and looking with divided vision, so as to see the reflection, I have discerned a matchless and indescribable light blue, such as watered or changeable silks and sword blades suggest, more cerulean than the sky itself, alternating with the original dark green on the opposite sides of the waves, which last appeared but muddy in comparison. It is a vitreous greenish blue, as I remember it, like those patches of the winter sky seen through cloud vistas in the west before sundown. Yet a single glass of its water held up to the light is as colorless as an equal quantity of air. It is well known that a large plate of glass will have a green tint, owing, as the makers say, to its “body”, but a
small piece of the same will be colorless. How large a body of Walden water would be required to reflect a green tint I have never proved. The water of our river is black or a very dark brown to one looking directly down on it, and, like that of most ponds, imparts to the body of one bathing in it a yellowish tinge, but this water is of such a crystalline purity that the body of the bather appears of an alabaster whiteness, still more unnatural, which, as the limbs are magnified and distorted withal, produces a monstrous effect, making it fit studies for a Michaelangelo.
译文：
瓦尔登湖光
即使从同一角度观赏，瓦尔登湖也是忽而蔚蓝，忽而青绿。她位于天地之间，故融天地之色于一体。登上山顶远眺，湖光与天色交映，就近一观，却是黄褐之色，与沿岸沙滩相距不远；稍微即呈淡绿色，又渐渐加深，融于湖心成深绿一片。若仍置身山顶，但由于光线作用，湖面又可呈现出近乎沿岸的一派苍翠生机。有人把这叫做青翠，但在铁轨般弯曲的沙岸衬托下却是同一种翠绿。春天，嫩叶尚未展开之前，大片的青蓝与沙黄交相辉映，造成有一番气象。这便是彩虹女神的绣颜。有些地方，太阳的热量从湖底反射上来，经大地传送，那初春的湖冰便最先消融，湖心仍是冰封，周围却形成一道狭长的水道。时逢天气晴朗，整个水域生机波涌，水波倒映蓝天，或者由于别种光线与之混合，不远处的湖水期蓝胜于天蓝。此时此刻，若置身湖面，又从不同角度观之，则会领略到一种无可比拟言状的淡淡之蓝，犹如白练初湿，又似剑刃放寒，略比天色淡；此种色彩与其后映入眼帘的湖对岸依稀难辨的深绿之色相继出现，相映成趣。我记得，那是一种蓝中秀绿的玻璃之色，犹如夕阳西下时透过云彩望见的冬日天域。盛一杯湖水举到亮处，却是无色的，和一杯空气无甚差别。众所周知，一大块玻璃却是无色的。瓦尔登湖的水域有何等辽阔才反射地这青绿之色，我从未验证过。就近直视江面，江水呈黑昏或深褐色，多数池塘也是如此，致使水中沐者的躯体呈昏黄色。可是这片水域却纯清晶莹，沐浴者的躯体仿佛是冰肌玉肤；更有奇者，四肢在水中经过放大变形，造成一种魔幻般的效果，恰可作开朗基罗那样的艺术大师之绝妙的研究素材。
Note：选自隋荣谊.《英汉翻译新教程》中国电力出版社[J].2004（5）：144-146
分析：
英语中有综合语的特征，受形态的约束，因而是刚性；而汉语是分析语，不
受形态的约束，所以是柔性的。英语以“以形统意”，“以形摄神”，“以形显义”，它常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分局或从句，注重显性衔接，注重句子形式，注重结构完整。英语是重形式的语法型语言，如原文的第三句“Viewed from a hilltop it reflects the color of the sky, but near at hand it is of a yellowish tint next the shore where you can see the sand, then a light green, which gradually deepens to a uniform dark green in the body of the pond.”这句话中运用了动词的形态变化viewed，并列连词but，关系副词引导的地点状语从句“where you can see the sand”和关系代词引导的定语从句“which gradually deepens to a uniform dark green in the body of the pond”，还运用了from，between，of，to等介词。而汉语造句中少用甚至不用形式连接手段，注重隐性连贯，注重时间和事理顺序，注重功能，意义，注重以表纹形。汉语是重意会的语义型语言。如原文第三句的译文是“登上山顶远眺，湖光与天色交映，就近一观，却是黄褐之色，与沿岸沙滩相距不远；稍微即呈淡绿色，又渐渐加深，融于湖心成深绿一片。”和原文不同的是，没有词的形态变化，句子不受严谨的主谓结构的约束，摆脱形式的束缚，抛弃一切不必要的附属成分，只留下纯料的思想，直接表达现实和思维过程，重意合而不重形合，词语之间的关系常在不言中，语法意义和逻辑联系常隐含在字里行间，如译文中的“时逢天气晴朗，整个水域生机波涌，水波倒映蓝天，或者由于别种光线与之混合，不远处的湖水期蓝胜于天蓝。”此外，英语的句子一般比较长，向前扩展，如“Like the rest of our waters, when much agitated, in clear weather, so that the surface of the waves may reflect the sky at the right angle, or because there is more light mixed with it, it appears at a little distance of a darker blue than the sky itself; and at such a time, being on its surface, and looking with divided vision, so as to see the reflection, I have discerned a matchless and indescribable light blue, such as watered or changeable silks and sword blades suggest, more cerulean than the sky itself, alternating with the original dark green on the opposite sides of the waves, which last appeared but muddy in comparison. ”长句在英语中是十分常见的，英语中的句子通过连词、动词的形态变化、从句、分句等可以无限延伸。而汉语中短句居多，如上面这句话的译文是“此时此刻，若置身湖面，又从不同角度观之，则会领略到一种无可比拟言状的淡淡之蓝，犹如白练初湿，又似剑刃放寒，略比天色淡；此种色彩与其后映入眼帘的湖对岸依稀难辨的深绿之色相继出现，相映成趣。我记得，那是一种蓝中秀绿的玻璃之色，犹如夕阳西下时透过云彩望见的冬日天域。盛一杯湖水举到亮处，却是无色的，和一杯空气无甚差别。”英语的一句话译成汉语要三句话。
第三部分：自选英文文章翻译分析
原文：
About Electricity
While the exact nature of electricity is unknown,a great deal is known about what it can do.By the mere closing of a switch,building are lighted,wheels are turned,ice is made,food is cooked,distant voices are heard,and countless other tasks---ordinary and extraordinary---are performed.Although a great number of uses for electricity have been discovered and applied,the field is by no means exhausted.Electric machines and devices that have been in use for many years are being improved and are now finding wider fields of application.Extensive research is constantly bringing forth and developing new devices.Much is still to be learned about electricity.
Electricity is a convenient from of energy.It is well known that when fuels such as coal,oil and gas are burned,energy is released.A waterfall,whether it is man-made or natural,also possesses energy.Yet,to be of value,this energy must be made available at points where it can be used conveniently.Electricity furnishes the most practicable and convenient means yet devised for doing this.The energy of burning fuel or falling water is changed to a more convenient form---electricity---by electric machines.It is transmitted to distant points over electric circuits.It is controlled by other electric machines.At points where it is to be used,it is converted into useful work by still other electric machines and devices.
Since electricity is a form of energy,the study of electricity is the study of energy,its conversion from one form to another,and its transmission from one point another.Electric machines are energy-transmission devices,and electric circuits are energy,transmission devices.
Although no one knows precisely what electricity is,it has been possible to develop theories about electricity through experiment and by observation of its behaviour.As a result,it os now believed that all matter is essentially electrical in nature.
In this introductory chapter,important ideas concerning electricity are presented together with a discussion of the basic units of measurement used in the study of electric circuits and machines.
Note：选自隋荣谊.《英汉翻译新教程》中国电力出版社[J].2004（5）：209-212
译文：
关于电
尽管人们对电的确性质还不是很清楚，但对于电能做些什么已经了解得很多了。只需和上开关，房屋便可照亮，轮子便可旋转，冰就可以制出，饭就可以做熟，远处的声音便可以听见；还有无数其他工作---平常的和不平常的----都能进行。虽然人们已经发现了电的大量用途并已付诸实践，但这决不是尽头。已经运用了多年的电机和设备正在不断地改进，开辟更广阔的运用领域。通过广泛的研究，人们正在不断创造和改进各种新的电器设备。对于电，还有许多问题有待于探明。
电是一种便利的能量形式。众所周知，煤、石油、天然气之类的燃料燃烧时会释放出能量。瀑布，不管是人工的还是天然的，也有能量。但是，要使它变得有价值，就必须是它在使用方便的地方能被用上。电为此提供了到目前为止所发现的最方便可行的手段。借助于电机，人们能将燃料燃烧或水流落下时所产生的能量转换为更方便的形式----电。电再通过电路传输到远处，它由另外一些电机来控制。在使用场所，还有另外一些电机和设备把电转化成有用的功。
既然电是能量的一种形式，研究电就是研究能量，研究能量从一种形式到另一种形式的转换，研究能量从一个地方到另一个地方的运输。电机是能量转换的设备，电路是能量传输的设备。
尽管没有人真正地知道电是什么，但人们却能通过实验和对电的表现的观察建立起各种理论。结果，人们现在已经认识到，一切物质以本质上讲都是带电的。
本章作为导言，介绍有关电的一些重要概念，同时讨论研究电路及电机时所采用的一些基本测量单位。
分析：
英语句式中的被动语态的使用范围很广，凡是不必说出，不愿说出或不知道动作施动者时，以及为了上下文的连贯起见时，往往可以使用被动语态，英语是一种形合语言，具有较为丰富的形态变化，特别是动词。英语的被动句是由动词的被动语态来表达，它由be+p.p构成，一目了然，是显性的。而汉语句子很少使用被动语态，只有几个助词勉强算得上是被动句的形成标志，如“被”、“叫”、“让”、“给”等等。汉语属于主题显著语言，频繁使用主题---述题结构，将句子宾语部分提前作为说话的主题来交代，常在动词上暗示被动语气，更多使用词汇手段表示被动含义。如原文中的第一段第一句“While the exact nature of electricity is unknown,a great deal is known about what it can do.”该句的被动语态在汉译时需
要译成汉语的主动句“尽管人们对电的确性质还不是很清楚，但对于电能做些什么已经了解得很多了。”还有第二句“By the mere closing of a switch,building are lighted,wheels are turned,ice is made,food is cooked,distant voices are heard,and countless other tasks---ordinary and extraordinary---are performed.”此句是由几个简单的被动句串联而成的一句并列被动句，在汉译时要翻译成汉语的主动形式被动含义的句子“只需和上开关，房屋便可照亮，轮子便可旋转，冰就可以制出，饭就可以做熟，远处的声音便可以听见；还有无数其他工作---平常的和不平常的----都能进行。”西方哲学的“人为万物尺度”，物我分明，主客体对立，西方人强调客体意识，多采用物称表达法；而中国人强调“天人合一”，强调悟性，重视“事在人为”和个人感受，因此多采用人称表达法。如原文第一句“While the exact nature of electricity is unknown”主语是the nature of electricity ，而译文“尽管人们对电的确性质还不是很清楚，”的主语是人称代词“人们”；还有第三句“Although a great number of uses for electricity have been discovered and applied”主语是uses for electricity，而译文“虽然人们已经发现了电的大量用途并已付诸实践，”的主语是人称代词“人们”。众所周知，英语使用代词的频率远比汉语要高，汉语更习惯重复同一名词以保证行文所指明白无误。如第三段的第一句“Since electricity is a form of energy,the study of electricity is the study of energy,its conversion from one form to another,and its transmission from one point another.”此句出现的两个its，都是指energy，在汉译时都将其明确地译成了“能量”。此外，英语是重形合型语言，常使用各种形式手段来连接词、语、分句或从句，注重显性衔接，注重句子的形式与结构完整，注重以形显义。如第二段第四句“Yet,to be of value,this energy must be made available at points where it can be used conveniently.”此句中有连词yet，介词at，还有关系副词where引导的从句；第四段第一句“Although no one knows precisely what electricity is,it has been possible to develop theories about electricity through experiment and by observation of its behaviour.”有由although引导的让步状语从句，介词to、about、by、of、though，还有连词and。而汉语造句中少用甚而不用连接手段，重意合而不重形合，注重隐性衔接，注重时间和事理顺序，注重功能、意义，注重以意放形。
英汉对比论文
英汉定语比较和翻译 一．引言 有人认为，翻译可以“无师自通”，“自学成才”；“外文词不认识可以查字典，只要有点外语基础，就能搞翻译”。一言以蔽之，翻译容易，但是对于真正从事翻译的工作者来说，翻译无不很难。因为中英文属于两种完全不同的语系，以及中西方人在思维方式上存在差异等。这些原因导致了各种现象，如很难在中文中找到一个完全与英语对等的单词，英语重型合，汉语重意合，句子成分之间存在很大等差异。为了翻译工作者更好的理解中英定语的差异，本文讨论中英语种 在英语中，定语是附加在主语和宾语的前面，用来修饰或限制主语宾语的词或词组。主要有形容词，此外还有名词、代词、数词、介词短语、动词不定式（短语）、分词、定语从句或相当于形容词的词、短语或句子都可以作定语。而在汉语中，定语常由形容词、数量词、名词、代词充当，也可有其他词或短语充当。由此可以知道，在英汉语中，充当定语的成份是有差异的，这种差异是由英汉语的本质性差异决定的，汉语是重意合，而英语是重型合，在汉语中，语言组织以意御型，无词性变化，所有的动词都是动词原形，没有动词不定式，分词和过去式之分，汉语的动词，至少相当于英语的谓语动词、现在在分词、不定式、动名词五种可能。如“去”，既可能是watch(watches), watching(现在分词）, watched , to watch, watching(动名词）中的任何一种，因为汉语中缺乏词形变化标记，也不像英语一样，要求成分（主谓宾）和词性（名动形)之间的严格一致。 例（1）正在看的，将要去看的，已经看过的电影 the movie ( which is) being watching, the movie to be watched, the movie that will be watched, the movie that has been watched. 从上面的句子中可以看出，英语的动词发生了各种变化（现在分词，过去式，不定式等）而汉语的动词并没有变化，都是“看”。英汉两种语言之间的本质性差异决定了其句子定语也会产生差异。 二、英汉定语的位置的差异 定语是修饰主语和定语的语法成分，说明事物的属性，类型或特征。在英语里，单个词做定语时一般放在被修饰词前面，但是介词短语，不定式短语，分词短语，从句做定语时一般放在被修饰成分的后面。汉语则不然，只要是定语，它一般只能放在被修饰词之前，放在后面的情况绝少。因此，翻译时，需要调整语序。而英语中 1）前置定语 前置定语指置于定语中心语之前对之起修饰作用的成分。英汉语种都有前置定语，但两种语言中充当定语的语言单位不同，英语的前置定语一般以词为主（包括复合词和带前置修饰语的词），这和汉语定语顺序相同，因此，在这种情况下，汉译时一般可以直接按照原来的顺序翻译成汉语而不会影响其意思如： （1）a famous university.(形容词）一所著名的学校（2）our class(代词）我们班
从英汉语言文化差异谈翻译论文
2.称呼方式 近年来，很多说英语的人倾向于用名来称呼别人，这个现象在美国人当中尤其普遍，甚至是初次见面的时候。这个不仅适用于同龄人，也适用于年龄不同的人。听到一个小孩称呼一个年龄很大的人为joe, ben, may, helen是很平常的事。很多大学生直呼他们教授的名字，教授不把这个看作是一种不尊敬或不熟悉，而是把他看作是一种谦恭有礼和平等。 中国人称呼自己的家人、亲戚或近邻为二哥，三姐，四婶，周大伯，而这些不应当被转译成英语。中国人的称呼方式通常是使用一个人的头衔、办公室、职业等，比如，黄局长、林经理、马校长，但是很少听到说英语的人说“bureau director”, “manager jackson”, “principle morris”。 英汉亲属称谓的文化差异与互译 中文摘要 语言是文化的载体,称谓不仅是一种语言现象,更是一种文化现象。英汉语言中亲属称谓的不同,可以说从一个侧面反映了东西方文化的差异。本文试图从人们较为熟悉的英汉亲属称谓习惯和语义进行比较分析,揭示其中所隐含的文化意蕴。它们属于不同的称谓制度,具有不同的称谓习惯和泛化现象。家庭类型、血缘关系、宗法观念、文化取向、礼貌原则等是造成两者文化差异的主要原因。因此通过对亲属称谓的属性和用法的分析和对比,可以对一个民族的传统文化窥见一斑。汉英称谓在形式、语用意图、文化内涵上存在诸多差异,通过两种语言称谓系统的归纳对比,挖掘各自的文化内涵,对中英称谓语的翻译提出三种方法。关键词: 亲属称谓；文化差异；比较；翻译
Cultural Differences and Translation between English and Chinese Kinship Terms Abstract Language is the carrier of culture, kinship term is not only a part of language but also a kind of culture. The differences between English and Chinese kinship terms reflect the cultural differences between East and West to some extend. From the comparative analys is of usages and meanings of kinship addressing system between Chinese and English which people familiar with，the paper is to reveal the cultural implication in it. They belong to different kinship addressing systems also have different usages of kinship terms and developments. The main reasons for cultural differences lie in the family structure, consanguinity, patriarchy concept, culture adoption and courtesy principle. The comparative analysis of its features and usages can help us to understand the cultural differences between Chinese and English. Based on the great differences in the title and kinship addressing system between Chinese and English, and their complicated pragmatic intentions and cultural implications in use, the paper systematically compares the two systems, and reveals their respective culture specific implications. Finally, three methods are presented on how to translate addressing forms between Chinese and English. Key words: kinship term; cultural difference; comparison; translation 语言是文化的载体,称谓不仅是一种语言现象,更是一种文化现象。英汉语言中亲属称谓的不同,可以说从一个侧面反映了东西方文化的差异。因此通过对亲属称谓的属性和用法的分析和对比,可以对一个民族的传统文化窥见一斑。 一、英汉亲属称谓的差异 （一）、英汉亲属称谓的复杂程度差异 汉语亲属称谓复杂，英语简单。“亲属称谓（Kinship term）是一定的亲属制度(Kinship system)所产生的文化符号，它以简单的术语形式反映复杂的亲属制度。”[1]（P139）汉语称谓语要比英语称谓语繁杂细致得多，汉语要区分血亲姻亲，如伯父、叔父、姨母和伯母、婶母、姨父；区分宗族非宗族，如爷爷、侄儿、孙子和外公、外甥、外孙等；区分父系母系，如叔叔、姑妈、堂兄和舅舅、姨妈、表兄等；区分长幼辈份，如哥哥、姐姐和弟弟、妹妹等。而英语的亲属称谓就显得简单得多，仅用几个词就能全部涵盖，如grandparent（爷爷，外公，奶奶，外婆），brother（哥哥，弟弟），sister（姐姐，妹妹），uncle（伯父，叔父，姨父，舅舅，姑父），另外,英语中的一些亲属称谓非常笼统,没有指明具体关系。所以像Linda?s bother married Michelle?s sister这句话就很难准确地译成汉语,因为不知道brother是Linda的哥哥还是弟弟,sister是Michelle的姐姐还是妹妹。还有cousin这个称谓,有时连男女都不分了。在西方国家,亲属关系的涵盖和延伸范围远没有中国那么广阔。 （二）、英汉亲属称谓关系表达清楚性差异
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7）指导老师评语、成绩，评阅教师评语，工作小组审定2010.４.10——2010.４.２7 8）论文答辩，系毕业论文领导小组审核、总结并上报2010.４.２8——2010.4.30 毕业论文开题报告（经老师指导并审核，由学生抄写，要求书写工整） ,讨论和 3.2.1.3 The numbers in the street signs 3.2.2 The other public signs 3.2.2.1 The effect of translation 3.2.2.2 The analysis of classical examples 4 The styles and principles 4.1 The styles 4.1.1 The use of abbreviated words 4.1.2 Characters and drawing signs are frequently used
中英文化对比论文
英汉习俗文化对比（选修课） 题 目 __中西文化差异_______ 姓 名 周超 ________ 学 号 3090311120 _________ 专业班级 英语094 ________ 分 院 外国语分院 _____ 宁波理工学院
文化是一种社会现象，是人们长期创造形成的产物。确切地说，文化是指一个国家或民族的历史、地理、传统习俗、生活方式、文学艺术、行为规范、思维方式、价值观念等。不同的文化背影和文化传统，使中西方在思维方式，价值观念，行为准则和生活方式等方面也存在有相当的文化差异。在跨文化交际中，文化障碍会导致的信息误解，有时善意的言谈会使对方尴尬无比，礼貌的举止会被误解为荒诞粗俗。 例如在言谈方面，在中国对别人的健康状况表示关心是有礼貌的表现，但是西方人就不是这么认为了。当我们向西方人表示关切地问候时，他们可能反而觉得很不高兴。因为在他们看来这不需要任何人来指教。如果就某种小事给人以忠告，那显然是对其能力的怀疑，从而大大伤害其自尊心。另外中国人在饭桌上的热情好客经常被西方人误认不文明的行为。因为西方人认为客人吃多吃少完全由客人自己决定，用不着主人为他添酒加菜，而且他们认为饮食过量是极不体面的事情。类似的例子还有很多很多。这些都给我们的日常生活交际带来不少困惑。 同样的一件事物，不同的文化背景，看法也大相径庭。中国人的家庭观念很强，血缘关系，亲情伦理，在脑中根深蒂固，父母、子女始终是一家人。哪怕成家立业，另立门户，和父母仍不分彼此，中国人把赡养父母，侍奉父母，看作是自己应尽的责任。然而西方人却不同，子女一到成年，就会离巢而飞，父母不再抚养他们，而子女一旦独立，对父母家的事也不再理会，更别说赡养父母或几代同堂了。美国式的家庭结构比较简单：父母及未成年孩子，称之为核心家庭。子女一旦结婚，就得搬出去住，经济上也必须独立。父母不再有义务资助子女。这种做法给年青人提供最大限度的自由，并培养其独立生活的能力，但同时也疏远了亲属之间的关系。中国人如果一大家子来购物，父母为小孩买东西天经地义，已成年子女为父母代付钱也是理所当然。中国式的家庭结构比较复杂，传统的幸福家庭是四代同堂。在这样的家庭中，老人帮助照看小孩，儿孙们长大后帮助扶养老人，家庭成员之间互相依赖，互相帮助，密切了亲情关系。然而，这种生活方式不利于培养年青人的独立能力。老外却不同，父母、子女各自理财，互不搭界。现实中的美国，儿子可以是百万富翁，父母却照旧穷困潦倒，和中国人的“母以子贵”，“一人得道，合家升天”的中国传统实在天差地别。 中西方的文化差异还表现在很多方面。西方人崇拜个人奋斗，尤其为个人取得的成就自豪，从来不掩饰自己的自信心、荣誉感，以及在获得成就后的狂喜。相反，中国文化不主张炫耀个人荣誉，而是提倡谦虚。中国人反对王婆卖瓜式的自吹自擂，然而中国式的自我谦虚或自我否定却常常使西方人大为不满。在西方人看来，谦虚不仅否定了自己，还否定了赞扬者的鉴赏力。在自我中心与无私奉献方面，西方人自我中心意识和独立意识很强，他们认为自己应该为自己负责。在弱肉强食的社会，每个人生存方式及生存质量都取决于自己的能力，因此，每个人都必须自我奋斗，把个人利益放在第一位。他们也不习惯过问他人的事情，比较注重隐私。因此主动帮助别人或接受别人帮助在西方常常是令人难堪的事。因为接受帮助只能证明自己无能，而主动帮助别人会被认为是干涉别人的私事。中国人的行为准则是“我对他人，对社会是否有用”，个人的价值是在奉献中体现出来的。中国文化推崇一种高尚的情操——无私奉献。在中国，主动关心别人，给人以无微不至的体贴是一种美德，因此，中国人不论别人的大事小事，家事私事都愿主动关心，而这在西方会被视为“多管闲事”。 西方人平等意识较强，无论贫富，人人都会尊重自己，不允许别人侵犯自己的权利。同时，人人都能充分地尊重他人。很少人以自己显赫的家庭背景为荣，
英汉语言对比研究论文
摘要 随着科学技术的迅猛发展和经济全球化，各国人们之间的交流已是一个必然趋势，我们对外交往中，跨文化的言语交际也显得愈发重要。 语言是文化的载体，文化差异反映到语言层面上则表现为语言差异，不同的国家和民族的语言表现出的文化背景和思维模式都有所不同，因此我们有必要把英语与母语进行对比分析，进一步认识英语和母语的特性与差异，从而促进文化交际。 本文将从语言与文化、综合语与分析语、刚性与柔性、形合与意合，四个角度对英汉两种语言进行对比与分析，从细节之处去感受两种语言的微妙差别，从而对英语的学习有更深刻的认识。 关键词：语言与文化综合语与分析语刚性与柔性 形合与意合英汉两种语言
内容 一、引言 二、教材篇 1.语言与文化 2.综合语与分析语 3.刚性与柔性 4.形合与意合 三、课堂篇 四、疑惑篇 五、结语
英汉对比研究 语言是一面镜子，它反映着一个民族的文化，揭示该民族文化的内容；语言既是社会的产物，又是人类历史和文化的结晶。同时语言与文化互相影响，互相作用;理解语言必须了解文化，理解文化必须了解语言。 汉语和英语则是在不同的历史背景和社会形态中形成 的两种截然不同的语种，本质上都浸透着各自民族文化的特征，但是由于东西方不同的历史文化背景又使得汉英两种语言在交流中产生了碰撞。 本文将从语言与文化、综合语与分析语、刚性与柔性、形合与意合，四个角度对英汉两种语言进行对比与分析，进一步认识英语和母语的特性与差异从而对英语的学习有更 深刻的认识，进而促进文化交际。 一、教材篇 1.语言与文化 语言和文化之间有着必不可分的内在联系：一方面，语言是文化的一个重要的因素，另一方面，文化的许多要素需要借助语言来表达，即：语言是文化的重要载体，文化是语言的管轨。语言是文化的基石——没有语言，就没有文化；语言又受文化的影响，反映文化。可以说，语言反映一个民
中英足球文化的差别比较 论文
The comparative study on football between China and the UK 1.INTRODUCTION Football is a kind of popular sports that needs the team work of the players nowadays. As we know, the ancient football was originated in China and the modern football was originated in the UK. According to the wikipedia, modern football is known as one of the world's most widely carried out and influential sports. And modern football even be considered as the world's best sports. In times of peace, it was also known as the "no smoke of war between countries” and even be considered as an art because of its richness in content and appeal. Because of these I mentioned above, I would like to study on football between China and UK. (1) 2.SIMILARITIES <1>Both two countries have incompetent administrations. Either the FA or Chinese Football Association is incompetent. As a decision-making body of the country?s football affairs, both of them are not able to maintain the honor and interests of their own countries. (2) <2>Both two countries have the coaches who are short of
英汉对比论文
英汉对比与翻译 学 期 论
文 英汉倒装句对比研究 谈耀文 （外国语学院 10级英语翻译二班 0409100234） 摘要：本文论述、对比了英汉倒装结构和信息状态差异，并从多方面对其进行了分析比较，进一步支持了徐盛桓等人有关英语倒装句的信息分布理论—前置成分不应新于后置成分。同时也提出：汉语口语倒装，是出于实际语用的目的，其信息分布一般从未知到已知或从信息分布量轻到信息分布量重，与汉语正序句和书面倒装句相反。 关键词：倒装句对比研究 当代中外语言研究者对英语倒装句做过细致的研究和阐述。Jesprson,Poutsma,Quirk,Green等及我国的张道真、章振邦、薄冰、徐立吾等学者都研究过英语倒装句，详述了倒装句的形式与结构等。近一二十年以来，中外学者还注意到了倒装句的语用功能，认为此句型可表强调、惊叹、感叹等。同时，汉语语言研究者也对汉语的倒装句作了认真的研究，朱德熙、胡裕树等在他们的论著里都谈到了汉语的倒装问题，特别是陆俭明先生在《汉语口语句法里的易位现象》里系统的论述了汉语口语中的倒装结构、现象和特点。这些研究和概括十分有助于我们对英汉倒装句的进一步了解和掌握。近年来，新的信息理论的提出，也大大促进了我们对句法信息分布状态的分析。徐盛桓、朱永生等皆进行过信息理论分析，认为英语或汉语句子的主位信息分布大多从已知到未知。Birner（1994）和徐盛桓（1995）指出，英语倒装句中的信息分布状态为：主位或前置部分信息不应新于述位或后置部分信息。胡壮麟等认为汉语正序句的信息分布也相似。本文在此研究的基础上比较分析英汉倒装结构的形式、信息分布，并从认知语言学的角度进行对比，一窥英汉倒装句的共性与个性之一斑。 一、结构比较 1、定义差异 英语倒装句—逻辑主语出现在动词（包括谓语动词/助动词/能愿动词）后，
中英文论文对照格式
英文论文APA格式 英文论文一些格式要求与国内期刊有所不同。从学术的角度讲，它更加严谨和科学，并且方便电子系统检索和存档。 版面格式
表格 表格的题目格式与正文相同，靠左边，位于表格的上部。题目前加Table后跟数字，表示此文的第几个表格。 表格主体居中，边框粗细采用0.5磅；表格内文字采用Times New Roman，10磅。 举例： Table 1. The capitals, assets and revenue in listed banks
图表和图片 图表和图片的题目格式与正文相同，位于图表和图片的下部。题目前加Figure 后跟数字，表示此文的第几个图表。图表及题目都居中。只允许使用黑白图片和表格。 举例： Figure 1. The Trend of Economic Development 注：Figure与Table都不要缩写。 引用格式与参考文献 1. 在论文中的引用采取插入作者、年份和页数方式，如"Doe (2001, p.10) reported that …" or "This在论文中的引用采取作者和年份插入方式，如"Doe (2001, p.10) reported that …" or "This problem has been studied previously (Smith, 1958, pp.20-25)。文中插入的引用应该与文末参考文献相对应。 举例：Frankly speaking, it is just a simulating one made by the government, or a fake competition, directly speaking. (Gao, 2003, p.220). 2. 在文末参考文献中，姓前名后，姓与名之间以逗号分隔；如有两个作者，以and连接；如有三个或三个以上作者，前面的作者以逗号分隔，最后一个作者以and连接。 3. 参考文献中各项目以“点”分隔，最后以“点”结束。 4. 文末参考文献请按照以下格式：
语用学论文(英汉指示语对比分析)
本科生课程论文 论文题目 Pragmatic Analysis on expressions Chinese and English ------- From thePerspective of Deixis 完成时间 课程名称《语用与交际》 授课教师__________________ 专业 年级
Pragmatic Analysis on expressions Chinese and English ------- From the Perspective of Deixis 摘要：指示语是语言中最基本的要素，也是日常生活里使用频率较多的语言慨念。本文拟从对比语言学的观点出发，对英汉两种语言中的指示语进行对比和分析，从中找出它们之间的一致性和分歧性，其目的是提高对英汉两种语言的认知能力和应用能力。 关键词：英汉；指示语；对比；分析 Abstract:Deixis is the most basic elements of the language, but also the frequency of use in everyday life are more generous concept of language. This paper from the viewpoint of comparative linguistics, on the instructions in both English and Chinese language for comparison and analysis, to find out the consistency and differences between them, and its purpose is to improve the cognitive abilities of both English and Chinese and application. Key words: English and Chinese; deixis; comparison; analysis I Introduction Deixis appears to be a universal component of human communication, linking utterances to the context in which they are used. It is highly context-dependent. The strong context-dependency nature of deixis constantly reminds us of the fact that natural languages are primarily invented for use in face-to-face exchange.And deixis belongs to pragmatic study since it reveals a very close relationship between language and context and non-linguistic context). The understanding of indexical expressions relies on the utterance context. In linguistics, deixis refers to the phenomenon wherein understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance requires contextual information. Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and place. Words or phrases that require contextual information to convey any meaning,for example, English pronouns are deictic. Deixis is closely related to both indexicality and anaphora, as will be further explained below. Although this article deals primarily with deixis in spoken language, the concepts can apply to written language, gestures, and communication media as well. While this
中西方文化差异英语论文
The difference between Chinese culture and western culture A Comparative study on school education As we all know, there are lots of differences in school education between China and America. Now I want to talk about the differences from primary education to higher education. The reasons why I want to compare these two kinds of education style are very simple. Firstly, if we want to learn about a country, we should learn its educational style to so that we can learn how they cultivate the next generation. Secondly, we can study others’advantages and improve ours’, especially for we developing countries. Third, development of society always relies on science, and science come from education, if we want to be strong, education is the very key. You may ask why the differences exist, yeah, why? In my opinion, differences come so obviously because we have quite different thinking methods, we Chinese prefer to summarize experience after every practice, and we are good at applying our summary into practice. While Americans are used to doing some practice first, they can achieve a lot in these practice. In other words our thinking method is limited in the elder generation's experience seriously, what we do is to apply these summary into application, it will do great harm to our innovation. Now let us compare our different kind of education style from primary education to higher education between the two countries. 1, Primary School Education
英汉对比与翻译期末论文 (2)
英汉对比与翻译——词汇三境 [摘要]：本文将英汉语言中词语分布做了对比，并就词汇翻译提出了“意译”、“义译”、“化境”三个要求，从而得知，词汇翻译的地道性很大程度上取决于语境的还原程度。 关键词: 译意、译义、臻化、词汇、语境 正文：英国语言学家George W.W ilk ins在《语言教学中的语言学》一书中指出:“没有语法,表达甚微;没有词汇,表达为零。”由此可见词汇在英语中所居的重要地位。在翻译时，即使一个译者已经掌握了大量的词汇与句法，还是会遇到总不能够突破的瓶颈，这个障碍往往是由词汇，甚至是简单词汇所引起的。例如：“He is a perfect stranger in the city.”这里对于什么是一个“perfect stranger”的理解与处理会造成译文层次的不同，同时也是考量一个译者的水平。如果仅翻译字面意思,翻译成“完美的陌生人”，译文显得晦涩难懂；当我们进一步理解“perfect”这个词的含义，并进入意义层面, “perfect”就是“完完全全”的意思，那么“perfect stranger”该译为“完完全全的陌生人”，“他是这城市中完完全全的陌生人”意思准确但是和全句契合不够完美，同“in the city”在搭配上略有滞涩；所以，我们将其转化，将“完完全全的陌生人”这一名词词组转化为动词词组，意为“对……完全陌生”，这句话就可译为“他对这城市完全陌生”，这样的搭配显得协调，不但译出了源语言想表达的意思，“疏离”这一
语境也得以完整地保留了。 以上例子就体现了英汉互译中一个很重要的规律，即词性转换。世界上的语言，不管其各有多少词类，名词和动词都占最大的比例；不管有多少句型，都能归纳为静态与动态两类。总的来说，汉语呈动态特征，英文呈静态特征。在词汇的使用上，汉语的动态表现为：汉语的动词丰富，使用频率高；而英语中，名词、介词等非动词性此类的使用频率很高。据周志培（2003:390）统计显示截选如下：（1）“邓小平在武昌、深圳、珠海、上海等地的谈话要点”及英译 语言总 数名 词 介 词 动 词 助 动 非限 定动 词 代 词 形容 词 副 词 数 词 连 词 量 词 冠 词 汉语词数636 167 11 186 27 41 70 70 39 17 8 % 26% 2% 29% 4% 7% 11% 11% 6% 3% 1% 英语词数907 238 99 105 19 30 98 104 43 28 5 84 % 26% 11% 12% 2% 3% 11% 11% 5% 3% 7% 9% （2）“英国首相撒切尔夫人在中国欢迎宴会上的讲话”及汉译文 语言总 数名词介词动词助动非限定 动词 代词形容 词 副词数 词 连词量词冠 词 汉语词数324 99 9 72 5 36 22 42 15 13 2 % 31% 3% 22% 2% 11% 7% 13% 4% 4% 0.6% 英语词数366 91 49 41 1 9 39 50 22 13 23 28 % 25% 14% 11% 0.2% 2% 10% 14% 6% 4% 6% 8% 上述结果表明，若要在英汉互译中，若要翻译出地道的T arget Text，就应当尽量符合Target Language的表达习惯。这必然包含必 要的词性转换。在进行英译汉时，根据需要将英文中的名词，介词等
英汉语言对比论文
引言 语言是文化的载体,称谓不仅是一种语言现象,更是一种文化现象。英汉语言中亲属称谓的不同,可以说从一个侧面反映了东西方文化的差异。因此通过对亲属称谓的属性和用法的分析和对比,可以对一个民族的传统文化窥见一斑。不同文化由于历史传统、民族心理等差异导致了称谓语体系的不同。英语言文化的差异导致两种亲属称谓系统的不同。如果直接把汉语亲属称谓移植到英语中，往往会引起意想不到的文化困惑甚至震惊。因此，了解汉英亲属称谓的差异以及差异背后的社会文化根源有助于我们从语用对等的层面正确地翻译称谓语。 “称谓”与“称呼”是两个不同的概念但又有密切联系，应当加以区分。祝畹谨在《汉语称呼研究》一文中指出，这两个词的含义和侧重点是有区别的，“称谓”是由于亲属和别的方面的相互关系，以及由于身份、职业等等而得来的名称；“称呼”是当面招呼用的表示彼此关系的名称。称呼语更多用于当面称呼，称谓语更多用于背面指称。一般说来，称谓可分为亲属称谓和社交称谓两大类型。亲属称谓指的是以本人为中心确定亲族成员和本人关系的名称，是基于血亲姻亲基础上的如父亲、母亲爷爷、伯父、姨父、姑父等等。本文将依照梁真惠（2002）的观点，把亲属称谓再分为亲属称谓和仿亲属称谓（也称类亲属称谓）。 一英汉亲属称谓语的差异 各种语言都相应地具有表示家庭成员关系的亲属称谓系统,它包括父系称谓、母系称谓、姻系称谓和类亲属称谓四种（黎昌抱，2001）。英语亲属称谓语属类分型，而汉语亲属称谓语属叙述型（曲彦斌，1996）。在英语中，亲属称谓语概括、笼统；而汉语中的亲属称谓语清楚、细致，每一种亲属关系都给予叙述。英汉亲属称谓的具体差异概括为以下7点： （一）直系旁系区别 从表1中我们可以看到爷爷、奶奶、孙子、孙女是直系亲属，是属于同宗的；但其英语表达却分别与旁系亲属外公、外婆、外孙、外孙女一样 （二）父系母系区别
英汉对比研究综述
英汉对比研究综述 摘要：本文是对英汉对比研究进行综述。文章首先阐述了比较语言学和对比语言学的异同，继而回顾了我国英汉对比研究的历史与现状，讨论了英汉对比研究的实用价值以及宗旨和目标，最后论述了对比研究是理论和方法。 关键词：对比研究、异同、历史与现状、实用价值、宗旨目标、理论方法 正文： 近年来，我国与外国的交往日益频繁，国内出现了外语热，而外国也出现了汉语热。这种局面大大促进了我国的外语教学、对外汉语教学以及翻译事业，也有力地推动了我国对比 语言学的研究。人们在外语教学中逐渐认识到，要学好外语，必须了解其特点，最有效的方 法就是与母语的特点作比较。熟悉外语和母语的特点，并加以科学对比，分析其差异的因素，这无疑将有助于确定教学中的重点和难点，增强教学的预见性和针对性，从而提高教学的效果。 一、比较语言学和对比语言学 “对比”和“比较”在语言研究和语言实践中是经常出现的字眼，常被混为一谈。其实作为学科，它们有着本质的区别， 比较语言学，又称历史比较语言学，是一门把两种或两种以上语言放在一起加以共时比较或把同一种语言进行历时比较的学科。它旨在重构原始语，理清语言之间的亲属源流关系， 阐述它们的体系和特质，最终建立其谱系关系，比较语言学的目的主要是求同。 对比语言学属于共时语言学，它是对两种或两种以上的语言作共时的、常为静态的考察 和分析，指出它们中各个层次，即语音、词汇、语法、语义、篇章等之间的相似之处和不同之点，并努力运用哲学、心理学、民族学等各学科的知识与理论去阐释这些不同之点所产生的根源的学科。对比语言学的主要目的是觅异。 作为研究方法，“对比”和“比较”是密不可分的，人类研究事物、认识事物离不开比较，对各种语言现象的阐释是建立在比较分析之上的。“只有比较才能看出各种语文表现法 的共同之点和特殊之点。”要对比必须进行比较，因为“一种事物的特点，要跟别的事物比较才显出来”。所以，“对比”与“比较”是你中有我、我中有你，互相依赖的关系。 二、英汉对比分析的历史及现状 英汉对比研究作为语言学的一个分支，兼具有理论语言学与应用语言学的性质，其任务主要是对英汉两种语言进行共时和历时的对比研究，描述并解释英汉语之间的异同，并将研究成果应用于语言研究和其他领域。英汉对比研究应分为三个层次：语言的表层结构；语言表达方法；语言哲学。从学科上看，英汉语言对比可分为英汉对比语言学、英汉翻译学和英汉对比文化学三个学科。从实践上看对比语言学也是两个方向：一个是理论研究方向； 一个是应用研究方向。 在国外真正进行英汉语言对比的首推赵元任，他1933年撰文对汉语和英语语调进行了对比。国内的英汉或汉英语言对比研究可追溯到1898年出版的马建忠的《马氏文通》和严复 的《英文汉估》。 根据中国英汉语比较研究会的老会长刘重德先生的观点我国的的对比研究史可以分为三个时期：1898—1949年可称为英汉对比研究的第一时期，从马建忠的《马氏文通》和严复的《英文汉估》算起，到四十年代末。这期间，英汉对比研究从草创到发展，成绩显著。 “虽有移植的问题，但其中包含着认真的鉴别和自己的独特创造，对汉语语言学的建立做出了巨大的贡献，开创了择善化用的传统。”这种评价应该说是恰如其分的。1949 —1976年是
浅谈中英文在文化上的差异
浅谈中英文在文化上的差异 中国与英语国家在文化上的差异体现在社会生活的诸多方面，也体现在地域文化的差异，习俗文化的差异，姓名与称呼用语的差异，交际用语的差异，数字内涵，委婉语和对应词及其内涵方面。我从中选取几个方面来，通过对这些方面的讨论来探讨中英文在文化上的差异性。 首先要讨论两国语言在文化上的差异就应该了解什么叫文化，以及文化与语言的关系。 所谓文化就是一个群体的人们在其发展过程中引导其生活、保障其生存的全部内容的总和。我们每一个人，无论生长何地，都是各自特定文化与表达文化的语言的产物。鲁斯·本尼迪克特在《文化类型》中说道：“一个人从他呱呱坠地的那一刻起，他周围的环境与风俗习惯就影响着他的经历和行为。等到他咿呀学语的时候，他已成为此文化熏陶的一个小生灵了。待到他长大成人，能够参与社会活动时，这一特定的文化习惯便成了他的习惯，其特有的观念也变成了他的观念，其禁忌也就变成了他的禁忌。”这高度概括了文化对我们每个人的影响。 同时，语言与文化相依为命，不可能脱离另一方面而独立存在，语言反映文化特征并预示文化发展的方向，两者的关系可简单地比作内容与形式相互依赖、相互作用的关系。 中英文在文化上的差异具体体现在以下几个方面：
一．地域文化的差异 地域文化主要指地理环境、自然环境方面的文化。受自然环境的影响，不同民族在对同一事物的认识上存在差异。有些事物在一种语言中为美，而在另一种语言中为丑；有些事物在一种语言中有丰富的内涵，而在另一种语言中毫无意义。地域文化上的差异又体现在： 1.中英文动物词文化的差异 在中国，龙被视为神物，集力量、智慧、运气、喜庆、威严、威武、权力于一身。封建时代的皇帝常把自己比做“龙”，中华民族也称自己为“龙的传人”，“龙的子孙”。而在英语中，dragon被看作“邪恶”、“恐怖”，甚至“战争”的代名词。《圣经》里多次提到的魔鬼撒旦就是一个与上帝作对的诱惑者和叛逆者的形象，它被称作the old Dragon。英国著名作家狄更斯在《艰难时世》中也以“Dragon”这个词来描述斯巴塞太太：……镇上的人们走来走去看见她坐在那儿，却把她看作这个银行的“毒龙”(Bank dragon)。 2.中英文植物词文化的差异 竹子这种植物与中国文化有着深厚的关系，历代文人墨客赏竹、画竹、咏竹。郑板桥的竹画享誉世界，邵谒的名句“竹死不变节，花落有余香”深入人心，竹子逐渐成了中国人坚强不屈、高风亮节的性格的象征。但bamboo一词在英语里只不过是一种很普通的植物，没有任何外延意义。 二．习俗文化的差异