实用英语语法讲义Lecture1-3

Lecture 1 Sentence Structure

1.1 The construction of “subject + predicate” and sentence analysis

As has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of "subject + predicate". That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases; it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of "subject + predicate".

1) Subject and predicate

A full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate. The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tells of what the sentence is about. The predicate says something about the subject and bears the new information which the speaker wants to transmit to the listener. The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.

The subject of a clause may be a compound noun phrase which is called a compound subject. For example: The boys and the girls are planning a dance.

Fruit flies and ladybugs are insects.

Joshua and Daniel got lost in the woods.

Also the predicate of a clause may be a compound construction which is called a compound predicate. For example:

Leah jumped on her bike and rode around the block.

My friend lives in a green house and rides a red bicycle.

I opened the magazine and began to read it quietly.

Sometimes both subject and predicate are compound constructions

Her brother and her sister were very shy and were really hard persons to get to know.

Cassandra and Jenny built a model airplane and painted it bright yellow.

In English, there exists Double Predicate in grammar. This kind of predicate is usually transformed from more complicated deep-layer structure.

For example:

He left home a mere child and returned quite a different man.( the deep structure of this sentence is : He was a mere child when he left home, and he became quite a different man when he returned.)

There are some similar structures:

Everyone stood listening intently.

The doctor sat reading a newspaper in the shade.

A bird fell dead to the ground.

He died beloved, revered, and mourned by millions of the working people.

From the above examples, we can see that double predicate is different from compound predicate: double predicate is the fusion of two predicates, while compound predicate is the compound of two predicates.

2) Two ways of sentence analysis:

To facilitate description of how the English language works, sentences can be analysed in two

ways. One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb or predicator, object, complement and adverbial. These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.

Sentence

│

Clause

│

│ │

NP VP NP

│ │ │

Subject Predicate V erb Object

││ │

││ │ │ │ │

All the men have done their best.

The other way of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication. The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation (object, complement or adverbial).

Sentence

│

Clause

│

││

Subject predicate

││

│││

││ Operator Prediction

││││

│││││ All the men have done their best Operator usually refers to the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase.

Do some exercises

1.2 Basic clause type and their transformation and expansion :

In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven basic types. Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types. 1) Basic clause types :

The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SV A, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, SV oO. These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.

The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a

subject complement.

That car is mine

The main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SV A.

Everybody laughed.

They stayed in a hotel.

The main verb in an SVO pattern is a mono-transitive which must be followed by an object, and with some mono-transitives, the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOA

I want an English book.

I put the book on the desk.

The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object + object complement.

We made John our monitor.

The main verb in a SV oO pattern is a di-transitive verb which is to be followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.

I give him a letter.

2) Transformation and expansion of basic clause types :

The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice. An affirmative clause can be transformed into the negative; a statement into a question; and the active into the passive. All these add varieties to the basic clause types.

The tourists have arrived.

→Have the tourists arrived?

→The tourists have not arrived.

She give me some money.

→Did she give him any money?

→She didn’t give me any money.

→He was given some money.

→Some money was given to him.

The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.

Do some exercises

FIGURE: SENTENCE STRUCTURE

In contrast with the subject, there are few generalization that we can usefully make about the predicate since -- as our examples have illustrated –it tends to be a more complex and heterogeneous unit. We need to subdivide it into its elements or constituents. One division has already been suggested; this distinguishes AUXILIARY as OPERATOR and other parts as PREDICA TION. The distinctions may be illustrated as follows:

sentence

subject predicate

∶

∶auxiliary predication

∶and ∶

∶operator ∶

∶∶∶

He had given the girl an apple.

Had he given the girl an apple ?

This particular division of the sentence helps us to understand, for example, how interrogative and negative sentences are formed, how certain adjuncts are positioned, and how certain types of emphasis are achieved.

ILLUSTRATION : TYPES OF SETNENCE STRUCTURE

Bringing together the distinctions so far made, we can present some basic sentence-structure rules diagrammatically. Each line constitutes a pattern which is illustrated by means of a correspondingly numbered example having just those obligatory and optional (parenthesized) elements that are specified in the formula. The order in which the elements appear is common but by no means fixed. It is a principle of sentence organization that what is contextually familiar or ‘given’ comes to convey the greatest information is given the special prominence of ‘end-focus’.

She is in London (now).

She is a student (in London) (now).

John heard the explosion (from his office) (when he was

locking the door). University (gradually) became famous (in Europe) (during the Middle Ages). They ate the meat (hungrily) (in their hut) (that night).

He offered (her) some chocolates (politely) (outside the hall).

They elected him chairman (without argument) (in

Washington ) (this

morning).

The train had arrived (quietly) (at the station) (before we noticed it). [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord ( I )

Teaching Aims: Knowledge Aims：Subject-verb Concord (I)

Skill Aims：Introduction: By subject-verb concord is meant agreement

between subject and predicate verb in number.

Emotion Aims：There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concord: they are

principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity. Important points: Grammatical concord; Notional concord; Proximity

Difficult points:Principle of Proximity

Leading-in: Discussion

1. What do you think you should learn in the 3 principles of concord?

2. Why we have to study the 3 principles of concord ?

3. What is the difference between English and Chinese?

(i) In English there is subject-verb concord.

(ii) In Chinese there is no.

General information:

There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concord: they are principles of

grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Step 1 Subject-verb Concord ( I ) :

By subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb in number. Guiding principles: There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concord

Step II Guiding principles :

There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concord: they are principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity.

1)Grammatical concord

The principle of grammatical concord refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number. If the subject is plural, the verb should take the plural form; if on the other hand, the subject is singular or is a mass noun, the verb should take the singular form, e.g.:

Both boys have their own merits.

Every girl comes on time.

Much effort is wasted.

Difficulties arise when this principle comes into conflict with the other two principles: principle of notional concord and principle of proximity.

2)Notional concord

The principle of notional concord refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion, e.g.:

The government have asked the country to decide by vote.

Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me.

3)Proximity

The principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject, e.g.:

Either my brothers or my father is coming.

No one except his own supporters agree with him.

Neither Julia nor I am going.

Note that grammatical concord is the basic principle, but when the subject is realized by a collective noun, a coordinate form or an expression of quantity, the other two principles will have to be considered.

Step III Problems of concord with nouns ending in -s :

There are quite a few nouns that end in –s but which are not countable. Some of these nouns are treated as singular, some as plural, and some either as singular or as plural. All this can be dealt with under the following headings.

1)Disease and game names ending in –s

Names of diseases ending in –s are mostly treated as singular, but there are a few such names (as measles and rickets) which can be used either as singular or as plural.

Game names ending in –s are generally used as singular with the exception of cards which is usually treated as plural.

2)Subject names ending in –ics

Names of subjects ending in –ics are generally used as singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names. Compare:

Acoustics is the science of sound.

The coustics in the new concert hall are faultless.

Economics is a required course for all the students.

The economics of the project are still being considered.

3)Geographical names ending in –s

Geographical names such as the names of archipelagos (islands), mountain ranges, straits and falls are generally used as plural, except for a few treated as singular when used as country names, e.g.:

The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.

The Straits of Gibraltar have not lost their strategic importance.

In earky January 1976, the Netherlands was hit by its worst storm since 1953.

4)Other nouns ending in –s

Names for things made of 2 parts such as scissors, pincers, etc., are usually used as plural. But when they are precede by such unit nouns as a pair of and two pairs of, the number form of the following verb is generally determined by the number marker of the unit noun.

Step IV Problems of concord with collective nouns as subject :

Collective nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning. The choice between grammatical and notional concord is mostly dictated by usage.

1)Collective nouns usually used as plural

These include people, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc:

The Chinese people are a great people.

Domestic cattle provide us with milk, beef and hides.

2)Collective nouns usually used as singular

These include foliage, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc:

All the merchandise has arrived undamaged.

All the machinery in the factory is made in China.

3)Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular

There are collective nouns that can be used either as plural or as singular. The choice of the verb form following such nouns depends on the exact meaning of the noun in a specific context. When the noun is used in the sense of a collective as a whole, the verb takes the singular form. If , on the other hand, the noun is used in the sense of the individuals that make the collective, the verb takes the plural form. Compare:

The anti-crime committee is to make its report tomorrow.

The committee are divided in opinion about this problem.

That group of soldiers is a top-notch fighting unit.

That group of soldiers have the best ratings of individual performance.

4) A committee of, etc + plural noun

When a plural noun is preceded by a committee of / a board of / a panel of, the verb usually takes the singular form, e.g.:

A committee of five men and three women is to consider the matter.

The committee of directors is responsible for the management of the company.

Lecture 3Subject-verb Concord ( II )

Teaching Aims: The students will know about the problems of concord with a coordinate construction, a quantitative expression, or a nominal clause as subject Important points:Problems of concord with a coordinate subject; Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject; Other problems of subject-verb concord Difficult points:Other problems of subject-verb concord

Leading-in: Discussion:(1) What do you think you should learn in the subject-verb concord?

(2) Why we have to study the subject-verb concord?

(3) What is the difference between English and Chinese?

(i) In English there is subject-verb concord.

(ii) In Chinese there is no subject-verb concord

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Step 1 Subject-verb Concord ( II ) :

This lecture deals with problems of concord with a coordinate construction, a quantitative expression, or a nominal clause as subject.

Step II Problems of concord with a coordinate subject :

The following rules are to be observed in the case of a coordinate subject.

1)Coordinate with …and? or …both . . . and?

Coordination by ‘and’ or ‘both . . . and’ is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons / things, but it is treated as singular when it refers to only one person or thing. Compare:

Both Pauline and Bob have gone fishing on Miramar Lake.

Rain, hail, and wind have caused an estimated $22,000,000 damage to crops and livestock.

The secretary and treasurer was absent from the meeting.

Ham and eggs is a good breakfast.

2)Coordinate with …or? / …either . . . or?, …nor? / …neither . . . nor?, …not only . . . but

also?

Here the problem of concord is generally dealt with according to the principle of proximity. But in informal style, items coordinated by ‘neither . . . nor’or ‘not only . . . but also’can sometimes be regarded as plural, e.g.:

My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.

Either my father or my brothers are coming.

Neither the players nor the coach was / (were) overconfident.

Not only the switches but also the old writing has /( have) been changed.

Step III Problems of concord with expressions of quality as subject :

Quantitative expressions fall into two categories; definite and indefinite.

1)Concord with expression of definite quantity as subject (P43)

When a definite quantity is regarded as a single unit, the verb takes the singular form and

when used in the sense of the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form. Compare:

He thought that 65 dollars was not too much to ask.

There were s silver dollars in each of the stockings.

If the subject is ‘a fraction / percentage + of-phrase’, the form of the verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase. A plural noun in the of-phrase is to be followed by a singular verb, e.g.:

Over 60% of the city was destroyed in the war.

Two-thirds of the swampland has been reclaimed for farming.

Nearly 50% of the doctors are women.

If the subject is an expression of ‘A plus / and B’ or A multiplied by B’, the verb can either take the singular or the plural form. If, on the other hand, the subject is one of ‘A minus B’ or A divided by B’, the verb can only be singular, e.g.:

Seven plus / and five (7 + 5) makes / make twelve.

Forty minus fifteen (40 – 15 ) leaves twenty-five.

Five times eight (5×8) is / are forty.

Forty divided by eight (40÷8) is five.

If the subject is a noun phrase composed of ‘one in / out of + plural noun’, the verb takes the singular form in formal style, but in informal style it can be plural, e.g.:

One in ten students has / have failed the exam.

One out of twenty was / were badly damaged.

2)Concord with expression of indefinite quantity as subject (P44)

When the subject is a noun phrase composed of ‘all of . . . , some of . . . , none of . . . , half of . . . , most of . . . , etc’, the number of the verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase. This is also true of ‘lots of, heaps of, loads of, scads of, plenty of + noun’, e.g.:

All of the cargo was lost.

All of the crew were saved.

Lots of food is going to waste.

Lots of people are waiting outside.

When the subject is a noun preceded by ‘a portion of, a series of, a pile of, a panel of,’ the verb invariably takes the singular form, whatever the forms of the noun. Likewise, when the subject is a noun, singular or plural, preceded by ‘a kind / sort / type of’ is preceded by these / those and followed by a plural noun, the verb should be plural, e.g.:

A substantial portion of the reports is missing.

A series of accidents has been reported.

This kind of man annoys me.

That type of car is old-fashioned.

These sort of machines are up to date.

If the subject is a noun phrase composed of ‘many a + noun’ or ‘more than one + noun’, this kind of noun phrase, though notionally plural, is treated as singular.

Many a man has done his duty.

More than one game was lost.

If the subject is a plural noun preceded by ‘an average of / a majority of’, the verb form is determined by the notion of the noun phrase; if the noun head is the word ‘average / majority’, the verb should be singular; if the head is the plural noun, the verb should be plural. Compare:

An average of 25 applications a month is not unusual.

An average of 25 persons apply each month.

Step IV Other problems of sublect-verb concord :

There are other problems of subject-verb concord that are worth mentioning.

1)Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject

When the subject is a nominal clause introduced by what, who, which, how, why, whether, etc, the verb usually takes the singular form. But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both . . . and, a plural verb is required, e.g.:

What caused the accident is complete mystery.

What caused the accident and who was responsible for it remain a mystery to us.

In SVC constructions with a what-clause as subject, the verb usually takes the singular form. But when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural, e.g.:

What was real to him were the details of his life.

What are often regarded as poisonous fungi are sometimes safely edible.

2)Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject

When the subject is a noun-finite clause, the verb of the main clause usually takes the singular form. But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause tales the singular form when the subject refers to one thing, and the plural form when the subject refers to separate things, e.g.:

To climb mountains requires courage.

Playing tennis is a very good exercise.

Compare:

Reading Ibsen and solving a quadratic equation are entirely different assignments.

3)Subject-verb concord in relative clauses

In the construction of ‘one of+ plural noun + relative clause’, the principle of grammatical concord is generally observed. Sometimes, especially in British English, in order to lay emphasis on ‘one’, the verb also take the singular form. When ‘one’ is preceded by ‘the’ or ‘the only’, the

verb can only be singular. Compare:

Joan is one of those people who go out of their way to be helpful.

Jasper White is one of those rare people who believes in ancient myths.

He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.

4)Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences

In cleft-sentences, subject-verb concord in that / who-clause is generally determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause. There is one point that should be noted: when the focal element is ‘I’, the verb TO BE in the following who- / that-clause usually agrees with ‘I’ in both person and number; if, on the other hand, the focal element is ‘me’ instead of ‘I’, the verb TO BE in the following who- / that-clause should take the third person singular number, e.g.:

It is I who am to blame.

It is me that is to blame.

5)Subject-verb concord in existential sentences(P51)

In existential sentences, subject-verb concord is generally determined by the number of the ‘notional subject’, but in informal style, especially in spoken language, the verb often agrees with the ‘formal subject’ and takes the singular form, even though the notional subject is plural. When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject, singular or plural, e.g.:

There is a note left on the desk.

There are three routes you can take.

There’s more grace and less carelessness.

There’s a long springboard, and rafts at varying distances from the shore

上海牛津小学英语语法知识总结(最新整理)

?一般情况下，直接加s 如：read-reads，swim-swims ?以s，x，sh，ch，o结尾，加es 如：wash-washes，watch-watches，do-does ?以辅音字母＋y结尾，变y为i，再加es 如：study-studies，fly-flies ?不规则变化如：have-has 4、一般现在时的句型转换： 肯定句否定句一般疑问句及回答 They watch TV every day.They don’t watch TV every day. —Do they watch TV every day? —Yes, they do. / No, they don’t. She watches TV She doesn’t watch— Does she watch TV every day?

every https://www.sodocs.net/doc/f12786520.html, every day.—Yes, she does. / No, she doesn’t. 现在进行时 1、定义：表示现在或现阶段正在进行或发生的动作。句中常有now，look，listen等词。 如：I am washing clothes now. Look! Liu Tao is climbing the tree. Listen! Jane is singing in the music room. 2、构成：be动词（am/is/are）+ 动词现在分词（V-ing） 3、动词现在分词构成： ?一般是在动词原形后加ing 如：read-reading，drink-drinking，eat-eating，look-looking ?以不发音的e结尾的动词，去掉e，再加ing 如：write-writing，make-making，ride-riding，take-taking ?以重读闭音节结尾，如末尾只有一个辅音字母，要双写这个字母，再加ing 如：sit-sitting，swim-swimming，put-putting，run-running，stop-stopping，get- getting，begin-beginning，jog-jogging，forget-forgetting 4、动名词其实就是动词的现在分词，它既有名词性质（可作主语），又有动词性质（可带宾语）。 如：Asking the way My hobby is collecting stamps. He is good at skating. 5、现在进行时的句型转换： 肯定句否定句一般疑问句及回答 —Is he running now? He is running now.He isn’t running now. —Yes, he is. / No, he isn’t.

小学英语语法汇总 牛津译林

育英二外小学英语语法大全 第一章名词 一、定义 名词是表示人或事物名称的词。它既可以表示具体的东西，也可以是表示抽象的东西。 二、分类 1.名词可以根据意义分为普通名词和专有名词 如：john is a student student是普通名词，john是专有名词 普通名词前可以用不定冠词a/an,定冠词the或不加冠词，专有名词前一般不加冠词，专有名词的首字母要大写。 2.普通名词又可以分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词，其中个体名词与集体名词是可数名词，物质名词和抽象名称是不可数名词。 3.专有名词 专有名词是表示人名、地名、团体、机构、组织等的专有名词，多为独一无二的事物。 三、名词的数 1、名词分为可数名词和不可数名词。 可数名词——可以数的名词 不可数名词——数不清（没有复数） drink?milk tea water orange juice coke coffee porridge food?rice bread meat fish fruit cake dumplings 2、可数名词与不定冠词a(an)连用有数数形式，不可数名词不能与不定冠词a(an)连用，没有复数形式 many+可数名词复数 much/a little+不可数名词 some,any,a lot of(lots of)两者都可以修饰。 3、可数名词可以直接用数词来修饰 不可数名词数词+量词+of+名词 对可数名词的数量提问用how many 对不可数名词的数量提问用how much 4、不可数名词的量有以下两种表示方法： 1）some,much,a little,a lot of,a bit of,plenty of用等表示多少。

英语语法大全

《英语语法大全》 1.名词 名词可以分为专有名词（Proper Nouns）和普通名词(Common Nouns）. 专有名词是某个（些）人，地方，机构等专有的名称，如Beijing，China等。 普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词，如：book，sadness等，普通名词又可分为下面四类： 1）个体名词（Individual Nouns）：表示某类人或东西中的个体，如：gun。 2）集体名词（Collective Nouns）：表示若干个个体组成的集合体，如：family。 3）物质名词（Material Nouns）：表示无法分为个体的实物，如：air。 4）抽象名词（Abstract Nouns）：表示动作、状态、品质、感情等抽象概念，如：work。 个体名词和集体名词可以用数目来计算，称为可数名词（Countable Nouns） 物质名词和抽象名词一般无法用数目计算，称为不可数名词（Uncountable Nouns）。 归纳一下，名词的分类可以下图表示：

1.2其它名词复数的规则变化 1)以y结尾的专有名词，或元音字母+y结尾的名词变复数时，直接加s变复数： 如：two Marys the Henrys monkey---monkeys holiday---holidays 比较：层楼：storey---storeys story---stories 2)以o结尾的名词，变复数时： a.加s，如：photo---photos piano---pianos radio---radios zoo---zoos； b.加es，如：potato--potatoes tomato--tomatoes c.均可，如：zero---zeros/zeroes 3)以f或fe结尾的名词变复数时： a.加s，如：belief---beliefs roof---roofs safe---safes gulf---gulfs； b.去f,fe加ves，如：half---halves knife---knives leaf---leaves wolf---wolves wife---wives life---lives thief---thieves； c.均可,如：handkerchief:

张道真实用英语语法学习笔记 第一章 概论

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