essay (1)

Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Waste

Qi Sun,

Yue Zhao, 40141206

Executive Summary

With the sharp decline of fossil energy, it appears more and more new renewable energy such as wind energy, tidal energy, solar energy and nuclear energy and other energy. As one of the most promising new energies in the future, people pay more and more attention on producing, using nuclear energy, safety and the management technologies of nuclear waste. Nuclear energy is safe, clean and economy, and it is benefit for environment because it can reduce the emission of greenhouse gases significantly. However, the accidents of nuclear power plants such as which happened in the USA, Soviet Union and Japan and other countries make people panic. So how to use nuclear energy more safely and how to deal with the nuclear waste more legitimately is especially significant in development of nuclear technology. In this paper, we focused on analyzing advantages and disadvantages and the importance of nuclear energy, meanwhile, we also focused on the technologies of management nuclear waste .

Table of context

1 Nuclear Energy (2)

1.1 Background (2)

1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages (3)

1.3 Importance of Nuclear Energy (4)

2 Nuclear waste (5)

2.1 Management principles of nuclear waste (5)

2.2 Treatments of nuclear waste (5)

3 Conclusion (7)

1. Nuclear Energy

1.1 Background

Nuclear energy is the energy released by nuclear reactions from nucleus, and it is agreed with Albert Einstein's mass-energy equation E = mc2. There are three ways to generate nuclear energy: nuclear fission, heavier nuclei split release binding energy; nuclear fusion, lighter nuclei coming together to release the binding energy; nuclear decay, the nucleus spontaneous decay process releasing energy.

Nuclear energy is a great invention in human history, which is due to early exploration of Western scientists and it contributes to build foundation of applications of nuclear energy .

Late 19th century British physicist Thomson discovered the electron;

In 1895, German physicist Roentgen discovered X-rays;

In 1896, French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity;

In 1898, Marie Curie discovered the radioactive elements polonium;

In 1902, Marie Curie discovered radioactive element radium;

In 1905, Einstein's mass-energy conversion formula was proposed;

In 1914, the British physicist Rutherford experimentally determined that hydrogen nucleus is a positive charge unit, called protons;

In 1932, the British physicist Chadwick discovered the neutron;

In 1938 ,German scientist Otto Hahn bombarded uranium nuclei with neutrons, and discovered the phenomenon of nuclear fission;

In 1942, University of Chicago successfully launched the world's first nuclear reactor;

In 1945, the US applied two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan;

In 1954, the Soviet Union built the world's first nuclear power factory - O'Brien Spirit Trask nuclear power factory;

World War II, the atomic bomb was born. Humans began to apply military nuclear energy, energy, industrial, aerospace and other fields. United States, Russia, Britain, France, China, Japan, Israel and other countries have launched promising research on nuclear energy[1].

The world's first nuclear power factory into operation began on 27 June, 1954, located in the former Soviet Union O'Brien Spirit Trask. Since then, nuclear power factories have started to set up across the country[1].

1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Firstly, nuclear energy is not only one of the most abundant energy reserves on earth, but also a high degree of concentration energy. According to organic fuel reserving on Earth to estimate, coal can support about 200 years, and the oil only can run 40 years. If it is successful to build a effective fusion reactor, the energy turns out to be inexhaustible, and humanity will no longer be worried about energy problems.

Secondly, nuclear energy is a clean energy, it is benefit to protect the environment. Currently because a large number of organic fuel is being used in the world, there are a huge amount of emissions of greenhouse gases everyday which leads to serious environmental problem. It is not only directly harmful to human health but also ecological balance.

In addition, nuclear energy is economy. Although nuclear energy plants have higher construction costs than common thermal power plants, about 30%-40%, the cost of fuel is much lower than thermal power plants[2]. Electricity generation cost accounts for 50% to 60% of total costs of a thermal energy plant while a nuclear energy plant is only 20% to 30% of all[2]. Compared with the cost of nuclear power plant and coal-fired power plant, the previous one is much lower 15% to 30%[2].

Meanwhile, nuclear energy is effective. If two units are both needed to generate 2 million kilowatts, it needs 48 tons of nuclear material while 6 million tons of coal will be needed [2].

Finally, instead of coal and oil, nuclear energy is conducive to rational use of resources, so fossil energy should be replaced by nuclear energy gradually. In a word, the advantages of nuclear energy will eventually confirmed by the people. Its use is one of the effective ways to solve the energy problem. However, nuclear energy is a double-edged sword. At first, the nuclear power factory will produce radioactive waste, although it is a small size, it must be carefully handled. At the same time, the thermal efficiency of nuclear power factory is low, and releases more heat than the average of fossil fuel power factory into the environment, so the nuclear power factory thermal pollution is more serious[4]. In addition, nuclear power factory investment cost is too high and construction of a nuclear power factory easily lead to political wars [5]. There are a lot of radioactive material in the reactor, if released it into environment, it will do harm to human and environment[6]. So how to process nuclear waste and improve the safety factor of nuclear energy factory are quite significant.

Therefore, the use of nuclear energy should consider the sound legal system, advanced technology, management norms as stringent premise, and also should take the impact of natural disasters, result of nuclear leakage, and a series of serious consequences into account.

1.3 Importance of Nuclear Energy

Energy is the lifeblood of human society and the level of development of a country. The utilization of energy is marking the level of productivity and living standards of a country. Before the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century , energy consumption grew very slowly. Since the industrial revolution, the development of economy and energy consumption has grown rapidly. The world's consumption of energy has increased by two times in nearly a hundred years. In the 1950's, the world's energy consumption is equivalent to 2.6 billion tons of standard coal, and in the early eighties, annual consumption is more than 10 billion tons of standard coal[7]. In 2000, the world's energy consumption has more than 18 billion tons of standard coal[7]. However, nowadays, 85% of the world's energy comes from burning fossil fuels and organic fuels[7]. Human have to make a choice to solve the subsequent alternative energy issues. Water is a non-polluting energy sources, and it should be fully developed, but water resource is still ultimately limited by amount and geographical conditions, if people can find a low-cost water purification way it can solve lots of problem. Hydropower has dramatically changed with the seasons, so only it cannot meet the growing energy requirements. Solar energy, tidal energy, wind, geothermal and other energies are still limited by a variety of conditions and the development need to be under certain conditions, so it is hard for large-scale use. Optimistic estimate indicates that these types of energy are very difficult to cover 1% of total energy consumption[1]. Relatively, the technology of nuclear energy is more mature, and can be used in large scale. Currently, there are about 438 nuclear power generating units which in running around the world[1]. The electricity generated by nuclear power accounts for 17% of the total generating capacity in the world[1].

To meet the requirement of human needs for energy, the development of nuclear energy is one of the rarely effective ways. This is because nuclear energy has the advantages that can not be replaced. Improving safety, efficiency and managing nuclear waste legitimately are main tasks at present.

2. Nuclear waste

Nuclear waste is a broad range of radioactive by-products from the process of nuclear materials used for energy generation, weapons production, research, medicine, and industry[8]. Main nuclear waste originated as a byproduct of uranium and plutonium production. The radioactivity of nuclear waste is very different from each other. Some wastes can stay radioactive for some hours, while others can do harm to human health and the environment for hundreds of thousands of years[8].

Generally, It can be divided into three types containing low-level radioactive, mid-level radioactive and high-level radioactive, previous two are mainly from the generation of electricity accounting for about 99% of all of nuclear waste, and high-level radioactive nuclear waste is from nuclear reactor core after burning down for fuel[9].

There are three feature of nuclear waste which are radioactivity, ray hazards and thermal release. Meanwhile, nuclear waste has strong harmfulness, and it is tough to delivery, storage and degrade, so disposal of nuclear waste is especially hard and important.

2.1 Management principles of nuclear waste

Minimize unnecessary waste and recycling;

Sort and storage various nuclear waste separately;

Minimize the volume to reduce the cost of storage, transportation and handling;

Diluted emissions must strictly respect with relevant laws and regulations; Storage in stable solid to reduce radionuclide migration and diffusion[9].

2.2 Treatments of nuclear waste

Nowadays, one of the most safe treatments is burying deeply on land or ocean. Nuclear waste is through cooling and dry storage then filling in mental cans burying in specific ocean or burying in nuclear waste processing library under thick rock layer. High-level radioactive is extremely harmful to the environment and human, it can be devastating. Since the half-life of some nuclear waste may be up to thousands of years or longer, so it must ensure that the geological conditions can be safe in quite many years. The advantages of this method are that it has excellent waterproof performance and radiation resistance vitrified body, backfilling solid seal prevents the diffusion of radioactive substances, and hard crystalline rock or granite can absorb ,delay and dilute radioactive materials. However, there are still some

problems to solve such as uncertainty of specific operations and recovery of high-level radioactive elements[10].

2.3 Nuclear waste management technology development

Vitrification method is to mix waste with glass to manufacture a curable composition in a cylindrical container.

A new research indicates that metal slags can absorb radioactive substances including the main waste cesium-134[9].

Supercritical fluid extraction technology can extract radioactive elements, toxic metal and organic pollutants from solid waste with supercritical fluid such as supercritical CO2 without using any acid or an organic reagent[11]. It greatly reduce the generation of secondary waste. In addition, it has higher extraction rate, permeability of solid matrix and rapid separation in decompression process.

Plasma filtering technique is to separate elements based on their mass. However the difficulty is isotope separation[12,13]. It has been considered for nuclear waste remediation[14]and for nuclear spent fuel reprocessing recently[15]. The use of plasma for these applications is probably come true by the research of new plasma filter concepts[16-19]which can offer high-throughput processing granted sufficiently large mass differences between species to be separated.The absence of secondary liquid waste stream would represent a saving cost [20].

Nanomaterial is a new material with more specific surface area and surface atoms than common material, so it shows better adsorption effect than common material[21-23]. Nanomaterial is reactive, and has strong interaction with surrounding material, so as to achieve and manage the removal of environmental pollutants[21-23]. For example,nano-iron (hydrogen) oxide, carbon nanotubes and nano-iron are all good nanomaterials which can be used to manage nuclear waste[24]. However, competitive adsorption and complex mechanism of radionuclides in nanomaterials / liquid interface are still need to be solved and researched[24].

Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis nuclear waste solidification technology uses the heat from the reaction between reactants and nuclear waste to obtain the temperature closing to rock synthesis temperature and pressure conditions so as to synthesize cured compound[25]. This technology is safer, faster, more effective, reducing cost and saving energy and becomes a popular research subject in recent year.

3. Conclusion

Nowadays, the demand for energy mainly comes from coal, oil, natural gas. The amount of demand is increasing rapidly day by day. The rest of oil and gas is limited which can support human beings about 60 years, and burning fossil energy leads to substantial growth of greenhouse gases. Relatively, nuclear energy is a kind of cleaner new energy with bright future.

Generation of nuclear energy mainly consumes 235U, however, 235U reserving on Earth is still insufficient to meet the infinite demand of humanity for energy. With the global growth of nuclear energy demand, people pay more attention on safety and risks from nuclear fissile material for nuclear weapons production. Nuclear weapon is shocking when Hiroshima is shown to people. Accidents in the history such as accidents in Chernobyl and Fukushima make the public panic. Radioactive substances damaged the ecological environment, at the same time, make people sick even dead. So it needs us to seek a safer strategy that can take advantage of uranium, thorium resources, but also prevent the risk of proliferation of nuclear weapons, meanwhile, which is safe and easy to deal with nuclear waste. In addition, we need to improve the safety factor of nuclear power plants and find more efficient, stable and safer ways to manage nuclear waste. It is the key for human to obtain sustainable energy development in the future.

From the science and industry aspect, nuclear energy is one of clean,and safe new energies. Emissions of GHG in China ranks second in the world and main pollutants in atmosphere is from energy, so development of nuclear can effectively and economically reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and prevent ecological degradation. Nuclear energy will play an important role in the future energy system, and actively developing nuclear power is greatly needed.

4. References

[1] Kuiren Liu, Qing HAN. New Energy Technology [M]. Chemical Industry Press, 2010;

[2] Feng Wang. Heat Engine Optimization Design[M],1993;

[3] Naijun Zhou. Energy and Environment[M], 2008;

[4]"One can understand series" writing group. One Can Understand the Science Discovery Event Code[M], 2009;

[5]Radioecology: Nuclear and Environment Volume [M]. Atomic Energy Press, 1988;

[6]XiYuan Wang. From Bomb to Nuclear Power - Nuclear China [M]. University of Science and Technology of China Press, 2009;

[7]Bao Wang. Development and Utilization of New Energy Century[M], 2007;

[8] "Nuclear and radioactive waste." Encyclopedia of Environmental Issues, Revised Edition. Salem Press. 2011;

[9]Junbiao Ma, Mailiang Han. Nuclear Power Plant Waste Treatment Technology [J]. Huadian Technology, 2009, 31 (12): 70-72;

[10]Rong Lu, Chilong Lee, Mengjie Chen. Treatment of Nuclear Waste [J] Technology Rich Wizard, 2014 (23): 223-224;

[11]Shaofen Wang, Jianmo Wei. Application of Supercritical Fluid Extraction Technology in Nuclear Waste Processing [J]. Journal of Applied Chemistry, 2003, 20 (5): 409-414;

[12] M.W. Grossman, T.A. Shepp, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 19 (1991)1114–1122, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1109/27.125034;

[13] J.-M. Rax, J. Robiche, N.J. Fisch, Phys. Plasmas 14 (2007) 043102-8, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1063/1.2717882;

[14] R. Freeman, S. Agnew, F. Anderegg, B. Cluggish, J. Gilleland, R. Isler, A. Litvak, R. Miller, R. O’Neill, T. Ohkawa, S. Pronko, S. Putvinski, L. Sevier, A. Sibley, K.Umstadter, T. Wade, D. Winslow, AIP Conf. Proc. 694 (2003) 403–410, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1063/1.1638067;

[15] R. Gueroult, N.J. Fisch, Plasma Sour. Sci. Technol. 23 (2014) 035002, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1088/0963-0252/23/3/035002;

[16] T. Ohkawa, R.L. Miller, Phys. Plasmas 9 (2002) 5116–5120, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1063/1.1523930;

[17] A.J. Fetterman, N.J. Fisch, Phys. Plasmas 18 (2011) 094503-3, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1063/1.3631793;

[18] R. Gueroult, N.J. Fisch, Phys. Plasmas 19 (2012) 122503-6, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1063/1.4771674;

[19] R. Gueroult, J.-M. Rax, N.J. Fisch, Phys. Plasmas 21 (2014) 020701, https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e114975213.html,/10.1063/1.4864325;

[20]Gueroult R, Hobbs D T, Fisch N J. Plasma Filtering Techniques for Nuclear Waste Remediation[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2015, 297: 153-159; [21] Karn B，Kuiken T，Otto M．Nanotechnology and in Situ Remediation：A Review of the Benefits and Po—tential Risks[J]．Environ Health

Perspectives，2009，117：1 813;

[22]Peraha-Videa J R，Zhao L，Lopez-Moreno M L，et a1．Nanomaterials and the Environment：A Review for the Biennium 2008—20lO[J]．J Hazard Mater，2011，186：l一15;

[23]Lin J H，Wu Z H，Tseng W L Extraction of Environ—mental Pollutants Using Magnetic Nanomaterials[J]. Anal Methods，2010(2)：1 874-1 879;

[24]Guodong Sheng, Shitong Yang, Zhiqing Guo and etc. Application of Nano-materials and Nano Technology in Nuclear Waste Processing [J] Nuclear and Radiochemistry, 2012, 34 (6): 321-330;

[25]Zhimeng Guo, Feng Gao, Ke Yang, Ruizhu Zhang,Yan Lee. Self-propagating High-temperature Synthesis of High Level Radioactive Nuclear Waste Solidification of Nuclear Power Engineering[J], 2008 (z1):. 72-75.

英国论文(Essay)写作技巧—优越论文

英国论文（Essay）写作技巧—优越论文 没出过的学生向往国外的学习和生活，留学生烦恼很多，主要就是写Essay 了，一篇一篇的论文堆积如山，熬到半夜两三点还是没写完，勉强过关，第二天还是一整天的课程！无数的学生都在说论文作业很难，写不出来。以下是英国优越论文老师给出的一些Tips. 首先，以下是几点写作论文是必须注意的。 1、尽量少用“I think”“As is known to all”等比较主观评价的词，更不要用未注明来源的引语，比如“有人说过”“一位著名语言学家曾经探讨过”“功能语言学认为”等。 2、要旁征博引，但是不能生吞活剥，东拼西凑。 3、注意文章的简洁性，对发展文章主题没有作用的引文坚决不用。 4、区别直接引用和间接引用。一手资料的引文，比如引用的内容与原文一致的就用引号，并标注来源；一手资料间接引文，如果是归纳他人的观点的，最好是解释性地引用他人的成功，不用引号也不需要标注来源；二手资料间接引文，如果是在阅读某人A文献的时候发现被其引用的另一作者B也有值得引用的观点，引用的方式就是——B(1989)曾指出……f转引自A 19951。这里要求A和B 均必须出现在参考文献中。 5、避免无意的plagiarism，也尽量不要copy.有时候将以前从某书上学习到的观点和理论用于文章中而忽略了其来源，这就造成了无意剽窃。 6、不提出证据不足的观点，也不用“我认为”“大多数研究者会同意这样的观点”等虚张声势的表达方式。 7、任何一个观点都要有来源，或者得到作者的论证。如何证明一个观点其实是比较困难的问题。 其次，要追求Essay的原创性。 原创性是学术追求的目标，也是每一个要写论文的留学生所必须了解的。一般来说，综述性文章的原创性内容比较少，多为介绍他人的论述，少数内容是作者的分析和看法。综述文章又可分为大综述文章和小综述文章，前者覆盖一段历史的理论发展，后者仅限于某人某阶段的理论研究。写综述文章必须做到介绍他人尚未介绍的理论。 有一类文章是批判性的论述文章，这类文章原创的内容有多有少，它的原创部分是建立在对相关理论的批判之上，它所提出的新见解必须论据充分，条理清晰，逻辑性强。实证性的文章原创成分最大，一般是根据以往研究中心出现得不足提出的一个新见解并加以证明，其中实证性的文章一般分为： 1、分析性／推理性实证：将论点建立在语言事实及其分析上，重语言事实及分析工具。 2、实验性实证：根据以往研究的不足提出新的观点或假设，设计试验方法，控制相关变量，收集有效数据并加以分析，并用数据分析的结果来证明文章提出的假设。 3、调查性实证：它是根据以往研究引出的问题设计的调查问卷，探索调查对象在某方面表现出的规律性特征。

essay写作规范

基本写作规范（不允许犯的错误) Very Important!!! 写作文记得要有题目！！没有题目一律扣2元！！！ 1. 我们写的论文都是正式的论文，不管是小作业也好还是什么的，必须避免文章中出现第一人称或者第二人称。不能出现缩写，例如it's, can't这种，必须改成it is 和cannot（can和not之间是没有空格的）。要使用正式的词语，尽量用however ，therefore，不能用so和but。不允许直接引用，不能用and开头作为句子，文章中不要出现疑问句！ 2. 复制粘贴的抄袭是不允许的，这是很严重的行为，客户会因为这个被退学 的，所以必须转述（paraphrase）好自己搜索到的材料，不要一句话中连续三个单词和原句子中的一模一样，抄袭率要低于10%才可以 3.凡是检测到抄袭率不合格，本人又无法修改的情况下，或多次修改还无法达 到要求的情况下，按抄袭率等比例扣除部分稿费，比如抄袭率15%，就要扣掉15%的稿费。如抄袭率太严重，比如超过50%，稿费全无。所以请把握好paraphrase的技巧。 4.请认真学习文献格式，文献列表出现123456789….这些序号的人一看就知 道没有认真学习文献格式。不要用123456789来列文献。仔细认真观察的人会知道我们的文献是按首字母顺序排列的，不需要标序号的！ 5.常用文献哈佛格式：文献列表中，每一个文献在文中必须要有对应的

intext.意思就是你文中哪句话是出自该文献的，是以哪个文献为依据的，就在那句话后面写上（作者姓，年份），然后该句子的句号必须放在括号最后面.注意括号里面只能放作者的姓，其他作者的名字缩写什么乱七八糟的都不可以放进去！如果超过三个以上的作者，括号里就这么写，如（Peter et al, 2015). 如果是两个作者，就是（Peter & Amy, 2015). 如果只有一个作者就是（Peter,2015). 哈佛文献列表。注意开始一定是作者姓，名字首字母缩写.(年份).请大家一定要注意这个细节！ 其余文献格式具体再问我。 6.关于标点符号的使用！好多同学都不知道标点符号后面需要空一格才能写 下一个单词！请注意这个细节！标点符号后面需要空一格才能写下一个单词！括号也需要和前面的单词空一格。比如ABCD (Peter, 2015).如果是ABCD(Peter, 2015) 这样是错误的，ABCD要和后面的括号之间空一格！ 用&连接前后两个单词时，前后也需各自空一格！ 7.写作尽量用简单句，不要觉得句子越复杂就显得自己水平越高。这种想法 是错误的，尽量用简单句。 8.文献年份不要用2000年以前的旧文献 以后交稿的写手请注意了：

英国essay范文分析

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essay 的格式

标题页 给所写文章起一个合适的标题 格式居中，二号字体，TIMES NEW ROMAN，加重

T able of contents目录页 先将写好文章中的小标题设置格式，然后这里用WORD插入引用自动生成目录，根据情况适当调整行间距，字体大小。下面是例子。 Introduction (3) Main body (3) Engineering Ethics (3) Ethics in University Education (4) Conclusion (6) References (7)

正文开始，注意行间距1.5，字体小四，TIMES NEW ROMAN,每段开始不空格，段段之间空一行 Introduction 只写一段（字数占全文10%左右） Main body Engineering Ethics According to Davison and Kock (2004), “professional Ethics concerns one's conduct of behavior and practice when carrying out professional wo rk.” There are a great many professional bodies throughout the world that put forward important institutionalized “codes of conduct and codes of practice” for their members to follow. In many counties, medical ethics, legal ethics and business ethics are repeatedly discussed by the public and even regarded compulsory to the practitioners. Engineering ethics has also been becoming an increasing concern over the past decades, during which the world witnessed some momentous events like stratospheric ozone depletion, cloning technology, the Challenger disaster and so on, which are closely related to the issue of engineering ethics. Professional bodies of engineering like the US professional engineering associations, the German Association of Engineers and the Institution of Engineers, Australia, are getting more active. Engineering codes of ethics vary by different cultures and might still remain

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