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英语语言学教程课后整理

What is linguistics?

Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.

Prescriptive &Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别)

Prescriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)

Descriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use (modern linguistic)

Synchronic & Diachronic 共时性对历时性（定义）

Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern linguistics)

Diachronic study---- description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)

Langue &Parole (F. de Saussure) 语言对话语

Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.

Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.

Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.

Competence &Performance (Chomsky) 语言能力对语言运用（定义）

Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of this language

Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication

Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competen ce is a property of the mind of each individual.

Traditional grammar & Modern linguistics 传统语法对现代语言学（区别）

Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework

Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework

The design features of human language (Charles Hockett)

Arbitrariness（任意性）声音和事物之间的关联

Productivity/Creativity（能产性）

Duality（双层性）

Displacement（移位性）

Cultural transmission（文化传承）

Phonetics语音学(定义和分类)

Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.

Three branches of phonetics（发音语音学，听觉语音学，声学语音学）

Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”

Auditory phonetics----fr om the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”

Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.

Classification of vowels（元音）

Monophthongs or pure/single vowels（单元音）

Diphthongs or gliding vowels （双元音）

According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the

。

Phone(音素), phoneme（音位）, and allophone（音位变体）（区分判断）

A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic

communication are all phones.Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t。

A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it

is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context

Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.

Phonemic contrast（音位对立）, Complementary distribution（互补分布）and Minimal pair（最小对立体）.

Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.

dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].

(课上强调)The clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [l] always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones(音位变体) are said to be in Complementary distribution.

Some rules in phonology（音位学）

Sequential rules(序列)

The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a

particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might

possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb. If a word begins with a

[l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.

Assimilation rule(同化)

Assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a

feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two

phones similar

Deletion rule(省略)

it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is

orthographically represented。

E.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the

[g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms

signature, designation, paradigmatic.

Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme): 判断题（具体书上看）

Syllable：音节

stress （重音）

tone（低音）

intonation（语调）

Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)

Morphology to refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. Open class word and closed class word(开放词类和封闭词类)

Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.

Closed class words---- grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.

（数次，感叹词半开放半封闭词类）

Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning（词素—最小的意义单位）

Free and Bound morphemes (自由词素和粘附词素)

Free morpheme—a word by itself(独立自由运用)

Bound morpheme---attached to another one （必须依附于自由词素，否则不能构成词）

Allomorphs（词素变体）---the variant forms of a morpheme. e.g. a boy, an hour

Word structure

Root(词根)constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “carefully”, “nation” in “internationalism”, “believe” in “unbeliev(e)able”…

Stem(词干) A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “Undesirable” in undesirables

Base词基A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.

A base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem can be added only

by inflectional affixes;

A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. undesire in undesirable) while a root cannot be

further analyzed, e.g. desire in undesirable;

Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. desire in desired;

Undesirable in undesirables is either a stem or a base;

Desirable in undesirable is only a base.

Compound（复合词）

When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…

When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…

Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…

The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.

Chapter 4 Syntax（句法）

What is syntax?

Syntax----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.

Minor Lexical categories: Det(determiner限定词), Deg（degree words表程度的词）, Qual（qualifier频度副词）, Aux（Auxilarity助动词）, Conj（conjunction连词）.

The criteria on w hich categories are determined：Meaning、Inflection Distribution（The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.）

Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).

The structure: specifier + head + complement

Head（中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed

Specifier（标志语）---- the words on the left side of the heads

Complement（补语）---- the words on the right side of the heads

The XP rule（词组层面上）

X’ Theory

XP → (Specifier)X’

X’ → X(complement)

Do insertion （DO 的插入）

Do insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl （屈折变化） position.

Deep structure & surface structure （深层结构和表层结构的定义和区分）

Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub -categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.

Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.

Chapter 5 Semantics （语义学）

Semantics----the study of language meaning.

Meaning is central to the study of communication.

What is meaning? ---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning

Some view s concerning the study of meaning

Naming theory (Plato) 唯名论

The conceptualist view 概念论

Contextualism (Bloomfield) 语境论

Behaviorism 行为论

The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link

between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e.

between language and the real world); rather, in the

interpretation of meaning they are linked through the

mediation of concepts in the mind.

（P63）

Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle

The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;

Thought or reference refers to concept.

The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.

Contextualism (Bloomfield) 语境论

Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:

Situational context: spatiotemporal situation

Linguistic context: the probabi lity of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.

Behaviorism 行为论

Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

The story of Jack and Jill:

Lexical meaning(词汇意义)

Sense and reference（意义和指称）are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

Major sense relations

Synonymy 同义现象

Antonymy 反义现象

Polysemy 多义现象

Homonymy 同行异义

Hyponymy 下义关系

Synonymy 同义现象

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close

similarity of meaning. Words that are close

in meaning are called synonyms.

1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in

different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall,

biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline…

2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing

in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin,

commence

3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or

evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,…

4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of,

charge…w ith, rebuke…for; …

5) Semantically different synonyms,

e.g. amaze, astound,…

Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning

Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings has the same form Homophone（同音异义）---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …

Homogragh（同形异义）---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …

Complete homonym（完全同形异义）---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g.

ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …

Hyponomy（上下异义）-- the sense relation

between a more general, more inclusive word

and a more specific word.

Superordinate（上座标词more general）

Hyponyms（下义词more specific）

Antonyms(反义现象)

Gradable antonyms（级别反义词）-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …

Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …

Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-w ife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below

Sense relations between sentences（句子之间的意义关系）

(1) X is synonymous with Y（XY同义）

X: The boy killed the cat.

Y: The cat was killed by the boy.

（If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.）

(2) X is inconsistent with Y（XY对立）

X: He is single.

Y: He has a wife.

（If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true）

(3) X entails Y（X包含Y）

X: Marry has been to Beijing.

Y: Marry has been to China.

（If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.）

(4) X presupposes Y（X预设Y，Y是X的先决条件）

X: His bike needs repairing.

Y: He has a bike.

（If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.）

(5) X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾）

My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

(6) X is semantically anomalous（X语意破格）

The man is pregnant.

Analysis of meaning

Componential analysis (成分分析法)

Predication analysis (述谓分析法)

Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical

meaning. The approach is based on the belief that

the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning

components, called semantic features. For example,

Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]

Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]

Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADUL T, +ANIMATE, -MALE]

Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]

Predication analysis

(1)The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out

by adding up all the meanings of its component words

(2)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:

grammatical meaning and semantic meaning

(3)Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is

governed by rules called selectional restrictions.

An argument（变元）is a logical participant in a

predication largely identical with the

nominal elements in a sentence.

A predicate（谓词）is something said about an

argument or it states the logical relation

linking the arguments in a sentence.

Chapter 6 Pragmatics（语用学）

the study of language in use or language communication;

the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.

the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication

Pragmatics vs. semantics（语用学和语义学的区别）

Semantics---- is the study of the literal meaning

of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).

Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a

speaker (taking context into consideration),.

e.g “T oday is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today

is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean

intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or

giving an invitation…

Context（语境）- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics.

It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared

by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,

situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between

the speaker and the hearer, etc.….

Two types of utterances（话语）（会判断）

Constatives (叙述句) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;

Performatives (施为句) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. According to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:

locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.（知道定义，会判断）

The locutionary act（言内行为）

an act of saying something i.e. an act of making a

meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);

The illocutionary act（言外行为）

an act performed in saying something:

In saying X, I was doing Y

(The intention of the speaker while speaking).

The perlocutionary act（言后行为）

an act performed as a result of saying something:

by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.

Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)（舍尔对言语行为的分类）选择题

Assertives/representatives(陈述)

Directives(指令)

Commissives(承诺)

Expressives(表达)

Declarations(宣布)

Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)（会话原则）

Cooperative principle (CP合作原则)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.

Four maxims of CP

The maxim of quality（数量原则）

----Do not say what you believe to be false.

----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of quantity（质量原则）

for the current purpose of the exchange.

----Do not make your contribution more informative

than is required.

The maxim of relation（关系原则）

----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).

The maxim of manner（方式原则）

----Avoid obscurity of expression.

----Avoid ambiguity.

----Be brief.

----Be orderly.

Chapter 7 Language change（语言变化）

Sound changes

Morphological and syntactic changes

V ocabulary changes

Chapter 8 Language and society（语言与社会）

What are the varieties of language? 什么是语言的变体

The varieties of language are the actual manifestations of

the general notion of the language and they are assumed

to be related both to the language users and to the use to

which language is put. V arieties related to the user are

known as dialects and varieties relates to use as registers.

Register(语域) in a restricted sense（狭义）, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense（广义）, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse

Field of discourse（语场）: what is going on: to the area of

operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the

purpose (w hy) and subject matter (about w hat) of

communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)

Tenor of discourse（语旨）: the role of relationship in the

situation in question: who are the participants in the

communication and in what relationship they stand to

each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)

Mode of discourse（语式）: the means of communication

It is concerned with how communication is carried out.

(oral, written, on the line…)

Pidgin and Creole（皮钦语和克里奥尔语）

A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or

blends languages and it is used by people who

speak different languages for restricted purposes

When a pidgin has become the primary language

of a speech community, and is acquired by the

children of that speech community as their native

language, it is said to have become a Creole.

Chapter 9 Language and culture

What is culture？（广义狭义）

In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.

In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.

Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

Strong version & weak version

Strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior;

Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.

----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights: There is nowadays recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.

More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.

陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第8~11章【圣才出品】

第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研）【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研）【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin

C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

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27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

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