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耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学:死亡08OpenYalecourse—Philosophy:

之前我们讨论了柏拉图灵魂不朽的观点

We've been looking at Plato's arguments for the immortality of the soul, 但到目前为止

and so far

我觉得没有一个能令人信服

I have to say I haven't found them very compelling arguments.

接下来我们继续讨论一个

In a minute, I'm going to turn to an argument that

至少我个人觉得更为有趣的论点

at least strikes me as more interesting.

想找出它的具体错误更为不易

It's more difficult to pin down where it goes wrong.

不过讨论之前

But before we do,

我想对上节课末尾讨论的那个观点

I want to make a couple of comments about the arguments

简单的再讨论一下

we were considering at the end of last class.

上堂课最后我们谈到了"回忆论"

That was the argument from recollection.

它的大意为

You recall the basic idea was that

尽管在我们所熟知的现实世界里面

although objects in the ordinary familiar empirical world

没有绝对的公正

are not perfectly just,

没有正圆或者其他

perfectly round, what have you,

但这些事物却让我们联想到绝对公正

they're able to remind us of perfect justice,

正圆等等

perfect roundness and the like.

于是柏拉图问自己

And when Plato asked himself,

那是为什么

"How could that be?"

他给出的答案是

the answer he gives is,

这是因为我们来到这个世界之前

"Well, it's got to be that we were previously acquainted

就已经熟知那些事物了

with the forms before our life in this world."

这就说明

And that shows that

灵魂必须先于肉体而存在

the soul must be something that existed prior to the creation of the body. 人人影视

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,

这就是"回忆论"的观点

That's the argument from recollection.

还有在下课前我提到

And at the very end of class I suggested that,

即使柏拉图的观点是对的

look, even if we were to grant to Plato that

他说为了探讨正义正圆或者其他

in order to think about justice,circularity, what have you,

我们必须对柏拉图型相有所了解

we had to somehow grasp the forms,

就算我们承认柏拉图是对的

and even if we were to grant to Plato that

这个世界上并不存在绝对的正圆和公正

nothing in this world is perfectly round or perfectly just,

但这并不意味着

it's not necessarily correct to say,

对此唯一合理的解释

"So the only possible explanation of what's going on is

就是这个现实世界里的事物

that these things in the empirical world

让我们想起了曾经遇见的型相

remind us of our prior acquaintance with the forms."

还有可能是因为

It could be that what goes on is,

当我们接触到一些

when we bump up against something

并非绝对公正绝对美丽绝对正圆

that's partially just or partially beautiful or partially round--

即有缺陷的事物时

imperfectly round--what happens is,

这些事物会在某种程度上驱使我们

those things sort of trigger our minds in such a way that

去首次开始认知这些型相

we begin to think about the forms for the very first time.

因此可以说为了探讨公正和正圆

So it might be, in order to think about justice and roundness,

我们必须先掌握型相

we have to grasp the forms.

但也可能我们只是此生才开始

But it could be that we only grasp the forms in this life,

认知这些型相

for the very first time.

在接触并

Exposure to the things that

见识了这些型相后它们会

participate in the forms may nudge our minds or our souls in such a way

驱使我们的心灵或灵魂去认知它们

that at that point--given that exposure--we begin to grasp the forms.

就好比生活中最平常的琐屑小物

It's as though the ordinary earthly objects,

与我们彼此相遇之后

we bump into them or they bump into us,

会指引我们仰望美好的柏拉图境界

and they get us to look upwards to the heavenly Platonic realm.

我不是说真的仰望

I don't mean literally upwards.

这不是在说数字3

It's not as though these things--the number three--

在上面

is up there.

而是说一旦你理解了这个隐喻

But if you accept the metaphor,

在现实世界中碰到一些东西

running into things in the empirical world

使我们的心灵开始第一次的思考

gets our minds to start thinking about, for the first time,

美好的柏拉图境界的型相和理念

the heavenly realm of the Platonic forms and ideas.

这个解释和之前的那个理论一样合理

That would be just as likely a possibility as the alternative explanation 就是说普通的现实物体

that what's going on is that ordinary empirical objects

使我们想起之前的印象(不是唯一解释)

are reminding us of our prior acquaintance.

或许这些普通物体就像入门引言一样

Perhaps these ordinary objects act like letters of introduction,

指引我们帮助我们

getting us to, helping us to,

去开始首次思考这些型相上的事物

think about the forms for the very first time.

如果这是对的

Well, if that's right, then of course,

我们当然就不必相信柏拉图之后的

we don't have any good reason to follow Plato when he says,

灵魂一定是先于肉体而存在的观点

"It must be the case that the soul existed prior to the--prior to birth." 我刚刚提出的这个反驳不是柏拉图

Now, the objection I've just raised is not an objection

在《斐多篇》中提到的

that Plato raises in the Phaedo,

不过他提出了另外一个异议

but he does raise a different objection.

请记住我们的讨论

Remember our concern isn't,

严格来讲不仅仅是问

strictly speaking, with the question,

灵魂在我们出生前存在吗

"Did the soul exist before our birth?

灵魂是先于肉体的存在吗

Did the soul exist before our bodies?"

而是要问灵魂是不朽的吗

but rather, "Is the soul immortal?"

现在根据他的"回忆论"

And so, having now given the argument from recollection,

柏拉图假设出的苏格拉底的两个门徒

Plato envisions two of Socrates' disciples,

西米亚斯和塞贝斯

Simmias and Cebes,

做了如下的反驳

responding, objecting, by saying,

就算灵魂在人出生前就存在

"Look, even if the soul existed before birth,

这并不能说明它在肉体死亡后依然存在

it doesn't follow that it exists after death.

毕竟这才是

And that's, after all,

我们真正想要的

what we really want,

并且在思考的

are wondering about.

我们想知道

We want to know,

我们能否在死亡之后继续存活

will we survive our deaths?

灵魂是否不朽

Is the soul immortal?

但是苏格拉底

And you haven't yet

你还没有进行证明呢

shown that Socrates,"

他们继续反驳道

they object.

也许它先前确实存在

Could be that it existed before,

但此后它未必依然存在

but won't exist afterwards.

但有趣的是

But very nicely--

这里的结构非常巧妙

it's quite elegant structure at this point--

苏格拉底把我们前面提到的

Socrates puts together the two arguments that

这两种观点

we've just been rehearsing--

即"回忆论"及其之前的另一种观点

the argument from recollection and the argument that came before that, 我称作"循环论"的观点结合起来了

the one that I dubbed "the argument from recycling."

回忆一下 "循环论"的观点认为

Remember, the argument from recycling says,

当你组装一件东西时

when you build something,

你用的是零件

you build it out of parts,

当东西解体后则又变成了各种零件

and when that thing falls apart you go back to the parts.

所以先前的零件被循环利用了

So the prior parts get recycled.

而灵魂我们可以说

The soul, we now say--

根据"回忆论"的观点

based on the argument from recollection--

灵魂好比我们出生前的一零件

the soul is one of our prior parts.

灵魂在我们出生之前就存在

The soul existed before we were put together,

或者说灵魂先于肉体而存在

or before we were put together with our bodies.

如果把"循环论"和之前的观点结合起来看

If you then combine the argument from recycling and say,

之前存在的零件之后依然存在

the parts that existed before are going to exist afterwards,

那就说明了如果灵魂之前就存在

it must follow that if the soul existed before,

那么之后它也一定存在

it will exist afterwards as well.

由此我们就证明了灵魂是不朽的

And so we've got the immortality of the soul after all.

但是事实上

Now, bracket the fact that,

如我之前所说

as I just explained,

我本人并不认为"回忆论"很有说服力

I don't myself find the argument from recollection persuasive.

我认为我们没有理由去相信

I don't think we've got any good reason to believe--

根据柏拉图那些

based on the sort of things that

引起我们注意的理论

Plato is drawing our attention to--

我不觉得我们有充分的理由去相信

I don't think we've got any good reason to believe that

灵魂先于肉体而存在

the soul existed before we were born.

即便我们认为他是对的

But even if we grant him that,

我们也不要过早认为

we shouldn't be so quick to conclude,

根据"回忆论"和

on the basis of combining the argument from recollection

"循环论"的结合

and the argument from recycling,

灵魂在肉体死亡之后会继续存在

that the soul will continue to exist after the death of our bodies. 我们举个熟悉的例子

After all, take a more familiar,

一个平常的例子

humdrum example.

汽车在造出来之前不是汽车对吧

Cars are built out of non-cars, right?

它由引擎轮胎和方向盘组装而成

Cars get built out of engines and tires and steering wheels.

但是引擎不是汽车

{\c

方向盘也不是汽车

the steering wheel is not a car.

你是用零件将汽车组装起来的

So you build the car out of its parts.

引擎是先于汽车存在

Now, the engine is a prior-existing part.

那么我们是不是可以做出这样的结论

So can we conclude then that from the fact that--

根据"循环论"

argument from recycling:

零件可以再利用可以再装配

parts get reused, get rebuilt,

当车坏掉了以后

when cars get destroyed,

零件依然还存在

the parts are still around--

那我们能不能根据"循环论"

can we conclude from the argument from recycling

以及引擎是先于汽车存在的

and the fact that the engine is a prior-existing part

这一个事实

from which the car was built,

来断言说引擎会

that the engine will continue

在汽车毁坏之后依然永远存在呢

to exist forever after the destruction of the car?

很显然我们不能做出这样的结论

No, obviously you can't conclude that at all.

有时车子毁坏的同时

Sometimes when cars get destroyed the engine

引擎也一起损坏了

gets destroyed right along with it.

当然了

And of course, even if--

即使有时候

in many cases--

引擎在车子毁坏了之后

the engine continues to exist for a while

还是会存在一段时间

after the destruction of the car,

但这不是说引擎是不朽的

it certainly doesn't follow that the engine is immortal,

引擎会永远存在

that it continues to exist forever.

引擎终将分解变成原子

Engines will eventually decompose and turn back into atoms.

所以仅仅根据引擎是一个

So from the mere fact that the engine was a part

先于汽车存在的零件

that existed before the car existed,

以及后来当汽车被拆解时

and the further fact that when the car breaks down,

它又变成了零件的这一事实

it decomposes back into parts,

自然不能说明

it certainly doesn't follow that

所有先于汽车存在的零件

all of the parts that existed prior

都会永远存在

to the existence of the car will be around forever.

这是错的

That would just be false.

纵使我们接受了苏格拉底的假设

So even if we were to give Socrates the assumption that--

或者说他的理论

the thesis that--

即使(承认)灵魂先于我们存在

the soul existed before we were put together,

在我们出生前存在

before we were born,

但这仍不能表明

it still wouldn't follow that

当我们的肉体分解后灵魂依旧存在

the soul will continue to exist after we're taken back apart.

灵魂可能迟早会像引擎那样

The soul might eventually decay just like the engine

慢慢地消散

will eventually decay.

我们需要

What we need,

一个真正能说服我们灵魂是不朽的理由

to really become convinced of the immortality of the soul,

不能仅仅依靠假设

is not the mere suggestion,

即使是

even it was--

即使我们确信

even if we were convinced--

灵魂的确是先于肉体存在的

is not the mere suggestion that the soul was around before our birth.

我们需要证明

We need to believe that the soul,

灵魂不同于引擎

unlike an engine,

它不会被毁灭

can't itself be destroyed,

不会分解

can't itself decompose,

不会消亡

can't fall apart.

这才是让使我们信服

That's what we need if we're really going

灵魂是不朽的有力证据

to become convinced of the immortality of the soul.

正如我前面提到的

Now, as I remarked previously,

最不可思议的是

one of the amazing things--

不该说不可思议应说柏拉图的著作里

not amazing but one of the really attractive things

最引人入胜的是

about Plato's dialogues is,

当你刚要反驳他的观点时柏拉图本人

you raise an objection and it often seems as though Plato himself, 不管是否已经直白地阐述了这些异议

whether or not he explicitly states the objection,

好似已经知道这些异议了

seems aware of the objection,

因为接下来他一定会对此进行回应

because he'll go on to say something that is responsive to it.

如果你认为

And again, that makes sense

这些对话录是完善你哲学思维的

if you think of these dialogues as a kind of pedagogical tool

学习工具这就显的很合理

to help you get better at philosophizing.

所以我认为柏拉图接下来的对话

So the very next argument that Plato turns to can be viewed,

可以看作对这个没表达出来的异议的回应

I think, as responding to this unstated objection--

我在这里说了

well, I stated it,

柏拉图可没有在他的书中这么说

but Plato doesn't state it in the dialogue--

(他没有问)即使灵魂是我们的一零件

the worry that even if the soul was one of the parts,

尽管灵魂先于肉体而存在

even if the soul was already around before we were born,

我们怎么能证明它不会分解

how do we know it can't come apart?

我们怎么证明它不会被摧毁

How do we know the soul can't be destroyed?

由于我们想知道灵魂到底是不是不朽的

Since what we want to know is whether the soul is immortal,

我们怎么证明它不会消散

how do we know it can't break?

柏拉图的下个观点直接回答了这个疑问

Plato's next argument then tries to deal directly with this worry, 而且这是一个很有趣的观点

and it's a quite interesting argument.

我给它一个

I'll give it another--

新的名称

a new label--

称为 "精简论"

I'll call it the "argument from simplicity."

苏格拉底做了如下的探讨

Socrates turns to a discussion of

什么样的东西会消散

what kinds of things can break

什么样的东西不会消散

{\c

什么样的东西会损毁

what kinds of things can be destroyed,

什么样的东西不会损毁

and what kinds of things can't be destroyed.

他举了些例子

{\c

他想通过研究这些例子

he surveys examples and tries

来总结出一条形而上学的原理

to extract a kind of metaphysical principle from this.

然后我们就会看到

And then, as we'll see,

他希望运用这条原理使我们信服

he's going to use this principle to convince us--

或者尽量说服我们相信灵魂是不朽的

or to try to convince us--that the soul is immortal,

是坚不可摧的

it's indestructible.

很多东西都能被摧毁

Well, lots of things can be destroyed.

这有一张纸

Here's a piece of paper.

我能撕坏它对吧

It can be destroyed [sound of ripping paper] Right?

那么为什么这东西可以被摧毁呢

Why was it that this was the sort of thing that could be destroyed? 最直接的回答就是这张纸是有组成部分的

Well, the straightforward answer is the piece of paper had parts. 损坏它

And in breaking it,

撕掉它

in ripping it,

我其实是把其中的一部分与另一部分撕开

what I literally did was I ripped one part from another.

为了损毁这张纸

To destroy the piece of paper,

我把它的部分分开了

I take its parts apart.

这有一根粉笔

Here's piece of chalk.

它可以被我折断

The piece of chalk can be broken.

我现在在干什么

What am I doing?

我把它的各个部分分开

Taking its parts apart.

可以被摧毁的东西都有"部分"

The kinds of things that can be destroyed have parts.

它们是合成的

They are composite.

它们由各个"部分"组成

They are composed of their parts.

肉体可以被摧毁因为你可以拿一把刀

Bodies can be destroyed because you can take a sword to it

然后切切切把它切割成片

and go sweep, sweep, sweep and chop it into pieces.

合成的东西是可以被摧毁的

Composite things can be destroyed.

有"部分"的事物是可以被摧毁的

Things that have parts can be destroyed.

什么样的东西不会被摧毁呢

Now, what kind of things can't be destroyed?

不例外的

Well, it won't surprise you

柏拉图在寻找永恒的

that when Plato looks for an example of something

并且不可摧毁的例子时

that's eternal and indestructible,

他直接开始思考柏拉图型相

his mind immediately starts thinking about the Platonic forms.

比如说数字3

Take the number three.

数字3是不能被摧毁的

The number three can't be destroyed, right?

即使发生了核爆炸

Even if nuclear explosion took place

地球上的一切

and everything on Earth

都在某种诡异的科幻式连锁反应中毁灭了

got atomized and destroyed through some bizarre science fiction chain reaction, 就像是电影里经常出现的那样

like they're always doing in movies,

数字3仍旧毫发无损

the number three wouldn't be touched.

数字3不会受到任何影响

The number three wouldn't be fazed.

3加1等于4依然是成立的

It would still be true that three plus one equals four.

你不可能损害到数字3

You can't hurt the number three.

你无法改变或摧毁正圆

You can't alter or destroy perfect circularity.

为什么不能因为它没有任何”部分”

Why not? Well, it doesn't have any parts.

这就是他的观点

That's the thought.

像柏拉图型相的东西是永恒的

Things like the Platonic forms are eternal,

它们永远存在固定不变

and they're eternal, changeless,

坚不可摧

and indestructible,

因为它们简单

because they are simple--

简单在此是一个形而上学的概念

simple here being the metaphysical notion that

指它们不由任何事物组成

they're not composed of anything.

对于所有由”部分”组成的物体你会

Anything that's built up out of parts you could,

最起码从理论上

at least in principle,

会担心它们的”部分”会分崩离析

worry about the parts coming apart and,

因而导致整个物体的毁灭

hence, the thing being destroyed.

不过所有简单的事物

But anything that's simple

是不会以那样的方式毁灭的

can't be destroyed in that way.

因为它没有"部分”可分

It has no parts to take apart.

因此所有能够被摧毁的事物都是有"部分"的

So the kinds of things that can be destroyed are the things with parts, 这些就是能够变化的东西

and those are the sorts of things that change, right?

即使它们现在没有被摧毁

Even if they're not destroyed,

又如何判断某物是否是合成的呢

what's a tip off to something being composite?

要看它会不会变化

The fact that it changes.

假设我拿来一根金属条然后把它掰弯

Suppose I take a bar of metal and I bend it.

我并没有摧毁它但我改变了它

I haven't destroyed it, but I've changed it.

我可以通过改变各部分之间的关系

I'm able to change it by rearranging the relationships

来改变它

between the various parts.

我的身体一直在变化

My body is constantly changing

因为我的胳膊头及其他器官

because the relationships between

之间的关系改变了

my arms and my head and so forth,

我的肌肉在活动

my muscles are moving.

调整了"部分"之后

You rearrange the parts,

这个东西就变了

the thing changes.

这就意味着这东西是由”部分”组成

Oh, but that means it's got parts

而且它可以被摧毁

and could be destroyed.

现在我们可以归纳出一些有趣的结论

So we've got some nice generalizations.

会改变的事物是由"部分"组成的

{\c

而由"部分"组成的事物是可以被摧毁的

things with parts can be destroyed.

哪些事物是可以改变和摧毁的呢

What are the kinds of things that you can change and destroy? 那些现实世界里为我们所熟悉的事物

Those are the familiar empirical objects that we can see:

比如纸身体粉笔和金属条

pieces of paper, bodies, pieces of chalk, bars of metal.

与此相对另一方面

In contrast, on the whole other side,

有些事物则是无形的

you've got things that are invisible,

比如数字3

like the number three--

数字3是看不见的是无形的事物

nobody sees the number three--things that are invisible,

它从不改变

that never change.

数字3从不改变对吧

The number three never changes, right?

3是一个奇数

The number three is an odd number.

不会说

It's not as though,

今天3是奇数明天它就变成偶数了

oh, today it's odd but maybe tomorrow it'll be even.

它永远是个奇数

It's eternally an odd number.

3加1今天昨天且永远都等于4

Three plus one equals four today, yesterday and forever.

这些关于3的事实是永远不会变的

These facts about the number three will never change.

数字3不会改变

The number three is changeless.

因此型相是永恒的

{\c

它们无形

{\c

它们不变

they are changeless.

它们简单而简单的事物无法被摧毁

{\c

型相是无法被摧毁的

forms can't be destroyed.

把这些合并在一起

{\c

这些是苏格拉底集中归纳的观点

these are the sorts of thoughts that Socrates assembles,

我已经把刚才谈到的观点写在黑板上了

and I've got the initial thoughts up there on the board.

[见图8.1] 好的

[See Figure 8.1] All right.

前提一只有合成的事物才能被摧毁

So premise number one, only composite things can be destroyed. 前提二只有会改变的事物才是合成的

Premise number two, only changing things are composite.

因此如果把两者结合起来就可以得到

So if you put one and two together, you'd get:

只有会改变的事物才可以被摧毁

only changing things could be destroyed.

现在加上前提三无形的事物不会改变

And now add three, invisible things don't change.

那么如果事物必须可以改变

Well, if you've got to be the kind of thing

才能是合成的

that can change in order to be composite

而且必须是合成的事物才可以被摧毁

and you've got to be composite in order to be destroyed,

无形的事物不会改变

invisible things don't change,

可以得出四无形的事物无法被摧毁

follows four, invisible things can't be destroyed.

这就是苏格拉底根据思考

That's the metaphysical thesis that Socrates comes to

得出的形而上学的论题

by thinking about cases.

而那正是关于灵魂不朽的

And that's the crucial premise or sub-conclusion 关键前提或说是次级结论

for the immortality of the soul,

因为接下来苏格拉底将促使

because then Socrates invites

我们思考灵魂的问题

us to think about the soul.

灵魂是有形还是无形

Is the soul visible or invisible?

他说很明显

He says, pretty obviously,

灵魂是无形的

"it's invisible."

如果无形的事物不能被摧毁

But if invisible things can't be destroyed,

那么灵魂也就不能被摧毁

the soul can't be destroyed.

因此前提一二三可以导出次级结论四

So one, two and three got us four,

无形的事物是不能被摧毁的

invisible things can't be destroyed,

前提五灵魂是无形的得结论六

but five, the soul is invisible so six,

灵魂不能被摧毁

the soul can't be destroyed.

这是我在基于"精简论"

That's my best attempt

重构论点的前提下能给出的最好解释

at reconstructing the argument from simplicity. 这些并不是柏拉图

It's not as though Plato himself spells it out 明确说明的前提和结论

with premises and conclusions like that,

不过我认为这是忠于

but I think this is fairly faithful

他提出的论证方式的

to the kind of argument he means to put forward. 一会儿我将评估

And in a moment I'll turn to evaluating

这个论点是否是个好论点

whether that's a good argument or not.

不过我认为这是一个非常有趣的论点

{\c

是一个值得我们认真对待的论点

it's an argument worth taking fairly seriously.

不过我必须承认

Except, I've got to confess to you

苏格拉底并不一定会完全按照

that Socrates doesn't quite conclude the way

我所预料他将采取论证的方式进行论证

I would've thought he would've concluded.

这样我们通过论证得出结论六

So I've had the argument conclude six,

灵魂不能被摧毁

the soul can't be destroyed.

但苏格拉底实际说的是

But what Socrates actually says is--

他实际的结论是

his actual conclusion is--

因此灵魂是坚不可摧的

"And so the soul is indestructible

或几乎不可摧毁的"

or nearly so."

一个相当古怪的限定

That's rather an odd qualification,

"或几乎不可摧毁"

"or nearly so."

苏格拉底通过关于改变

The conclusion that Socrates reaches from his examination of change 无形等等概念的讨论

and invisibility and so forth and so on,

以及合成性与简单性的对比

and compositeness versus simplicity,

所得出的结论是

is that

"灵魂不可摧毁或几乎不可摧毁"

"the soul is indestructible or nearly so."

现在这个限定带来了新的问题

Now, adding that qualification opens the door to a worry.

这个问题是塞贝斯提出来的他说

The worry gets raised by Cebes who says,

即使我们承认灵魂几乎不可被摧毁

even if we grant that the soul is nearly indestructible,

也不足以说明灵魂的不朽

that's not good enough to get us immortality.

而且他还提出了一个十分有趣的类比

And he gives a very nice analogy of somebody who's--

一件衣服可能比它的主人存在更久

a coat, which could outlast the owner

不过它绝非不朽

but isn't immortal.

或者说主人也可能穿过好几件衣服

{\c

然而在某个时刻主人仍旧会死亡

but still at some point the owner's going to die as well.

主人远比衣服不朽

The owner is far more immortal,

或者可以说是更接近不朽

in that sense, closer to immortality.

我本人这一辈子也穿过很多的衣服

And I've gone through many coats in my life,

虽然如此我并非坚不可摧

but for all that, I'm not indestructible.

如果我们最终所得仅仅是

If all we've got is the mere fact that the soul

灵魂是"几乎"不可摧毁的

is "nearly" indestructible,

需要花费很大的功夫才能摧毁它

it takes a whole lot more work to destroy it,

人人影视

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,

也许它存在的时间更久一些

{\c

也许一个灵魂会经历很多的肉体

maybe it goes through a whole lot of bodies

在消耗殆尽被摧毁前转世六次

being reincarnated a half-dozen,

或是十二次或是好几百次才最终消亡

or a dozen, or hundred times before it wears out and gets destroyed. 这些都不足以使我们得出灵魂不朽的结论

That's not enough to give us the immortality of the soul.

这就是塞贝斯提出的质疑

That's the objection that Cebes raises.

奇怪的一点是

And one of the oddities is that,

在我看来

as far as I can see,

苏格拉底从未回应过这个质疑

Socrates never responds to that objection.

提出这个质疑

Raises the objection--

即是说

that is,

柏拉图凭借塞贝斯之口道出了自己的质疑

Plato raises the objection in the voice of Cebes--

然而苏格拉底

but Socrates,

柏拉图笔下的苏格拉底

on Plato's behalf,

从未应答过这个质疑

never answers the objection.

很难道明这其中的缘由

It's hard to say what exactly is going on.

有可能是因为柏拉图担心

It might be that Plato's worried that

他并未真正证明灵魂是不朽的

he hasn't really shown that the soul is immortal afterwards. 也许这个从"精简论"推理出的论点

Maybe this argument from simplicity isn't really

并不如预想中那么严密

as good as it needs to be.

而那也许解释了为什么柏拉图接下来

And maybe that explains why Plato then goes on

提出了另外一个论点

to offer yet another argument.

毕竟如果这个论点确实

After all, if this argument really

证明了灵魂的不朽

did show the immortality of the soul,

他为什么还要给出另外一个论点呢

why would he need to offer a further argument?

"必要属性论"

The argument from essential properties,

我们以后会讨论它

which we'll be turning to later.

因此也许柏拉图觉得

So maybe Plato just thought

对于塞贝斯的质疑

there wasn't a good answer

并没有什么完善的答案

to Cebes' objection.

不过我想说

But I want to say,

站在柏拉图的立场来说

on Plato's behalf,

或者至少是从这个论点的角度来说

or at least on behalf of the argument,

苏格拉底不应该以如此奇怪的

Socrates should never have concluded the argument

一个限定式的结论

with this odd qualifying phrase that

灵魂"是或几乎是不可摧毁的"来结束

the soul is "indestructible or nearly so."

他应该说灵魂就是不可摧毁的结束

He should've just said the soul is indestructible, full stop. 毕竟

After all,

在前提一二和三成立的情况下

if we have premises one, two, and three--

只有合成的事物才能被摧毁

only composite things can be destroyed,

只有会改变的事物才是合成的

only changing things are composite,

无形的事物不会改变

invisible things don't change--

如果把这些结合起来

if you put those together,

就可以得到四无形的事物不能被摧毁

you get four, invisible things can't be destroyed.

你是不会得出更加宽泛的结论

You don't get the more modest conclusion,

无形的东西不能被摧毁

"invisible things can't be destroyed

或是很难被摧毁

or it's a whole lot harder to destroy them."

如果我们有前提一二和三

If we've got one, two and three,

我们应该得到更加肯定的结论

we're entitled to the bold conclusion:

无形的东西不能被摧毁句号

"invisible things can't be destroyed, period."

没了

Full stop.

然后如果前提五成立

And then if five is true,

如果灵魂真的是无形的

if the soul really is invisible,

我们就可以得到结论六

we're entitled to conclude six,

耶鲁大学公开课:博弈论全集下载

导论-五个入门结论 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/Q/2/S7KDBTEQ2.flv 2: 学会换位思考 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/Q/L/S7KDC64QL.flv 3: 迭代剔除和中位选民定理 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/J/Q/S7KDBUDJQ.flv 4: 足球比赛与商业合作之最佳对策 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/6/0/S7KDC7960.flv 5: 纳什均衡之坏风气与银行挤兑 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/6/R/S7KDCAC6R.flv 6: 纳什均衡之约会游戏与古诺模型 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/5/E/S7KDB145E.flv 7: 纳什均衡伯川德模型与选民投票 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/4/1/S7KDCB541.flv 8: 立场选择种族隔离与策略随机化 https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e98401101.html,/movie/2011/12/D/D/S7KDBQ6DD.flv 9: 混合策略及其在网球比赛中的应用

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电影死亡诗社观后感影评650字

电影死亡诗社观后感影评650字 美国的片子《死亡诗社》,它的故事发生在1959年的威尔顿预备学院,那是一个扼杀个性的年代,也许我们今天仍处在这个时代中.这里给大家整理了一些有关死亡诗社的观后感,希望对大家有所帮助. 死亡诗社观后感1 看完电影《死亡诗社》觉得非常真实,前一秒孩子们喊这学校的口号“传统,荣誉,纪律,优秀”,后一分钟孩子们高喊自己的原创口号。孩子原始的天性细腻的在影片中表现,青春期蠢蠢的萌动真实的展现。影片中孩子的活泼,家长的专制,校长的古板,新教师的个性都强烈冲击我们的心灵。我相信大部分的孩子都会喜欢这个非传统的老师,吹着口哨进课堂,将课堂搬到教室外的连廊,鼓励学生撕掉课本的前言…… 我们能看见他真诚善良,鼓励孩子克服困难,帮助孩子超越自己。所以孩子都喜欢上他的课,因为自由,活跃,快乐,可以乘着想象的翅膀高飞。这是他们也是整所学校从未发生过的事,以学院为首的传统教育思想和以英文老师为首的现代教育的冲突和碰撞不可避免的发生了。这两种教育有点像我们的应试教育与素质教育。如何做好素质教育,认真执行二期课改,教师还需要勇气、智慧和实干精神。真正做到以人为本,让孩子活出生命的活力和意义。

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